Current issue: 58(4)

Under compilation: 58(5)

Scopus CiteScore 2023: 3.5
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Silva Fennica vol. 37 | 2003

Category : Research article

article id 488, category Research article

Gürsel Colakoglu, Semra Colak, Ismail Aydin, Umit C. Yildiz, Sibel Yildiz. (2003). Effect of boric acid treatment on mechanical properties of laminated beech veneer lumber. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 488. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.488

Keywords: mechanical properties; LVL; boric acid; beech veneer

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) made from beech wood veneers treated with boric acid by using dipping method was tested for some mechanical properties following different standards. The values for treated LVL varied around the mean values of untreated LVL panels for static bending strength in the grain direction and modulus of elasticity; decreased for compression and splitting strengths, perpendicular to the grain; increased for compression strength parallel to the grain, and for Brinell hardness and pull-out strength of screw, perpendicular to surface.

Colakoglu, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Section, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey E-mail: gursel@ktu.edu.tr
Colak, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Section, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey E-mail: sc@nn.tr
Aydin, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Section, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey E-mail: ia@nn.tr
Yildiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Section, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey E-mail: ucy@nn.tr
Yildiz, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Forest Industry Engineering Section, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey E-mail: sy@nn.tr

article id 487, category Research article

Åsa Gustafsson. (2003). Logistic services as a competitive means – segmenting the retail market for softwood lumber. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 487. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.487

Keywords: service requirements; retail segments; softwood lumber

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Softwood lumber has been considered traditionally as commodity. Subsequently brand names and trademarks were of subordinate value and competition was based on price. Recently, retailers have grown substantially and are forcing their suppliers to improve the production and delivery of products. As retailers are getting more diverse and powerful, suppliers are forced to adapt to the retailers’ service requirements. The new situation also brings opportunities for the sawmills to develop their competitive advantage. The retail industry is continuously changing, and in order for sawmills to develop and offer what retailers are asking for, it is necessary that they understand and interpret retailers’ requirements correctly. One way for sawmills to be successful is to develop accurate service elements and to use the service elements as a segmentation base in order to structure their customer base. This study shows that retailers place considerable emphasis on delivery and value-added logistical services. It generates three hypotheses concerning the following potential retail segments; turnover, category, and customer base.

Gustafsson, School of Industrial Engineering (IPS), Växjö University, SE-351 95 Växjö, Sweden E-mail: asa.gustafsson@ips.vxu.se

article id 486, category Research article

Arto Haara. (2003). Comparing simulation methods for modelling the errors of stand inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 486. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.486

Keywords: measurement error; simulation; stand-level inventory; non-parametric estimation; Monte Carlo methods

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest management planning requires information about the uncertainty inherent in the available data. Inventory data, including simulated errors, are infrequently utilised in forest planning studies for analysing the effects of uncertainty on planning. Usually the errors in the source material are ignored or not taken into account properly. The aim of this study was to compare different methods for generating errors into the stand-level inventory data and to study the effect of erroneous data on the calculation of specieswise and standwise inventory results. The material of the study consisted of 1842 stands located in northern Finland and 41 stands located in eastern Finland. Stand-level ocular inventory and checking inventory were carried out in all study stands by professional surveyors. In simulation experiments the methods considered for error generation were the 1nn-method, the empirical errors method and the Monte Carlo method with log-normal and multivariate log-normal error distributions. The Monte Carlo method with multivariate error distributions was found to be the most flexible simulation method. This method produced the required variation and relations between the errors of the median basal area tree characteristics. However, if the reference data are extensive the 1nn-method, and in certain conditions also the empirical errors method, offer a useful tool for producing error structures which reflect reality.

Haara, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: arto.haara@metla.fi

article id 485, category Research article

Helen Uliczka. (2003). Nature conservation efforts by forest owners – intentions and practice in a Swedish case study. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 485. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.485

Keywords: forest policy; boreal forest; indicators; biodiversity assessment; forest conservation; policy implementation

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Before a forest operation Swedish forest owners need to fill in a registration form. Since 1994, when a new Swedish Forestry Act came into force, intended nature conservation measures can also be noted on the form. I evaluate 1) if the self-reported nature conservation intentions displayed any trends from 1995 to 2000, and 2) if the intentions were implemented. All forms from these years, in one municipality, were analysed and the stand structure retention was measured on 40 clear-cuts. The intentions, noted as check-marks on the form, showed an increasing trend during these years. However, the increase may be an artefact of changes the form during the time period. The number of check-marks on the forms and the stand structure items actually present on the 40 clear-cuts showed a positive relation. The clear-cuts with ≤ 3 check-marks on the form had lower amounts of the three most common items, than those with ≥ 4 check-marks. To conclude 1) a true increase in the self-reported intentions of the forest owners could not be established; 2) the intentions were generally followed by associated practices on the clear-cuts; 3) the amounts of stand structures retained were probably not enough to reach the biodiversity goal of the Forestry Act. The registration form could be improved to become less open for interpretation and contain quantified recommendations. Self-reported intentions of the forest owners could then possibly be used as indicators of real structural retention, which could facilitate planning and allow for making predictions about the future forests.

Uliczka, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Forest Faculty, Department of Conservation Biology, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, SE-730 91 Riddarhyttan, Sweden E-mail: helen.uliczka@nvb.slu.se

article id 484, category Research article

Pekka E. Kauppi. (2003). New, low estimate for carbon stock in global forest vegetation based on inventory data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 484. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.484

Keywords: carbon stock; global forest; vegetation biomass

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Several reports by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have referred to published estimates ranging from 352 to 536 x 10⁹ tons for the global pool of carbon in forest vegetation. However, a rounded estimate of 300 x 10⁹ tons can be derived from the recent Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 of the FAO, as shown in this paper. By comparing with independent empirical evidence as published in recent scientific literature and by considering sampling principles and the disturbance cycles of large forest regions, it is argued that the new lower estimate is more realistic. A downward correction of the estimate would make an important contribution to balancing the global carbon budget.

