The document summarizes the origins and evolution of the universe, galaxy, solar system, and Earth. It begins by explaining how the Big Bang occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago, marking the expansion of the early universe. It then describes how the universe cooled and formed elemental structures, galaxies, stars, and planets over billions of years. Specific details are provided about the formation of the Milky Way galaxy and solar system, including Earth. The geological history of Earth is outlined, dividing time into eons, eras, periods, and epochs marked by significant evolutionary changes and extinctions.
Astronomy- State of the art is a course covering the hottest topics in astronomy. In this section, the exotic end states of stars are discussed, including pulsars, neutron stars, and black holes.
Space weather refers to changes in the space environment near Earth that are driven by solar activity like solar flares and coronal mass ejections. There are three main types of space weather storms: radio blackouts caused by solar flares that arrive in 8 minutes, radiation storms from energetic particles that arrive within 15 minutes to 24 hours, and geomagnetic storms from coronal mass ejections that arrive within 1 to 4 days. Each type of storm has different effects, affecting systems like radio communications, satellites, power grids, and navigation.
Astronomy - State of the Art - GalaxiesChris Impey
Astronomy - State of the Art is a course covering the hottest topics in astronomy. In this section, the properties of galaxies are discussed, including supermassive black holes and dark matter.
Astronomy - State of the Art is a course covering the hottest topics in astronomy. In this section, the Solar System is explored, including place where biology might exist.
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have ring systems, though Saturn's are the largest and brightest.
- Saturn's rings are composed of numerous tiny particles orbiting in thin, flat disks around the planet's equator. Gaps in the rings are caused by interactions with small moonlets.
- The jovian planets likely acquired their ring particles from collisions with asteroids and comet fragments in their early histories. Tidal forces from nearby moons help maintain the rings by grinding larger objects into fine dust.
1) The document discusses the properties and evolution of stars from their formation as protostars to their death as remnants like white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes.
2) It also describes the different types of galaxies like spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxies and discusses evidence that the universe began in a massive expansion known as the Big Bang around 13.7 billion years ago.
3) The future of the universe is uncertain but most scientists believe it will continue expanding forever rather than contracting again in a "Big Crunch."
This document provides information about space, cosmology, the Big Bang theory, and the formation and significance of stars. It discusses what space is, the study of cosmology, evidence for the Big Bang, how stars are formed from nebulae and gravitational collapse, and how stars provide light, heat, energy and are essential for life on Earth.
The document summarizes key differences between the Earth and the Moon in terms of their formation, composition, geology, and geologic processes. It notes that the Moon has a smaller size, lower density, and different chemical composition compared to Earth. The dominant theory for the Moon's formation is that it resulted from a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized planet around 4.5 billion years ago. The document then outlines the Moon's geologic history, including early magma ocean rocks, impact basin formation, and volcanic mare basalts filling low-lying areas. In contrast to Earth, the Moon lacks plate tectonics, atmospheric or hydrologic erosion, ongoing volcanic or seismic activity, and a magnetic field.
The Sun is a middle-aged, average sized yellow star that is made up mostly of hydrogen and helium. It is about 4.6 billion years old and located 93 million miles from Earth. The Sun generates heat and light through nuclear fusion reactions in its core that convert hydrogen into helium. It is the center of our Solar System and contains over 99% of the mass in the entire system. The Solar System also includes eight official planets that orbit the Sun, along with dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies.
The document discusses asteroids, comets, and Pluto. It explains that asteroids formed from leftover material from planet formation and are found mainly in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter due to Jupiter's gravitational influence. Comets formed beyond the frost line and have icy compositions; their tails form when they near the Sun and ice sublimates. Most comets originate from the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. Pluto has properties matching Kuiper Belt objects. An impact likely caused the mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs. While impacts pose a real threat, the likelihood of a major impact within our lifetimes is low. Other planets can affect Earth's impact rates through their gravitational influence on small solar system bodies.
