A Report On Practical Training: Yagyavalkya Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan
A Report On Practical Training: Yagyavalkya Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan
A Report On Practical Training: Yagyavalkya Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan
Report on
Practical training
TYPES OF NETWORK
1. LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
Cable 2: RJ45 Ethernet port. You could either connect the LAN
extender directly to a PC using a cross-over cable, or connect it to
an Ethernet hub or switch using a straight through cable.
The lower two OSI model layers are implemented with hardware
and software.
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer of the OSI model is the layer that is closest to the user.
Instead of providing services to other OSI layers, it provides services to
application programs outside the scope of the OSI model. It's services are
often part of the application process. Main functions are:-
• identifies and establishes the availability of the intended communication
partner.
• synchronizes the sending and receiving applications.
• establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data
integrity.
• determines whether sufficient resources for the intended communications
exist.
Devices:-
• Browsers
• Search engines
• E-mail programs
• Newsgroup and chat programs
• Transaction services
• Audio/video conferencing
• Telnet
• SNMP
PRESENTATION LAYER
It ensures that information sent by the application layer of one system will
be readable by the application layer of another system. It provides a
common format for transmitting data across various systems, so that data
can be understood, regardless of the types of machines involved.
The presentation layer concerns itself not only with the format and
representation of actual user data, but also with data structure used by
programs. Therefore, the presentation layer negotiates data transfer syntax
for the application layer.
Devices:-
• Encryption
• EBCDIC and ASCII
• GIF & JPEG
SESSION LAYER
The main function of the OSI model's session layer is to control "sessions",
which are logical connections between network devices. A session consists
of a dialog, or data communications conversation, between two presentation
entities. Dialogs can be
• Simplex (one-way)
• half-duplex (alternate)
• full-duplex (bi-directional)
Simplex conversations are rare on networks. Half-duplex conversations
require a good deal of session layer control, because the start and end of
each transmission need to be monitored.
Most networks are of course capable of full-duplex transmission, but in fact
many conversations are in practice half-duplex.
Devices:-
Some examples of session layer protocols and interfaces are:
• Network File System (NFS)
• Concurrent database access
• X-Windows System
• Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
• SQL
• NetBIOS Names
• AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)
• Digital Network Architecture
TRANSPORT LAYER
You can think of the transport layer of the OSI model as a boundary between
the upper and lower protocols. The transport layer provides a data transport
service that shields the upper layers from transport implementation issues
such as the reliability of a connection.
The transport layer provides mechanisms for:-
• multiplexing upper layer applications
• the establishment, maintenance, and orderly termination of virtual circuits
• information flow control
• transport fault detection and recovery
Devices:-
• TCP, UDP, SPX and Sliding Windows.
NETWORK LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER
Layer one of the OSI model is the physical layer. The physical layer is
concerned with the interface to the transmission medium. At the physical
layer, data is transmitted onto the medium (e.g. coaxial cable or optical
fiber) as a stream of bits.
So, the physical layer is concerned, not with networking protocols, but with
the transmission media on the network.
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and
functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems. This layer puts 1's & 0's onto the wire.
Characteristics specified by the physical layer include
• voltage levels
• timing of voltage changes
• physical data rates
• maximum transmission distances
• physical connectors
Devices:-
• Hubs, FDDI Hardware, Fast Ethernet, Token Ring Hardware.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
What is a Topology?
1. Linear Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Tree
5. Mesh
6. Hybrid
Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at
each end (See fig. 1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a
linear bus topology.
Nodes
Nodes
nodes
Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing
network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies
MESH TOPOLOGY
nodes
HYBRID
Hierarchical Topology
Physical Common Cable Common Protocol
Topology
NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
ETHERNET
The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN) products
covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines what is commonly known
as the CSMA/CD protocol. Three data rates are currently defined for
operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
• 10 Mbps—10Base-T Ethernet
• 100 Mbps—Fast Ethernet
• 1000 Mbps—Gigabit Ethernet
10-Gigabit Ethernet is under development and will likely be published as the
IEEE 802.3ae supplement to the IEEE 802.3 base standard in late 2001 or
early 2002.