Kauppi, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria. Present address: Environmental Science and Policy, Department of Limnology and Environmental Protection, PO Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: pekka.kauppi@helsinki.fi

article id 483, category Research article

Staffan Jacobson. (2003). Addition of stabilized wood ashes to Swedish coniferous stands on mineral soils - effects on stem growth and needle nutrient concentrations. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 483. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.483

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Norway spruce; Picea abies; Scots pine; foliar analysis; N fertilization; recycling

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Increasing use of forest fuels for energy production is generating increasing quantities of wood ash. A common understanding is that this ash should be spread in forests to counteract soil acidification and potential future nutrient deficiencies, and thus help sustain long-term forest productivity. A series of seven field experiments was established in Sweden in 1988–1995 to study the stem growth and needle nutrient concentrations of 30–60-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands on mineral soil after additions of wood ash in different doses or a combination of wood ash and N. The results showed that the most pronounced growth responses occurred when N was added, either alone or in combination with wood ash. The stem growth responses to additions of wood ash without N were small and variable, and not statistically significant at any of the studied experimental sites. However, there were indications that the addition of wood ash may increase stem-wood growth on fertile sites and decrease it on less fertile sites. In the short term, the addition of wood ash tended to increase the needle nutrient concentrations of most analyzed elements, except for N, but this could not be correlated to responses in stem growth.

Jacobson, The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Uppsala Science Park, SE-75183 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: staffan.jacobson@skogforsk.se

article id 482, category Research article

Yaye Kène Gassama-Dia, Djibril Sané, Mansor N'Doye. (2003). Reproductive biology of Faidherbia albida (Del.) A. Chev. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 482. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.482

Keywords: flowering; selfing; Faidherbia albida; fructification; polyad; allogamy

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Phenology, flowering and fructification were studied in 5 natural populations of Faidherbia albida in a semi-arid zone in Senegal. In this species, the inflorescence acts as the reproductive unit; the basal flowers, opening first, have a low rate of fertilisation; the maximum rate of fertilisation (65%) was obtained in the apical flowers. Stigmatic receptivity, tested by esterasic reaction, was maximal immediately after anthesis. Stigmata of F. albida can bear simultaneously 2 or 3 polyads. Controlled pollination revealed that allogamy is the dominant reproductive system (ISI = 0.2) in natural populations of F. albida. Intra-specific variability in selfing (ISI ranging from 0 to 0.54) was also observed. Despite of the complete reproductive mechanism during flowering, only a small number of ripe pods (1.25%) is produced, and an average of 70% of the ovules per carpel are fertilized.

Gassama-Dia, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Département de biologie végétale, Dakar, Sénégal E-mail: ykdia@ucad.sn
Sané, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Département de biologie végétale, Dakar, Sénégal E-mail: ds@nn.sn
N'Doye, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Département de biologie végétale, Dakar, Sénégal E-mail: mnd@nn.sn

article id 481, category Research article

K. S. Wang. (2003). Relationship between empty seed and genetic factors in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 481. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.481

Keywords: Fagus sylvatica L.; allozyme; empty seeds; selfing; outcrossing rate; correlation

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relationship between percentage of empty seed (Pes) and genetic factors was explored in an isolated stand of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Nine allozyme loci (GOT-B, IDH-A, LAP-A, MDH-B, MDH-C, MNR-A, 6-PGDH-A, PGI-B and PGM-A) were used to estimate genetic factors. Pes ranged from 4.8% to 40.9% for seed samples of 91 trees within the stand and showed an approximate normal distribution. The average Pes was 21.4% and the repeatability of Pes was 43.4%. The multilocus estimate for outcrossing rate (tm) based on seed samples of 30 trees within the stand was 1.015 (SE = 0.011) and the mean single locus estimate was slightly higher at 1.061 (SE = 0.026). No evidence of biparental inbreeding was found. Weak positive correlation between Pes and maximum selfing rate as well as and significant negative correlation between Pes and multilocus outcrossing rate indicated that self-fertilization may be explained as one of the important causes of empty seeds in beech.

Wang, Program in Genetics and Genomic Biology, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X8, Canada E-mail: kshengw@yahoo.ca

article id 496, category Research article

Hampus Holmström, Hans Kallur, Göran Ståhl. (2003). Cost-plus-loss analyses of forest inventory strategies based on kNN-assigned reference sample plot data. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 496. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.496

Keywords: uncertainty; data acquisition; imputation; forestry planning

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The usefulness of kNN (k Nearest Neighbour)-assigned reference sample plot data as a basis for forest management planning was studied. Cost-plus-loss analysis was applied, whereby the inventory cost for a specific method is added to the expected loss due to non-optimal forestry activities caused by erroneous descriptions of the forest state. Four different strategies for data acquisition were evaluated: 1) kNN imputation of sample plots based on traditional stand record information, 2) imputation based on plot-wise aerial photograph interpretation in combination with stand record information, 3) sample plot inventory in the field with 5 plots per stand, and 4) sample plot inventory with 10 plots per stand. Expected losses were derived as mean values of differences between the maximum net present value and the corresponding value obtained when the treatment schedule believed to be optimal (based on data simulated according to method 1–4) was selected. The optimal choice of method was found to depend on factors such as stand maturity, stand area, and time to next treatment (thinning or clearcutting). In general, the field sample plot methods were competitive in large mature stands, especially when the time to the next (optimal) treatment was short. By in each stand (within an estate) employing the method with the lowest cost-plus-loss rather than choosing the method that performed best on average for the entire estate, the total cost for inventory at the estate level could be decreased by 15–50%. However, it was found difficult to identify what method should optimally be employed in a stand based on general stand descriptions.

Holmström, Regional Board of Forestry of Västra Götaland, P.O. Box 20008, SE-50420 Borås, Sweden E-mail: hampus.holmstrom@svsvg.svo.se
Kallur, ÖKA Skogsplan, Kopparvägen 45 O, SE-90750 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: hk@nn.se
Ståhl, Swedish Univ. of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-90183 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: gs@nn.se

article id 495, category Research article

Christopher Dean. (2003). Calculation of wood volume and stem taper using terrestrial single-image close-range photogrammetry and contemporary software tools. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 495. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.495

Keywords: biomass; branches; terrestrial; photography; rectification; volume; taper

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

A method of estimating trunk and branch volumes of single trees is presented that uses a combination of elementary field measurements, terrestrial photography, image rectification and on-screen digitising using commercial software packages and automated volume calculation. The method is applicable to a variety of different sized trees in situations where the trunks are clearly visible. Results for taper measurement and wood volume calculation are presented for Eucalyptus regnans F. von Muell., Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindley) Buchholz and Quercus robur L. Branch allometrics are provided for E. regnans. The largest errors arose from field observations. If the trees are asymmetrical in cross-section (e.g. due to irregular buttressing or forked stems), or if there is no vantage point perpendicular to the direction of lean, then photographs from more than one side are recommended. Accuracy and precision of geometric reproduction by the image rectification process, and the volume calculation, were tested using mathematically generated tree components. The errors in the branch volumes of the virtual tree showed complex trends due to interacting factors. Volumes were underestimated by an average 0.5% for stems and 4% for branches. Due to the area deficit resulting from non-circular cross-sections of the buttress, overestimation of stem volumes could be as high as 10% on average for mature trees. However, the area deficit was known for E. regnans and incorporated into the volume calculation. The underestimation of volumes would help counteract over-estimation due to the area deficit. The application of this method to carbon accounting in forests and woodlands is explained.