1) The universe is made up of hundreds of billions of galaxies separated by enormous distances. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to a local group of about 30 galaxies including our nearest neighbor Andromeda.
2) Galaxies contain between 100,000 and 500 million stars. They are made up of gas and dust and can contain open star clusters and nebulae. Many stars have planetary systems like our solar system, with planets that orbit stars and may have moons.
3) The solar system formed 4.5 billion years ago from a nebula containing gas and dust. It is centered around the sun and contains 8 planets divided into inner terrestrial planets like Earth and outer gas giants like Jupiter, as well as
Science Form 2 Chapter 11:Stars and galaxies in the universe CCY0917
The universe contains galaxies, stars, and other celestial objects. Galaxies are large groups of stars, gas and dust that come in three shapes: spiral, elliptical, and irregular. Our solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy, a medium-large spiral galaxy containing approximately 200 billion stars. Stars are formed from clouds of gas and dust called nebulae and have a life cycle from birth to death. They are classified based on characteristics like color, size, temperature, and distance, which determine their brightness.
Solar wind consists of charged particles released from the sun's corona that bombard the Earth at high speeds. While solar wind prevents harmful cosmic rays, it can also disrupt Earth's magnetic field and potentially damage the atmosphere. In the past, solar wind was even more dangerous when the sun was younger and hotter. Mars lacked a strong magnetic field to protect it from solar wind, which led to the loss of its atmosphere and climate. To strengthen Earth's protection, we must reduce pollution that damages the ozone layer and weakens the magnetic field.
- Mars was once warmer with liquid water but lost its thick atmosphere over time, possibly due to the weakening of its magnetic field. Venus has an extreme greenhouse effect that led to surface temperatures of over 400°C due to a dense, 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere.
- Earth retained its water and has a carbon dioxide cycle that regulates temperatures by absorbing carbon dioxide into rocks. Its nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere also developed an ozone layer to block harmful ultraviolet radiation.
The document provides information about the 8 planets and 3 dwarf planets in our solar system. It describes their key characteristics such as composition, size, orbital period, rotation period, and natural satellites. The inner planets are smaller rocky bodies, while the outer planets are large gas giants with rings. Features like impact craters, volcanoes, and storms shape the surfaces of different planets.
Science and astronomy club (types of celestrial objects)Antilen Jacob
This document provides an overview of celestial objects and Newtonian mechanics. It begins with definitions and images of different types of galaxies such as spiral, elliptical, lenticular, and irregular galaxies. It then discusses pre-Newtonian theories of planetary motion from Ptolemy to Kepler. Next, it covers Newton's universal law of gravitation and its applications by scientists like Halley, Adams, and Le Verrier for predicting comet orbits and deviations in Uranus' orbit. The document concludes with descriptions of objects in our solar system like planets, dwarf planets, moons, comets, and asteroids, followed by an introduction to exoplanet detection methods like the radial velocity and transit methods.
The document discusses Venus and Mars, comparing their similarities to Earth but differences that make life impossible. Venus has a runaway greenhouse effect that led to extremely high temperatures. Its atmosphere is 96% carbon dioxide. Mars has a thin atmosphere that has lost lighter gases over time, leaving it mostly carbon dioxide. Both planets show evidence of past volcanic activity but lack plate tectonics and water on their surfaces today.
The document summarizes key concepts about the solar system, including:
- The solar system is made up of the sun and eight planets that orbit around it, along with moons, asteroids, and comets.
- The earth spins on its axis, causing day and night, and its tilt and orbit around the sun cause the seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres.
- Nuclear fusion in the sun's core converts hydrogen to helium, releasing enormous amounts of energy that allow it to shine.
- The document discusses the heliocentric model of the solar system proposed by Copernicus and refined by Kepler, including Kepler's three laws of planetary motion. It then provides an overview of the formation of the solar system according to the nebular hypothesis and describes the key characteristics of planets Mercury through Saturn, including their orbits, compositions, atmospheres, moons, and surfaces. The solar system is understood to have formed from a large nebula that collapsed under gravity to form the Sun and planets approximately 4.6 billion years ago.