Other technologies and protocols have been touted as likely replacements,
but the market has spoken. Ethernet has survived as the major LAN
technology (it is currently used for approximately 85 percent of the world's
LAN-connected PCs and workstations) because its protocol has the
following characteristics:
• Is easy to understand, implement, manage, and maintain
• Allows low-cost network implementations
• Provides extensive topological flexibility for network installation
• Guarantees successful interconnection and operation of standards-
compliant products, regardless of manufacturer
802.3 (Ethernet)
This standard specifies a network that uses a bus topology, base band
signaling, and a CSMA/CD network access method. This standard was
developed to match the Digital, Intel, and Xerox (DIX) Ethernet networking
technology. So many people implemented the 802.3 standard, which
resembles the DIX Ethernet, that people just started calling it Ethernet. It is
the most widely implemented of all the 802 standards because of its
simplicity and low cost.
Ethernet
Speeds - 10, 100, or 1000 Mbps
Access - CSMA/CD
Topologies - Logical bus
Media - Coaxial or UTP
Figure below shows the IEEE 802.3 logical layers and their relationship to
the OSI reference model. As with all IEEE 802 protocols, the ISO data link
layer is divided into two IEEE 802 sublayers, the Media Access Control
(MAC) sublayer and the MAC-client sublayer. The IEEE 802.3 physical
layer corresponds to the ISO physical layer.
Because specifications for LLC and bridge entities are common for all IEEE
802 LAN protocols, network compatibility becomes the primary
responsibility of the particular network protocol. Figure shows different
compatibility requirements imposed by the MAC and physical levels for
basic data communication over an Ethernet link.
Frame Transmission
Whenever an end station MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the
accompanying address and data information from the LLC sublayer, the
MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring the LLC information
into the MAC frame buffer.
• The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and SOF
fields.
• The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields.
• The LLC data bytes are counted, and the number of bytes is inserted into
the Length/Type field.
• The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of LLC
data bytes is less than 46, a pad is added to bring the Data field length up to
46.
• An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields
and is appended to the end of the Data field.
After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission will depend on
whether the MAC is operating in half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
The IEEE 802.3 standard currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support
half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be either transmitting or
receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously. Full-duplex
operation is an optional MAC capability that allows the MAC to transmit
and receive frames simultaneously
NETWORK CABLING
What is Network Cabling?
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are several types of cable which are
commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one
type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and
size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how
they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of
a successful network.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the
best option for school networks
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-
speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is
twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the
twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost
per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five
categories of wire
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can
make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks
using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield
the metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between
network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are
thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the
specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to
the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact
the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in
school networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the
specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers
to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has
an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the
center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running
longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is
that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.
Wireless LANs
Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless.
Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or
lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or hubs.
Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of
transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed
between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer
distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular
telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.
Hubs
The term ‘hub’ is sometimes used to refer to any piece of network
equipment that connects PCs together, but it actually refers to a multi-port
repeater. This type of device simply passes on (repeats) all the information it
receives, so that all devices connected to its ports receive that information.
Hubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to extend the network.
However, this can result in a lot of unnecessary traffic being sent to all
devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic to the network regardless of the
intended destination; the PCs to which the packets are sent use the address
information in each packet to work out which packets are meant for them. In
a small network repeating is not a problem but for a larger, more heavily
used network, another piece of networking equipment (such as a switch)
may be required to help reduce the amount of unnecessary traffic being
generated.
ROUTER
A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward
their destinations through a process known as routing. Routing occurs at
layer 3 of the OSI seven-layer model.