Dean, CRC for Greenhouse Accounting, The Australian National University, GPO Box 475, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia E-mail: cdean@rsbs.anu.edu.au

article id 494, category Research article

Antero Varhimo, Soili Kojola, Timo Penttilä, Raija Laiho. (2003). Quality and yield of pulpwood in drained peatland forests: pulpwood properties of Scots pine in stands of first commercial thinnings. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 494. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.494

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; thinning; silviculture; pulpwood; fiber; pulping

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The inherent structural dynamics of drained peatland forests may result in a great variation in various wood and fiber properties. We examined variation in fiber and pulp properties i) among stands, ii) among trees within stands, and iii) within trees in young stands dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The stands, selected to cover a maximal range of the potential variation, were all at a stage of development where the first commercial thinnings would be feasible. Differences in the processability of the thinning removals were small. In similar kraft cooking conditions, a 5-unit variation in the kappa number of unbleached pulp was observed among the stands. Stand origin had no effect on pulp bleaching. The wood formed prior to drainage had a higher density, shorter fibers, was slightly slower delignified by cooking, and its yield was slightly lower than that of post-drainage wood. These properties, except for high density, are typical for juvenile wood in general, and at stand level they did not correlate with the proportion of pre-drainage wood. When the variation in fiber and pulp properties was broken down into its components, most of it was derived from tree-level in all the cases. On average, the fiber and pulp properties did not differ from those observed for first-thinning pulpwood from upland sites. Consequently, peatland-grown pulpwood may be mixed with other pulpwood in industrial processes. It would probably be best suited as the raw material for pulps with high bonding requirements, e.g. in the top ply of multi-ply board grades or in some specialty grades.

Varhimo, KCL, P.O. Box 70, FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland E-mail: antero.varhimo@kcl.fi
Kojola, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sk@nn.fi
Penttilä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: sp@nn.fi
Laiho, Department of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: raija.laiho@helsinki.fi

article id 493, category Research article

Göran Rune. (2003). Slits in container wall improve root structure and stem straightness of outplanted Scots pine seedlings. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 493. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.493

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; solidwall container; slitwall container; root morphology; mechanical instability; stem straightness

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Root structure and basal sweep were measured on 6-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees at two sites with different soil fertility. Each site was planted with seedlings of identical origin after nursery cultivation in either solidwall container types with vertical ribs or in slitwall container types. Neither container design nor container volume affected tree height or stem diameter on the two sites. The transversal area of lateral roots was larger than the transversal area of bottom roots for the two container types at both sites. The proportion of bottom root transversal area to the total root transversal area was larger in the seedlings growing on the low fertility site than in those growing in the high fertility site for both container types. Seedlings cultivated in slitwall containers had a larger root area in proportion to stem diameter and had less root spiralling compared to the trees cultivated in solidwall containers. At the high fertility site, trees from the slitwall container type had straighter stem bases than seedlings grown in solidwall containers. At the low fertility site, differences in basal sweep formation were small between the container types. Reasons for this are discussed.

Rune, Dalarna University, Department of Forestry and Wood Technology, SE-776 98 Garpenberg, Sweden E-mail: gru@du.se

article id 492, category Research article

Seppo Kaunisto, Tytti Sarjala. (2003). Foliar potassium concentrations of bilberry, bog bilberry and downy birch as indicators of potassium nutrition of Scots pine on a drained peatland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 492. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.492

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; peatland; foliar analysis; dormancy; B. pubescens; deficiency; deficiency limit; needle analysis; potassium; putrescine; V. myrtillus; V. uliginosum

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Leaves of bilberry (V. myrtillus), bog bilberry (V. uliginosum) and downy birch (B. pubescens) were collected five times during a growing season from 18 plots in a drainage area, and needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) once during the following winter from the same plots at Parkano, southern Finland. The aim was to study the potassium nutrition of the test plants and relationships between the foliar potassium concentrations of Scots pine and of the test plants. The estimation of the potassium nutrition of test plants was based on the accumulation of putrescine in foliage. Apart from single observations, elevated putrescine concentrations were found when the potassium concentrations were < 5 mg g–1 in bilberry, < 4 mg g–1 in bog bilberry and < 6 mg g–1 in downy birch, and the highest concentrations below the potassium levels of 3.0–3.5 mg g–1. At the concentrations of 2–3 mg g–1 the accumulation increased pronouncedly in bog bilberry but less in downy birch and only slightly in bilberry. The foliar potassium concentrations in test plants correlated closely with the concentrations in pine needles. The concentrations of all species in August were quite stable at the levels of the severe and slight potassium deficiency of pine (3.5 and 4.5 mg g–1 respectively) indicating that August would be suitable for collecting foliage. The concentrations in bog bilberry were very close to the concentrations in pine at the severe and those in bilberry at the slight deficiency level of pine. All test plants could be used for predicting the potassium nutrition of Scots pine, but additional research is needed for the practical application of the method.

Kaunisto, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Station, Kaironiementie 54, FIN-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: seppo.kaunisto@metla.fi
Sarjala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Parkano Research Station, Kaironiementie 54, FIN-39700 Parkano, Finland E-mail: ts@nn.fi

article id 491, category Research article

Lars Rytter, Lars-Göran Stener. (2003). Clonal variation in nutrient content in woody biomass of hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx.). Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 491. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.491

Keywords: growth; branches; genetic correlations; heritability; nutrient concentration; nutrient removal; stems

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Differences in the nutrient concentrations and nutrient amounts of stems and branches amongst clones of hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx.) were investigated. Seven clones with superior and seven with medium growth rates were selected from a test of 119 clones in southern Sweden. Four trees per clone were randomly identified and harvested in dormant conditions. Sample discs from the stems and branches were collected and analysed for N, K, P, Ca, Mg, and S concentrations, as well as wood density. The analyses revealed significant genetic differences in wood density, K, P, and Mg concentrations in the stems. There were weak (non-significant) and negative genetic correlations between stem volume and concentrations of all the nutrients, except potassium, suggesting that nutrient-efficient clones could be selected without significantly sacrificing genetic gain for growth. In the branches K, Ca, and Mg concentrations differed significantly among clones. After selecting more nutrient efficient clones, the potential savings of nutrients compared with current hybrid aspen material was estimated to be around 5%, which seems fairly low, at least in a short-term perspective. However, the use of clones with different nutrient storage strategies may be regarded as a possible way in the long run to save nutrients in hybrid aspen ecosystems, or of removing them when sludge is applied.