A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust that remains after a supernova explosion. As the nebula collapsed due to gravitational forces, most material formed the Sun and planets closest to the Sun lost their light gases, while planets further out retained them to become gas giants. The Solar System formed from the collapse of a giant molecular cloud approximately 4.6 billion years ago.
This document contains a student's ideas for three horror film projects. The student chose to pursue the idea of "Revenge", a film about the ghost of a man seeking revenge after killing his family. The summary includes obtaining necessary equipment and permissions from the school, assembling a crew of classmates, and creating a low-budget production that could be filmed primarily on school grounds.
Nikthiya has chosen to do a short film called "the deadly dare" about a group of friends daring each other to enter an old abandoned house. She created storyboards and a script that are both at least two minutes long. Potential problems include finding a location and actors, which she has solutions for by using a room at school and finding volunteers. Her budget is £10 and she has permission to use necessary equipment. Health and safety risks like weather and darkness are considered. Costumes and props include casual clothes and a wheelchair. Nikthiya pitches her idea as creative, original, safe and well-planned within budget.
The Internet Commerce Association conducted a study analyzing direct search traffic trends using a sample of over 30 million unique monthly visitors across multiple domain portfolios. The study found:
- Direct search traffic grew at an average annual rate of over 35% between 2002-2006.
- Two-thirds of the world's 1 billion internet users arrive at websites through direct search.
- Direct search is a consistent and sustainable source of high-quality traffic for advertisers.
Mootup assignments begin when a teacher creates a debate using the Create Debate form, which generates codes for each student. Students log into Mootup.com using their unique code to access debate details and take turns writing opening arguments and responses. Assignments can be short, one to two days, or longer over multiple weeks depending on the number of rounds and due date set by the teacher. The teacher can monitor student progress and begin grading early.
Los estudiantes de tercer grado de la escuela secundaria Adolfo López Mateos realizaron una entrevista a un experto sobre la herbolaria prehispánica y la industria farmacéutica actual. En la entrevista, el experto comparó los medicamentos y tratamientos naturales utilizados antiguamente con los medicamentos farmacéuticos modernos para varias enfermedades como la gripe, dolor de cabeza y estómago. Explicó también los posibles efectos secundarios y consecuencias de las dosis adecuadas e inadecu
The document outlines the storyboard for a 15-scene video about a retired racing greyhound named Black Jack. The video will follow Black Jack from his racing career to his retirement, showing his living conditions at the track and the challenges of adapting to life as a house pet. It will conclude by encouraging viewers to adopt retired greyhounds from adoption groups.
The document does not contain any information beyond a series of dates. It is unclear what event, topic or idea the dates are referring to without additional context or explanation.
This document discusses developing Azure solutions for different audiences including web developers, corporate developers, and ISV developers. It covers key aspects of developing Azure solutions such as cloud service anatomy, the differences in developing for Azure, worker and web role call order, migrating data and services to Azure, diagnostics, and best practices. The conclusion emphasizes that Azure provides flexibility in development with specific APIs, casual development scenarios, best practices, and supporting technologies.
State aid, public funding, broadband, best practicesgaalnorb
The document discusses public funding guidelines for broadband infrastructure development in the EU. It outlines the key targets for broadband coverage by 2020, available EU funds, and examples of state aid budgets in various EU member states for broadband deployment. It also summarizes the EU state aid rules for broadband, including the types of aid measures that require notification, criteria like proportionality of aid and technological neutrality, and specific conditions for supporting next generation access (NGA) networks.
This document provides a summary of trends for 2013 across various industries based on insights from trend analysts and companies. Some of the key trends mentioned include corporations rebooting and refocusing on their core purpose, a move towards more localized and sustainable food production, the growth of peer-to-peer lending and crowdfunding replacing traditional banks, education shifting to focus more on skills and online/immersive experiences over traditional degrees, and nearly all objects becoming "smart" with embedded sensors and connectivity.