Router Responsibilities
1. Optimizing the Routing Paths.
2. Switching
Router Features
Use dynamic routing
Operate at the protocol level
Remote administration
Support complex networks
The more filtering done, the lower the performance
Provides security
Segment networks logically
Broadcast storms can be isolated
Often provide bridge functions also
More complex routing protocols used [such as RIP, IGRP,
OSPF]
Bridges
A data-link bridge is a device that connects two similar networks or divides
one network into two. It takes frames from one network and puts them on
the other, and vice versa. As it does this, it regenerates the signal strength of
the frames, allowing data to travel further. In this sense, a data-link bridge
incorporates the functionality of a repeater, which also regenerates frames to
extend a LAN. But a bridge does more than a repeater. A bridge is more
intelligent than a repeater. It can look at each frame and decide on which of
the two networks it belongs. Repeaters simply forward every frame from one
network to the other, without looking at them.
A bridge looks at each frame as it passes, checking the source and
destination addresses. If a frame coming from Station 1 on LAN A is
destined for Station 5 on LAN B, the bridge will pass the frame onto LAN
B. If a frame coming from Station 1 on LAN A is destined for Station 3 on
LAN A, the bridge will not forward it; that is, it will filter it.
Bridges know which frames belong where by looking at the source and
destination addresses in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer
information carried in the frame. The MAC layer, which is part of the second
layer of OSI Model, defines how frames get on the network without
bumping into each other. It also contains information about where the frame
came from and where it should go. Because bridges use this level of
information, they have several advantages over other forms of
interconnecting LANs.
Bridge Features
Operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
Can reduce traffic on other segments
Broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
Most allow remote access and configuration
Small delays introduced
Fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and
Reconfiguring paths in the event of failure
Not efficient with complex networks
Redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if
the major path being used was overloaded)
Shortest path is not always chosen by spanning tree algorithm
SWITCHES
Switches are smart hubs that send data directly to the destination rather than
everywhere within a network. Switches also allow components of different
speeds to communicate.
Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collision
domain is a group of workstations that contend for the same bandwidth].
Each segment into the switch has its own collision domain (where the
bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment). As packets
arrive at the switch, it looks at the MAC address in the header, and decides
which segment to forward the packet to. Higher protocols like IPX and
TCP/IP are buried deep inside the packet, so are invisible to the switch.
Once the destination segment has been determined, the packet is forwarded
without delay.
MODEM
The word "modem" stands for "modulator-demodulator". A modem's
purpose is to convert digital information to analog signals (modulation), and
to convert analog signals back into useful digital information
(demodulation).
JACK
MAC Address
MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses.
They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
Short for Media Access Control address. This is OSI layer 2 hardware
addresses defined by IEEE standard and is used to deliver packets in the
local network. It is sequence of six two-digits hexadecimal numbers
separated by colons, example: 00:2f:21:c1:11:0a
MM:MM:MM:SS: SS:SS
MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter
manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body. The
second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the
adapter by the manufacturer
IP ADDRESS
IP Addressing Requirements
Other Devices
What is an IP Address?
Network ID
Shared or common to all computers on the same physical segment
Unique on the Entire Network
“Area Code”
Host ID
Identifies a specific device (Host) within a physical segment
Unique on the physical segment
“Phone Number”
192.176.11.201
IP Addressing Rules
Address Classes
Class A
Network. Host. Host. Host
Class B
Network. Network. Host. Host
Class C
Network. Network. Network. Host
Class D & E
Class A Network:
The Definition per Specification:
1st Octet is the Network ID
2nd, 3rd, 4th Octets are the Host ID
In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “0” in the first bit!