Rytter, Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-26890, Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: lars.rytter@skogforsk.se
Stener, Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Skogforsk, Ekebo 2250, SE-26890, Svalöv, Sweden E-mail: lgs@nn.se

article id 490, category Research article

Veiko Uri, Hardi Tullus, Krista Lõhmus. (2003). Nutrient allocation, accumulation and above-ground biomass in grey alder and hybrid alder plantations. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 490. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.490

Keywords: biomass; Alnus incana; Alnus incana x Alnus glutinosa; grey alder; hybrid alder; nutrient allocation; nutrient accumulation

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of the present work was to investigate the nutrient (N,P,K) allocation and accumulation in grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) and hybrid alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench x Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) plantations growing on former agricultural land and to estimate the above-ground biomass production during 4 years after establishment. In August of the 4th year, when leaf mass was at its maximum, the amount of nitrogen accumulated in above-ground biomass of grey alder stand was 142.0 kg ha–1, the amount of phosphorus 16.3 kg ha–1 and the amount of potassium 49.5 kg ha–1. The amount of nitrogen accumulated in a hybrid alder stand totalled 76.8 kg ha–1, that of phosphorus 6.2 kg ha–1 and that of potassium 28.2 kg ha–1. The smaller amounts of N,P and K bound in the hybrid alder plantation are related to the smaller biomass of the stand. Still, the amounts of N,P and K consumed for the production of one ton of biomass were similar in the case of up to 4-year-old grey alder and hybrid alder stands. In the 4th year, the amount of nutrients consumed in one ton of biomass produced were: 16.0 kg N, 1.6 kg P and 5.4 kg K for grey alder and 14.6 kg N, 1.1 kg P and 5.2 kg K for hybrid alder. In the 4th year the total above-ground biomass (dry mass) of grey alder (15750 plants ha–1) amounted to 12.3 t ha–1, current annual increment being 6.7 t ha–1. In hybrid alder stands (6700 plants ha–1), the respective figures were 6.1 t ha–1 and 4.5 t ha–1. Comparison of the production capacity on the basis of mean stem mass in the 4th year revealed that the stem mass of grey alder exceeded that of hybrid alder (0.64 kg and 0.58 kg, respectively). Grey alder outpaced hybrid alder in height growth; in the 4th year after establishment, the mean height of the grey alder stand was 4.6 ± 0.9 m and that of the hybrid alder plantation 3.5 ± 0.9 m.

Uri, Institute of Silviculture, Estonian Agricultural University, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: vuri@eau.ee
Tullus, Institute of Silviculture, Estonian Agricultural University, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: ht@nn.ee
Lõhmus, Institute of Geography, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kl@nn.ee

article id 507, category Research article

Tysk Staffan Ericsson, Lars Östlund, Rikard Andersson. (2003). Destroying a path to the past – the loss of culturally scarred trees and change in forest structure along Allmunvägen, in mid-west boreal Sweden. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 507. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.507

Keywords: forest history; dendroecology; blazed trees; culturally modified trees; forest trails; tree age structure

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The tradition to blaze trees to mark trails and boundaries is very old in northern Scandinavia. The disappearance of culturally modified trees (i.e. trees with trail blazes) and changes in forest structure along a section of an old bridle trail in boreal Sweden was analyzed using historical maps and forest surveys from the period 1876 to the year 2000. Remaining blazed trees were located during a field study and selected scars were dated. In total 104 scarred living and dead trees were found. The scars originated from the early 1500s to the early 1900s. Analysis of the forest surveys showed that the forest along the trail was dominated by older trees, and that the majority of the scarred trees probably were present, throughout the 19th century. By the mid 20th century logging had begun to affect the tree age along the trail and in 1974 no stands older than 180 years were present. A conservative estimate shows that around 90% of the original blazed trees have vanished. The trail was interpreted as have being lined for centuries with scarred trees which gradually have been destroyed during the 20th century. Culturally modified trees constitute an unique source of information for understanding pattern of old trails as well as of past human land use and movement in the landscape prior to the 20th century. This biological archive have to a large extent been destroyed by forestry activities and it is therefore very important to survey, recount and protect the trees that are still present.

Ericsson, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: staffan@delta.se
Östlund, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: lo@nn.se
Andersson, SLU, Dept. of Forest Vegetation Ecology, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden E-mail: ra@nn.se

article id 506, category Research article

Teijo Palander, Katja Turunen, Sanna Laukkanen. (2003). Attitude of Finnish timber buyers towards implementation of a forest computer visualisation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 506. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.506

Keywords: change resistance; competence; forest computer visualisation; timber trade

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Timber buyers’ opinions as regards forest computer visualisation are studied. The results indicated that timber buyers are still rather conventional in their computer use since they mainly use only the information system of their own company. The majority of the buyers perceived computer visualisation to be slightly useful for their work, or they had no opinion concerning the usefulness of it. One third of the buyers considered computer visualisation to be a quality factor for timber trade, and the majority were willing to use it if a program is going to adopt by their company. In analysis, different personal characteristics were found for three timber buyer groups: qualified, neutral and reluctant. Qualified buyers were the largest one, about half of the buyers belonging to this group. The greatest barriers to adopting a positive attitude to computer visualisation turned out to be weak computer skills and a general lack of interest in computer use. On the other side, it was found that organisational factors did not influence the buyers’ computer skills or attitudes towards visualisation. The results of this study can be utilised by timber buying organisation in ensuring the successful adoption of a new computer system.

Palander, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: teijo.palander@joensuu.fi
Turunen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kt@nn.fi
Laukkanen, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: sl@nn.fi

article id 505, category Research article

Jari Kärnä, Eric Hansen, Heikki Juslin. (2003). Environmental activity and forest certification in marketing of forest products – a case study in Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 505. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.505

Keywords: environmental marketing; green marketing; European forest industry

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest industries and their industrial customers from four European countries were surveyed by interviews to study the environmental emphasis and the role of timber certification in their marketing planning. Most of the Finnish, Swedish, German and British companies have begun to integrate environmental issues in their strategic, structural and functional level marketing decisions. They see forest certification as a necessary tool for marketing forest products. The level of environmental activity (greenness) of the companies was studied by creating a one dimensional factor score rating. The logic of marketing planning was tested by using one functional level marketing tool – forest certification – as an example to examine how well the level of greenness explains the importance of forest certification for the company. The results show that in the surveyed companies the level of greenness has more explanatory power than background factors such as country or industry sector. The integration of environmental issues into marketing planning and the interest in forest certification by these companies can provide meaningful insights for the forest industries worldwide as they confront similar issues.