Peter Easton was the first English pirate commissioned by the king, but he began attacking English ships. He established a fort and headquarters in Harbour Grace, Newfoundland. Later he relocated to Ferryland Harbour with 40 ships to protect himself from attacks by the king's men, but was still eventually punished, though it's unknown if he actually received his punishment.
David Kirke was the governor of Newfoundland but antagonized the French. He drove the French out of Quebec and Nova Scotia at the king's order. He later settled in Ferryland but died in prison for unknown reasons.
Blackbeard was the famous pirate known for attacking and stealing ships in the Caribbean from his vessel the Queen Anne's Revenge
Into the Edge of the Stars Humanity’s changing vision of the cosmos Presenter...Haileyesus Wondwossen
Into the Edge of the Stars Humanity’s changing vision of the cosmos
Presenter: Haileyesus Wondwossen
Basic measurement.
How old our universe is?
Evidence that the universe had a beginning.
Size comparison.
The universe-Earth
Faster travel.
Search for life-bearing planets
Mystery question
oriaethiopia1@gmail.com
+251920720556
The document provides an overview of the solar system, including the sun, eight planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. It describes the characteristics of asteroids as mostly lying between Mars and Jupiter and having irregular shapes. Comets are described as large "dirty snowballs" that produce a glowing head and tail when approaching the sun. Meteoroids are small solid particles that can become meteors when entering Earth's atmosphere or meteorites if reaching the surface. The document also discusses the resolution that established three categories for objects in the solar system: planets, dwarf planets like Pluto, and small solar system bodies.
This PPT gives little idea about Space science. and Also helps To gain some good Knowledge about Stars , planets and Galaxies.
The Background phots are also supportive to the Learning content.
The document provides information about astronomy topics including:
1. The Sun and its layers, effects on Earth like warming the planet and controlling weather patterns.
2. Details about planets like Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune and their atmospheres, temperatures, and other characteristics.
3. The Moon's formation, phases, impact on tides, and eclipses involving the Moon and Sun.
The document provides information about several theories of the origin and evolution of the universe and solar system. It discusses the Big Bang theory, which proposes that the universe began in an extremely hot and dense state and has been expanding ever since. It also describes theories for how the sun, planets, and natural satellites formed, such as the nebular hypothesis which suggests they formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust. The document then gives details about the properties of planets in our solar system as well as dwarf planets like Pluto.
The document provides information about key concepts in cosmology and astronomy. It defines cosmology as the branch of astronomy dealing with the origin and evolution of the universe. It describes the universe as all observable matter and energy, including galaxies, solar systems, and planets. It discusses the Big Bang theory that the universe rapidly expanded from a dense state over 13 billion years ago. It also summarizes discoveries about the structure and composition of galaxies, stars, planets, and other celestial objects that make up the universe.
The document provides information about the Milky Way galaxy and our solar system. It states that the Milky Way is a spiral galaxy approximately 100,000 light years in diameter and 1,000 light years thick, located in the Local Group of galaxies. It notes that our solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust within the Milky Way around 5 billion years ago. The summary describes the basic structure and characteristics of the planets in our solar system, dividing them into inner terrestrial planets like Earth and Mars and outer gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn.
The document provides information about various celestial bodies in our solar system including:
- The sun is a star that is approximately 150 million kilometers from Earth and it takes light about 8 minutes to reach us.
- Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and has extreme temperature variations.
- Venus is similar in size to Earth but has a toxic atmosphere and rotates backwards.
- Earth is the only known planet capable of supporting life.
The document provides information about astronomy and the structure of the universe. It begins with a vocabulary list for "Unit 1: The study of stars and space" and defines key terms related to the Big Bang theory, such as that all matter and energy was once condensed in a single point around 13.8 billion years ago. It then discusses evidence for the Big Bang, the expansion of the universe, properties and life cycles of stars, Earth's place in the universe, and characteristics of the moon such as its phases and the causes of tides.