First Class A Network Address:
00000001.00000000.0000000.00000000 (Binary)
1.0.0.0 (Decimal)
Last Class A Network Address:
01111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 (Binary)
127.0.0.0 (Decimal) (Loop back Address)
Network IDs
1st Octet is the Network ID
0.0.0.0 (Invalid)
1.0.0.0
2.0.0.0
3.0.0.0
~~~~
127.0.0.0 (Loop back)
Host ID Addresses
33.0.0.0 (An Assigned Class A Address)
All devices would share the 33 network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
33.0.0.1 – 33.0.0.255 (255 Addresses)
33.0.1.0 – 33.0.1.255 (256 Addresses)
~~~~
33.0.255.0 -- 33.0.255.255 (256 Addresses)
(A Total of 65,535 Addresses)
33.1.0.0 -- 33.1.255.255 (65,536 Addresses)
33.2.0.0 -- 33.2.255.255 (65,536 Addresses)
~~~~
33.255.0.0 -- 33.255.255.254 (65,535 Addresses)
( Total Addresses: 16.7 Million)
Class B Networks:
The Definition per Specification:
1st and 2nd Octets are the Network ID
3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs
In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “10” in the first two bits of the first
octet!
First Class B Network Address:
10000000.00000000.0000000.00000000 (Binary)
128.0.0.0 (Decimal)
Network IDs
1st and 2nd Octets are the Network IDs
128.0.0.0
128.1.0.0
~~~~
128.255.0.0
129.0.0.0
129.1.0.0
~~~~
191.255.0.0
3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs
Host ID Addresses
An Assigned Class B Address 153.11.0.0
All devices would share the 153.11 Network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
153.11.0.1 -- 153.11.0.255 (255 Addresses)
153.11.1.0 -- 153.11.1.255 (256 Addresses)
153.11.2.0 -- 153.11.2.255 (256 Addresses)
~~~~
153.11.255.0 -- 153.11.255.254 (255 Addresses)
Total Addresses: 65,534
In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “110” in the first three bits of the first octet!
Host ID Addresses
An Assigned Class C Address
201.11.206.0
All devices would share the 201.11.206.0 Network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
201.11.206.1, 201.11.206.2, ~~~~ 201.11.206.254
Class D & E
Class D
Used by Multicast Applications
Shared Addresses
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
Class E
Experimental
240.0.0.0 +
In Binary:
1’s represent what portion of the IP address is the Network ID
0’s represent what portion of the IP address is the Host ID
For Example:
207.23.106.99 (Class C Address)
Net . Net . Net . Host
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 00000000 (SNM in Binary)
255.255.255.0 (SNM in Decimal)
Custom Subnetting:
The Steps
Subnet IDs
DNS as a Service
DNS keeps a complete listing of all FQDNs and their associated IP address
Root
Resolver
Built into Client TCP/IP Software
Ask Designated Name Server for IP Address When Client Enters FQDN
(URL)
Name Server
DNS Server (Available with Most OS)
Retrieves IP Addresses for Clients
Supplies IP Address to other Name Servers
Provided by the Internet, ISP, or business
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
This is an agreed upon format for transmitting data between two devices
(eg, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The protocol
may determine, for example, the type of error checking and data
compression method used.
Protocol
Is a set of rules or standards which govern communication between
computers and peripherals?
Protocol Stack
A complete set of protocols that work together to enable communication on
a network. Compare protocol suite
TCP/IP SUITE
LAYERS
APPLICATION LAYER
TRANSPORT LAYER
INTERNETWORK LAYER
NETWORK ACCESS LAYER
The design of TCP/IP hides the function of this layer from users—it is
concerned with getting data across a specific type of physical network (such
as Ethernet, Token Ring, etc.). This design reduces the need to rewrite higher
levels of a TCP/IP stack when new physical network technologies are
introduced (such as ATM and Frame Relay).
The functions performed at this level include encapsulating the IP datagrams
into frames that are transmitted by the network. It also maps the IP addresses
to the physical addresses used by the network. One of the strengths of
TCP/IP is its addressing scheme, which uniquely identifies every computer
on the network. This IP address must be converted into whatever address is
appropriate for the physical network over which the datagram is transmitted.