Kärnä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jari.karna@metla.fi
Hansen, Oregon State University, Department of Wood Science and Engineering, Richardson Hall 108, 97331-5751 Corvallis, OR, USA E-mail: eh@nn.us
Juslin, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hj@nn.fi

article id 504, category Research article

Sylvain Jutras, Hannu Hökkä, Virpi Alenius, Hannu Salminen. (2003). Modeling mortality of individual trees in drained peatland sites in Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 504. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.504

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; Betula pubescens; simulation; peatlands; mortality; generalized linear mixed models; multilevel models

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Multilevel logistic regression models were constructed to predict the 5-year mortality of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and pubescent birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) growing in drained peatland stands in northern and central Finland. Data concerning tree mortality were obtained from two successive measurements of the National Forest Inventory-based permanent sample plot data base covering pure and mixed stands of Scots pine and pubescent birch. In the modeling data, Scots pine showed an average observed mortality of 2.73% compared to 2.98% for pubescent birch. In the model construction, stepwise logistic regression and multilevel models methods were applied, the latter making it possible to address the hierarchical data, thus obtaining unbiased estimates for model parameters. For both species, mortality was explained by tree size, competitive position, stand density, species admixture, and site quality. The expected need for ditch network maintenance or re-paludification did not influence mortality. The multilevel models showed the lowest bias in the modeling data. The models were further validated against independent test data and by embedding them in a stand simulator. In 100-year simulations with different initial stand conditions, the models resulted in a 72% and 66% higher total mortality rate for the stem numbers of pine and birch, respectively, compared to previously used mortality models. The developed models are expected to improve the accuracy of stand forecasts in drained peatland sites.

Jutras, Département des sciences du bois et de la forêt, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, Québec, G1K 7P4, Canada E-mail: sj@nn.ca
Hökkä, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hannu.hokka@metla.fi
Alenius, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: va@nn.fi
Salminen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Rovaniemi Research Station, P.O. Box 16, FIN 96301 Rovaniemi, Finland E-mail: hs@nn.fi

article id 503, category Research article

Jyrki Hytönen. (2003). Effects of wood, peat and coal ash fertilization on Scots pine foliar nutrient concentrations and growth on afforested former agricultural peat soils. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 503. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.503

Keywords: wood ash; afforestation; Scots pine; vegetation control; herbicides; coal ash; peat ash; peat soils

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The effects of ash and commercial fertilizers on the foliar nutrient concentrations and stand growth of Scots pine were studied in four field experiments established on former cultivated peat soils. The aims were to compare ash types (wood, peat and coal ash), study the effects of ash treatment (pelletization), compare ash fertilization with commercial fertilizers, and to study the interaction between ash fertilization and weed control. Foliar samples were collected 1–3 years and 7–8 years after fertilization. In the unfertilized plots, the foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were fairly high, while those of potassium were low in all the experiments. The boron levels were low in three out of the four experiments. Application of either loose or pelletized wood ash, as well as of commercial fertilizers, increased foliar potassium and boron concentrations, and thus successfully remedied the existing nutrient imbalances and deficiencies. Since phosphorus deficiencies are rarely encountered on field afforestation sites, poor-quality wood ash with low phosphorus concentration could be used. Peat ash containing phosphorus, but only small amounts of potassium and boron, was not found to be very suitable for soil amelioration in connection with field afforestation. Coal ash, containing only small amounts of potassium, was a good source of boron for pine even when used in small amounts, and thus it can be used in cases where boron deficiencies alone are encountered. Wood ash significantly increased the height growth of Scots pines in two of the experiments, but peat ash and coal ash had no statistically significant effect. Wood ash increased the number of healthy seedlings. Vegetation control decreased seedling mortality by 24%, increased the growth of pine and decreased the proportion of trees damaged by elk and by deciduous trees.

Hytönen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research Station, P.O. Box 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland E-mail: jyrki.hytonen@metla.fi

article id 502, category Research article

Janne Levula, Hannu Ilvesniemi, Carl Johan Westman. (2003). Relation between soil properties and tree species composition in a Scots pine–Norway spruce stand in southern Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 502. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.502

Keywords: Norway spruce; Scots pine; tree species composition; soil texture; soil-water retention; spatial variability

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

It is commonly known in Finland that Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is a tree of dry soils and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.) is a tree of fresh soils. However, the concepts of dry and fresh soils still lack a precise definition. Consequently, the discussion on which soil/site is a pine or spruce habitat has continued over several decades. Moreover, in forest regeneration, the practice of tree species selection between the pine and the spruce has varied. We investigated the relationship between soil properties and pine–spruce species composition in a mature, naturally regenerated stand in southern Finland. We applied spatial analysis to divide the stand area up into 3–7 classes based on selected soil properties and then investigated the variations in species composition among those classes. The pine–spruce basal area ratio (BA of pines / BA of spruces) increased along with increasing mean particle size and proportion of coarse sand and gravel particle size fraction (0.6–20 mm) of mineral soil, and was lowest in classes, with the highest proportions of fine texture fractions. The results suggest that in southern Finland on sorted soils, pine is more competitive in regeneration and growth than spruce when mean particle size is above 0.44 mm or percentage of coarse sand and gravel is higher than 50%.

Levula, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: janne.levula@helsinki.fi
Ilvesniemi, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
Westman, University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Ecology, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: cjw@nn.fi

article id 501, category Research article

Jiaojun Zhu, Yutaka Gonda, Takeshi Matsuzaki, Masashi Yamamoto. (2003). Modeling relative wind speed by optical stratification porosity within the canopy of a coastal protective forest at different stem densities. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 501. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.501

Keywords: coastal protective forest; optical porosity; Pinus thunbergii; vertical forest structure; wind speed

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Wind speed and optical stratification porosity (OSP) were measured at various heights inside a coastal protective forest thinned to different stem densities to assess whether any characteristics of the wind profile in the coastal protective forest could be predicted from OSP. OSP was defined as vertical distribution of the proportion of sky hemisphere not obscured by tree elements inside a forest stand, and was determined for various heights using hemispherical photographic silhouettes on a computer processing system. The distribution of OSP in the coastal forest follows the Lambert-Beer’s law with an extinction coefficient (v). The relative wind speed within the canopy can be described using an exponential form with an attenuation coefficient (a). Variation in relative wind speed was very closely correlated with the distribution of OSP within the canopy. While below the canopy, i.e., in the trunk space, relative wind speed was little correlated with the distribution of OSP because the distribution of OSP was relatively constant there. Therefore, the linear relationships between relative wind speed and OSP and between the two coefficients v and a were established within the canopy. The results suggest that OSP can be used to predict the wind profile in case of the application within the canopy of the coastal forest.