The document provides information about cosmology and the structure and movements of the Earth. It discusses how galaxies formed after the Big Bang, and how scientists like Ptolemy, Copernicus, and Hubble contributed to understandings of the expanding universe. It then describes the composition and layers of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, core, and how convection currents in the mantle cause plate tectonics. Finally, it discusses the Earth's daily rotation and yearly revolution around the Sun, which cause seasons, and types of earthquakes.
The document discusses key facts about cosmology and the structure of the universe, galaxies, stars, and the solar system. It provides details on:
- The universe consists of millions of galaxies held together by gravity, with galaxies flying away from each other as the universe expands.
- Our galaxy, the Milky Way galaxy, is spiral in shape and contains over 100 billion stars revolving around its center.
- The widely accepted Big Bang theory is that 15 billion years ago, the universe was in an extremely dense state and began rapidly expanding.
The document provides an overview of space and time, including:
1) It describes our solar system, with the Sun at the center and 8 planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and moons orbiting it.
2) It explains how other stars are classified based on color and brightness, and how stars evolve over time according to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.
3) It discusses how scientists use relative dating and radiometric dating to determine the ages of rocks and events in Earth's history stretching back billions of years.
The document provides information about astronomy and the universe. It discusses the three main theories of the origin of the universe: the Big Bang theory, Steady State theory, and Creation theory. It then describes the lifecycles of stars and their different stages from yellow star to black dwarf. Additional details include facts about the sun such as its size, temperature, and distance from Earth. Information is also provided about the moon, its phases and effects of low gravity, as well as details about solar and lunar eclipses.
Edwin Hubble's observations in the 1920s using the Hooker telescope led him to conclude that the universe is expanding and that galaxies' recession velocities are proportional to their distance. Deep images from the Hubble Space Telescope reveal that the universe is filled with galaxies like our own, with the light from the most distant galaxies having traveled around 10 billion years to reach us. Spectra show that distant galaxies are traveling away from us at around 12,000 km/s due to the expansion of the universe.
This document summarizes theories about the formation and evolution of the universe and galaxies. It discusses that according to the Big Bang Theory, the universe was created 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since. Galaxies formed as matter clustered together due to gravitational attraction. Stars formed within galaxies by nuclear fusion, producing heavier elements. When large stars died in supernovae, even heavier elements were created. These elements could provide the raw materials from which planets, and eventually life, developed. The future of humanity within this immense and evolving cosmic landscape remains uncertain.
The document provides information about key concepts in cosmology and astronomy. It defines cosmology as the study of the origin and evolution of the observable universe. It describes the universe as all observable matter and energy, including galaxies, solar systems, and planets. It discusses the Big Bang theory that the universe rapidly expanded from a dense state over 13 billion years ago. It also describes Edwin Hubble's discovery that galaxies are moving away from Earth, supporting the Big Bang theory.
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life over billions of years according to scientific theories. It describes how the universe began with the Big Bang around 14 billion years ago, then galaxies, stars, and planetary systems formed. Around 4.5 billion years ago, Earth formed from accretion in our solar system. Early life emerged around 3.8 billion years ago, evolving into complex organisms over time. The document provides timelines of these cosmic and biological events from the birth of the universe to the present.
3. In the beginning….
• Our Universe began as a very
hot, very dense cloud of high
energy hydrogen plasma
• The “Big Bang” is the finite
point, 13.7 BYA when for
some reason the universe
started to expand in all
directions
• The universe has expanded
and cooled ever since this
point
4. • In the first microseconds after the big bang,
elementary particles (quarks and leptons)
dominated the universe independently
• As the universe cooled, layer upon layer of
structure began to form, first neutrons and
protons atomic nuclei atoms stars
galaxies galaxy clusters
• Our universe is now populated by an
estimated 100 billion galaxies, each with 100
billion stars each of those having planets
orbiting
5. How do we know, why do we
think..