Data to be transmitted is received from the internetwork layer. The network
access layer is responsible for routing and must add its routing information
to the data. The network access layer information is added in the form of a
header, which is appended to the beginning of the data.
Internetwork Layer
The best known TCP/IP protocol at the internetwork layer is the Internet
Protocol (IP), which provides the basic packet delivery service for all
TCP/IP networks. In addition to the physical node addresses used at the
network access layer, the IP protocol implements a system of logical host
addresses called IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internetwork
and higher layers to identify devices and to perform internetwork routing.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) enables IP to identify the physical
address that matches a given IP address.
IP is used by all protocols in the layers above and below it to deliver data,
which means all TCP/IP data flows through IP when it is sent and received,
regardless of its final destination.
Application Layer
The most widely known and implemented TCP/IP application layer
protocols are listed below:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Telnet.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
Hypertexts Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Domain Name Service (DNS).
Routing Information Protocol (RIP).
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
Network File System (NFS).
IPv4 header format
Version. 4 bits.
Specifies the format of the IP packet header.
IHL, Internet Header Length. 4 bits.
Specifies the length of the IP packet header in 32 bit words. The minimum
value for a valid header is 5
TOS, Type of Service. 8 bits.
Specifies the parameters for the type of service requested. The parameters
may be utilized by networks to define the handling of the datagram during
transport. The M bit was added to this field
Total length. 16 bits.
Contains the length of the datagram
Identification. 16 bits.
Used to identify the fragments of one datagram from those of another. The
originating protocol module of an internet datagram sets the identification
field to a value that must be unique for that source-destination pair and
protocol for the time the datagram will be active in the internet system. The
originating protocol module of a complete datagram clears the MF bit to
zero and the Fragment Offset field to zero
Flags. 3 bits.
Fragment Offset. 13 bits.
Used to direct the reassembly of a fragmented datagram
TTL, Time to Live. 8 bits.
A timer field used to track the lifetime of the datagram. When the TTL
field is decremented down to zero, the datagram is discarded.
Protocol. 8 bits. This field specifies the next encapsulated protocol.
Header checksum. 16 bits.
A 16 bit one's complement checksum of the IP header and IP options.
Source IP address. 32 bits.
IP address of the sender.
Destination IP address. 32 bits.
IP address of the intended receiver.
Options. Variable length.
Padding. Variable length.
Used as a filler to guarantee that the data starts on a 32 bit boundary.
BOOTSTRAP PROTOCOL
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) allows a client system to discover its own
IP address, the address of a BOOTP server, and the name of a file to be
loaded into memory and executed.
DHCP
Circuit Switching
Switched circuits allow data connections that can be initiated when needed
and terminated when communication is complete. This works much like a
normal telephone line works for voice communication. Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) is a good example of circuit switching. When a
router has data for a remote site, the switched circuit is initiated with the
circuit number of the remote network. In the case of ISDN circuits, the
device actually places a call to the telephone number of the remote ISDN
circuit. When the Two networks are connected and authenticated, they can
transfer data. When the data transmission is complete, the call can be
terminated.
Packet Switching
Advantages of ISDN
Speed
Multiple Devices
Signaling
ATM Devices
An ATM network is made up of an ATM switch and ATM endpoints. An ATM
switch is responsible for cell transit through an ATM network. The job of an
ATM switch is well defined: It accepts the incoming cell from an ATM
endpoint or another ATM switch. It then reads and updates the cell header
information and quickly switches the cell to an output interface toward its
destination. An ATM endpoint (or end system) contains an ATM network
interface adapter. Examples of ATM endpoints are workstations, routers,
digital service units (DSUs), LAN switches, and video coder-decoders
(CODECs).
FRAME RELAY
Frame Relay is a simplified form of Packet Switching, similar in principle to
X.25, in which synchronous frames of data are routed to different
destinations depending on header information.
SONET
Short for Synchronous Optical Network
The transport network using SONET provides much more powerful
networking capabilities than existing asynchronous systems.