Zhu, Qingyuan Station of Forest Ecology, Institute of Applied Ecology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China; Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: jiaojunzhu@iae.ac.cn
Gonda, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: yg@nn.jp
Matsuzaki, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: tm@nn.jp
Yamamoto, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata 950-2181, Japan E-mail: my@nn.jp

article id 500, category Research article

Jarkko Hantula, Eeva Vainio. (2003). Specific primers for the differentiation of Heterobasidion annosum (s.str.) and H. parviporum infected stumps in northern Europe. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 500. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.500

Keywords: IS group S; IS group P; molecular identification; root and butt rot

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Two separate amplification products from random amplified microsatellite fingerprints of Heterobasidion annosum (s.str.) and H. parviporum were converted to specific markers. The markers were tested to be species specific and combined to a single PCR-reaction, which allowed the detection and identification of the two fungi directly from wood samples.

Hantula, Finnish Forest Research Institute. Fax +358 9 8570 5531 E-mail: jarkko.hantula@metla.fi
Vainio, Finnish Forest Research Institute. Fax +358 9 8570 5531 E-mail: ev@nn.fi

article id 499, category Research article

Mikhail V. Kozlov, Pekka Niemelä. (2003). Drought is more stressful for northern populations of Scots pine than low summer temperatures. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 499. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.499

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; climate change; precipitation; stress; temperature; fluctuating asymmetry; Kola peninsula

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Needle fluctuating asymmetry, which is a non-specific stress indicator, was used to evaluate responses of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) to annual climatic variation in the Kola Peninsula, NW Russia, during 1992–1999. Although the 30 trees surveyed for this study demonstrated individualistic responses to the temperature and precipitation of the growth seasons, at the population level we found no effect of temperature and a significant increase in fluctuating asymmetry with a decline in precipitation during the previous August. This finding suggests that the vitality of Scots pine populations at the northern tree limit is controlled by late summer precipitation rather than by temperatures of the growth season.

Kozlov, Section of Ecology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland E-mail: mikoz@utu.fi
Niemelä, Forestry Faculty, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: pn@nn.fi

article id 498, category Research article

Slobodan B. Mickovski, A. Roland Ennos. (2003). Anchorage and asymmetry in the root system of Pinus peuce. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 2 article id 498. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.498

Keywords: Pinus sylvestris; eccentricity; root morphology; anchorage; asymmetry; Pinus peuce; clustering

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The relationship between the anchorage mechanics and root architecture of Pinus peuce was investigated by carrying out winching tests and examining excavated root systems of 20 mature trees. The root system was dominated by 6.1±1.3 lateral roots, more than 70% of the lateral root cross sectional area (CSA) being distributed in the uppermost 10 cm of soil. Anchorage strength was related to the size of the tree and CSA. The overturning moment of trees was proportional to the diameter at breast height (DBH) to the power of 1.6. The trees exhibited significant asymmetry in anchorage rigidity, but although there was clustering of lateral roots in a preferred direction the root asymmetry was not significantly correlated with the asymmetry in anchorage rigidity, suggesting that much of the anchorage is provided by tap and sinker roots, rather than the laterals. However, the major laterals showed dorsoventral eccentricity, the more eccentric ones being those that were distributed closer to the soil surface and which pointed perpendicular to the direction of greatest resistance. This suggests that this is a result of thigmomorphogenetic effects. These results are compared with those for the related P. sylvestris and suggest that the assimilation and anchorage characteristics of root systems are controlled independently of each other.

Mickovski, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, 3.614 Stopford Building, Manchester M13 9PT, UK E-mail: sbm@nn.uk
Ennos, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, 3.614 Stopford Building, Manchester M13 9PT, UK E-mail: roland.ennos@man.ac.uk

article id 516, category Research article

Celeste Lacuna-Richman. (2003). Ethnicity and the utilization of non-wood forest products: findings from three Philippine villages. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 516. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.516

Keywords: non-wood forest products (NWFPs); indigenous people; migrants; subsistence; market; Philippines

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The utilization and trade of non-wood forest products in three villages in the Philippines were compared in this study. Two villages were situated close to each other on the Island of Palawan. The Tagbanua, an indigenous people, inhabited one village; migrants from the Visayas Region of the Philippines populated the other. The third village is located on the Island of Leyte, in the Visayas Region, populated by native Visayan settlers. There was no significant difference in the number of NWFPs utilized by the indigenous people and the migrants. However, there was a wide disparity in income between the two groups, with migrants earning more, partly due to the marketing of commercial NWFPs. This gap could be decreased by fairer trading practices that are dependent in part on better educational opportunities, land rights, legal assistance and access to markets for the Tagbanua. Specific socioeconomic characteristics, such as the presence of a hunter within the household and size of the family were found to have a positive correlation with the use of NWFPs in some study villages. Income and the food expenditure of the household were inversely related with the use of NWFPs in the native Visayan village.

Lacuna-Richman, Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: celeste.lacuna-richman@forest.joensuu.fi

article id 515, category Research article

Juho Rantala, Kari Väätäinen, Nuutti Kiljunen, Pertti Harstela. (2003). Economic evaluation of container seedling packing and disinfection machinery. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 515. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.515

Keywords: economies of scale; nursery technology; mechanisation; container seedlings; packing;

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Productivity and costs of packing container seedlings were studied in a mechanised line for packing and disinfecting seedling trays. The hypothesis was that adequate cost-efficiency could be achieved when some common principles of mechanisation were applied. Results indicated that the unit costs are lower than those of manual packing, if these principles were applied and the annual number of packed seedlings exceeded 6 million. However, most of the nurseries in Finland are still too small to gain a real advantage from large-scale production.

Rantala, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: juho.rantala@metla.fi
Väätäinen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: kv@nn.fi
Kiljunen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: nk@nn.fi
Harstela, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Suonenjoki Research Station, FIN-77600 Suonenjoki, Finland E-mail: ph@nn.fi

article id 514, category Research article

Jukka Malinen. (2003). Locally adaptable non-parametric methods for estimating stand characteristics for wood procurement planning. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 514. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.514

Keywords: stand characteristics; local non-parametric estimation; MSN method; wood procurement planning

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The purpose of this study was to examine the use of the local adaptation of the non-parametric Most Similar Neighbour (MSN) method in estimating stand characteristics for wood procurement planning purposes. Local adaptation was performed in two different ways: 1) by selecting local data from a database with the MSN method and using that data as a database in the basic k-nearest neighbour (k-nn) MSN method, 2) by selecting a combination of neighbours from the neighbourhood where the average of the predictor variables was closest to the target stand predictor variables (Locally Adaptable Neighbourhood (LAN) MSN method). The study data used comprised 209 spruce dominated stands located in central Finland and was collected with harvesters. The accuracy of the methods was analysed by estimating the tree stock characteristics and the log length/diameter distribution produced by a bucking simulation. The local k-nn MSN method was not notably better than the k-nn MSN method, although it produced less biased estimates on the edges of the input space. The LAN MSN method was found to be a more accurate method than the k-nn methods.

Malinen, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: jukka.malinen@joensuu.fi

article id 513, category Research article

Marjut Ihalainen, Kauko Salo, Timo Pukkala. (2003). Empirical prediction models for Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea berry yields in North Karelia, Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 513. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.513

Keywords: mixed models; berry yield index; Vaccinium myrtillus; Vaccinium vitis-idaea

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Forest berries and the outdoor experiences related to berry collection are important goods and services provided by Finnish forests. Consequently, there is a need for models which facilitate the prediction of the impacts of alternative forest management options on berry yields. Very few such models are available. In particular, empirical models are lacking. Models used in forest management should express the effect of variables altered in forest management such as stand density and mean tree size. This study developed empirical models for bilberry and cowberry yields in North Karelia. The data consisted of 362 measurements of 40 m2 sample plots. The plots were located in clusters. The same plot was measured over 1 to 4 years. Besides berry yield some site and growing stock characteristics of each plot were measured. A random parameter model was used to express the berry yield as a function of site fertility, growing stock characteristics, and random parameters. The random part of the models accounted for the effect of plot, measurement year, and cluster. The fixed predictors of the model for bilberry were stand age and forest site type. Stand basal area, mean tree diameter and forest site type were used to predict cowberry yields. The most significant random parameter was the plot factor. The fixed model part explained only a few per cent of the variation in berry yields. The signs of regression coefficients were logical and the model predictions correlated rather well with the predictions of earlier models.

Ihalainen, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: marjut.ihalainen@joensuu.fi
Salo, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O. Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: ks@nn.fi
Pukkala, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: tp@nn.fi

article id 512, category Research article

Juha-Pekka Hotanen. (2003). Multidimensional site description of peatlands drained for forestry. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 512. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.512

Keywords: site index; vegetation; diversity; classification; macronutrients; ordination; peat properties

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Hotanen, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research Centre, P.O.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland E-mail: juha-pekka.hotanen@metla.fi

article id 511, category Research article

Luis Diego Pérez Cordero, Markku Kanninen. (2003). Heartwood, sapwood and bark content, and wood dry density of young and mature teak (Tectona grandis) trees grown in Costa Rica. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 511. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.511

Keywords: stand density; cross-sectional area; relative stem curves; stem analysis

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study was to evaluate the heartwood, sapwood and bark content, and wood dry density in young and mature teak (Tectona grandis) trees. For this, 17 plantations were selected from 11 sites representing different climatic conditions and plantation densities (156 to 1600 trees ha–1, and line planting). From these plantations, a total of 87 trees with ages between 5 and 47 years were felled for stem analysis. The highest heartwood proportion of stem volume (over bark) was 61% and the lowest 0.4%. The sapwood proportion ranged between 24 and 72%, while bark represented from 14 to 37% of the total volume. Heartwood proportion was significantly different (P < 0.05) among climatic zones: ‘wet’ sites producing less heartwood than ‘dry’ sites. Stem diameter (under bark) and heartwood diameter at different stem heights differed among sample trees, even when plotted in relative values to avoid dependency with stem size. Dry density was statistically different between 8-year-old trees or younger and 47-year-old trees, and between line planting trees and 13-year-old trees or younger, but did not differ statistically between line planting trees and mature trees. No significant differences were found between climatic zones or between different stand densities. Dry density values for T. grandis plantations in Costa Rica are similar to those reported elsewhere.

Pérez Cordero, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), Turrialba, Costa Rica E-mail: diegoperez@costarricense.cr
Kanninen, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia E-mail: mk@nn.id

article id 510, category Research article

Helge Dzierzon, Risto Sievänen, Winfried Kurth, Jari Perttunen, Branislav Sloboda. (2003). Enhanced possibilities for analyzing tree structure as provided by an interface between different modelling systems. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 510. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.510

Keywords: tree growth; mathematical models; simulation systems; forest growth; analysis tools

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

In recent years, many different advanced mathematical models and simulation systems for tree and forest growth have been developed. We show a possibility to extend analysis tools for measured and simulated plants using a data interface between the simulation model LIGNUM and the multifunctional software system GROGRA. Both systems were developed by different teams. To demonstrate the enhanced possibilities for analyzing a LIGNUM tree, several examples are given. In these examples three different approaches for analysis are applied to measured and simulated trees: Fractal dimension, deduction of tapering laws, and water potential patterns obtained from simulation of waterflow by the specialized software HYDRA. Conclusions for the interfacing and comparison of different modelling tools are drawn.

Dzierzon, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: hdzierz@gwdg.de
Sievänen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: rs@nn.fi
Kurth, Institut für Informatik, Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus, P.O. Box 101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany E-mail: wk@nn.de
Perttunen, The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: jp@nn.fi
Sloboda, Institut für Forstliche Biometrie und Informatik, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany E-mail: bs@nn.de

article id 509, category Research article

Michelle de Chantal, Laura Eskola, Hannu Ilvesniemi, Kari Leinonen, Carl Johan Westman. (2003). Early establishment of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies sown on soil freshly prepared and after stabilisation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 509. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.509

Keywords: Norway spruce; site preparation; Scots pine; direct seeding; soil properties

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

The aim of this study is to investigate the early establishment of Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Norway spruce) seedlings on soil freshly prepared and soil left to stabilise for one year after preparation. Three site preparation treatments were studied: exposed C horizon, mound (broken O/E/B horizon piled upside down over undisturbed forest floor), and exposed E/B horizon. The years investigated were different in terms of weather, one being rainy and the other one dry. As such, emergence was very low in the dry year. Content of fine silt particles, bulk density, water retention, air-filled porosity, loss-on-ignition, and near saturated hydraulic conductivity did not differ statistically between fresh and stabilised soil. Nevertheless, early establishment of P. sylvestris seedlings was improved on exposed C and E/B horizon after one year of soil stabilisation. In contrast, early establishment of P. sylvestris on mounds, and that of P. abies on all types of site preparation treatments were not improved by soil stabilisation. In addition, mortality due to frost heaving did not differ significantly between freshly prepared and stabilised soil. Considering the fact that growing season climate had a great influence on the sowing outcome, and that early establishment is also affected by other factors that vary yearly, such as predation, seedbed receptivity, and competition from vegetation, it may not be advantageous to wait for soil to stabilise before regenerating from seeds.

Chantal, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: michelle.dechantal@helsinki.fi
Eskola, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: le@nn.fi
Ilvesniemi, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: hi@nn.fi
Leinonen, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: kl@nn.fi
Westman, University of Helsinki, Dept. of Forest Ecology, P.O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland E-mail: cjw@nn.fi

article id 508, category Research article

Kai Vellak, Jaanus Paal, Jaan Liira. (2003). Diversity and distribution pattern of bryophytes and vascular plants in a boreal spruce forest. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 508. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.508

Keywords: boreal forests; correlation; general linear models; Estonia; field layer; ground layer; spatial patterns

Abstract | View details | Full text in PDF | Author Info

Small scale pattern of bryophyte communities is one of the remarkable sources of diversity in species-poor boreal forests. By means of correlation and general linear model approaches, the relationships between bryophyte vegetation and upper layers, as well as the response of ground and field layer species to several environmental factors, was analyzed in a boreal spruce forest in South-East Estonia. Of the studied factors, the strongest influence on the diversity and spatial distribution of ground and field layer species was found for ‘distance from nearest tree’. Species from different layers react differently to the proximity of trees. Species richness of bryophytes is higher further from trees, whereas more vascular plant species prefer to grow in the vicinity of tree trunks. For bryophyte species richness, the pH of the decay horizon is also important; fewer bryophyte species occur in more acid conditions.

Vellak, Institute of Zoology and Botany, Estonian Agricultural University, 181 Riia str., 51014 Tartu, Estonia; Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: kvellak@zbi.ee
Paal, Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jp@nn.ee
Liira, Institute of Botany and Ecology, University of Tartu, 40 Lai Str., 51005 Tartu, Estonia E-mail: jl@nn.ee

Category : Review article

article id 489, category Review article

Ralph J. Alig. (2003). U.S. landowner behavior, land use and land cover changes, and climate change mitigation. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 4 article id 489. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.489

Keywords: adaptation; carbon sequestration; forest sector; mitigation

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Landowner behavior is a major determinant of land use and land cover changes, an important consideration for policy analysts concerned with global change. Study of landowner behavior aids in designing more effective incentives for inducing land use and land cover changes to help mitigate climate change by reducing net greenhouse gas emissions. Afforestation, deforestation, reforestation, and timber harvest are the most frequent land management practices that influence forest carbon stocks and flux. Research studies provide estimates of how private landowners respond to market signals and government programs and how they alter land management. For example, landowners have tended to retain subsidized afforested stands well beyond program life in the United States, suggesting that similar programs for climate change mitigation could result in high rates of retention. At the same time, policy makers need to be aware that unintended consequences of policies can lead to significantly different outcomes than envisioned, including leakage possibilities.

Alig, USDA Forest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA E-mail: ralig@fs.fed.us

article id 497, category Review article

Oili Kiikkilä. (2003). Heavy-metal pollution and remediation of forest soil around the Harjavalta Cu-Ni smelter, in SW Finland. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 3 article id 497. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.497

Keywords: mulch; copper; forest; ecosystem; Harjavalta; nutrient cycle; remediation; liming

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Heavy metals and sulphur have been emitted from the Cu-Ni smelter at Harjavalta since 1945. This article reviews the work that has been published in scientific journals after 1975 concerning heavy metal deposition and the effects of pollution on forest ecosystem around Harjavalta. The pollution has had diverse effects on boreal forest ecosystem, e.g. vegetation, nutrient cycle mediated by microbiota and soil animals, herbivorous insects and pathogens, resistance mechanisms of vegetation, and birds. The deposition of heavy metals has increased up to 30 km distance from the smelter. At 8 km distance the ecosystem began to approximate an undisturbed ecosystem where only slight changes in the understorey vegetation were observed. At 4 km distance the species composition of different ecosystem components (vegetation, insects, birds, soil microbiota) had changed and the growth of trees was retarded. At 0.5–1 km distance, where the nutrient cycling was disturbed and only the most resistant organisms were surviving, the ecosystem had ceased to carry out its essential functions. Remediation through liming or mulching with organic matter, of forest soil has had some positive effects on the ecosystem.

Kiikkilä, Vantaa Research Centre, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: oili.kiikkila@metla.fi

Category : Research note

article id 517, category Research note

Matti Huotari, Mareena Jaskari, Erkki Annila, Vilho Lantto. (2003). Responses of olfactory receptor neurons of the large pine weevil to a possible deterrent Neutroil® and two other chemicals. Silva Fennica vol. 37 no. 1 article id 517. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.517

Keywords: olfactory receptor neuron; attractant; repellent; Hylobius abietis; action potential; silent period; electroantennogram

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Electrophysiological responses of olfactory receptor neurons were measured from the antennal sensilla of large pine weevils (Hylobius abietis L.) at 1 s exposure to Neutroil®-hexane mixture odour as a possible deterrent chemical and, for comparison, to α-pinene, α-pinene-ethanol mixture, and ethanol odours, respectively. Neutroil® is a commercial chemical pulp-mill product which has been studied earlier as a deterrent for large pine weevils with preliminary feed tests. In addition, ethanol, hexane and clean carrier air responses were measured. Odour pulses and clean air, as a zero reference value, were directed at a fixed insect antenna in order to induce olfactory responses. Simultaneous olfactory responses, i.e. Hylobius electroantennograms (EAG) and action potential responses, were recorded and these responses of Hylobius olfactory receptor neurons (ORN), such as action potential rates, silent periods and EAG responses, were analyzed for all simultaneous recordings. The exposures to α-pinene, α-pinene-ethanol mixture, pure ethanol and hexane caused an increase of the action potential rate (up to 70 pulses per second) in the ORNs sensitive to these odours, while the Neutroil®-hexane mixture exposures caused either silent periods with a duration between 0.6 and 1.1 s for 1 s exposure pulses or they had no response at all in the ORNs sensitive to the other odours. Thus, the possible deterrence may be caused by inhibition of some pinene-alcohol ORNs.

Huotari, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4500, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: matti.huotari@oulu.fi
Jaskari, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4500, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: mj@nn.fi
Annila, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland E-mail: ea@nn.fi
Lantto, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4500, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland E-mail: vl@nn.fi

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