• 1) We know that the universe is
expanding
▫ By looking at the color of distance stars we
can tell whether they are approaching or
receeding
▫ If the color of the star appears blue
(blueshift) then the star is approaching
earth, shortening the wavelengths of light
turning it blue
6. • If the color appears red(redshift) then the
distance between us and the star is
increasing stretching the wavelengths of light
shifting them toward the longer red
wavelengths
• The further the distance between us and the
star the greater the redshift because they are
travelling at higher speeds (Edwin
Hubble,1929)
• This is known as a Doppler wobble or Doppler
shift
8. • 2)Helium and Deuterium is universally
abundant, and predates the formation of
stars.
▫ The only things today beside nuclear bombs
that can create these elements are stars
• 3) Cosmic Background Radiation
▫ When looking at the sky with a radio
telescope, there is a universal “glow” of
microwaves the blankets the universe.
▫ The uniformity indicates one original source
of the radiation, the big bang
http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~yukimoon/BigBang/BigBang.htm
9. Temperature variations of the cosmic background radiation as measured
by WMAP ( difference between colors is 0.0002 Kelvin, average
temperature 2.75 Kelvin)
http://faculty.washington.edu/
10. Home Sweet Home in the Milky
Way
• The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy
• 100,000 light years in diameter
• 1000 light years in thickness
• 100 -400 billion stars
• Oldest star is 13.2 BYO
• We are located 26,000 light years from
the galactic center
• We are spiraling at roughly 552km/s
11. Infrared image of the center of the Milky Way Galaxy taken by the Spitzer Space
Telescope
12. Photograph of the night sky
highlighting our galaxy as the
hazy band of stars across the sky
Our location on one of
the spiral arms
13. Howdy Neighbor..
• The Andromeda Galaxy is our
nearest relative
• It contains roughly 100 trillion
stars
• Located 2,500,000 light-years
away
• 220,000 light-years in diameter
• It is approaching us at roughly
140 km/s and we will collide in
about 2.5 billion years to
possibly form one giant galaxy
15. Twinkle, Twinkly little star…
• Space is thinly filled with gas (H2 & He)
and dust ( carbon & silicon) called
interstellar medium
• In some places the gas and dust collect
into large clouds called nebula- the
birthplace of stars
• The nebula contains pockets of higher
gravity that cause the matter to clump
together, the clumps get bigger and
bigger in a process called accretion
16. • The continued process of accretion will
eventually form a protostar
• The functional life of a star is complicated
balancing act between the gravity pulling
atoms inward and the physical forces
pushing heat and light away from the
center
• When equilibrium is first reached the star
ignites-
▫ if because of temperatures it fails to ignite
it becomes known as a brown dwarf
▫ If it does ignite, nuclear fusion begins to
happen and the star is born
18. Turbulent Gases in the Omega/ Swan
Nebula
The Orion Nebula
http://hubblesite.org
19. • A star spend the majority of its life in what
is known as the main sequence- where it
constantly fuses hydrogen into helium
• Stars constantly contract during their life,
about 50 million years for a medium size
star, increasing the temperature and
pressure inside the star to compensate for
the loss of heat and energy
20. The Death of a Star
• Once the hydrogen fuel source in the core
is gone it will start burning helium.
• The outer shell will burn the last bits of
hydrogen causing the outer shell to
expand aiding in the release of heat from
the core creating a red giant
•
Supernova of a star first seen in
1987 by the Hubble Telescope
21. • The expanding gases will then be cast off
producing one of the following
▫ Small stars- white dwarf ( size of Earth)
and a planetary nebular
▫ Medium stars – supernova producing a
neutron star( size of a city)
▫ Large stars – form black holes
• It is the death of stars that is responsible
for the creation of the heavier elements
White Dwarf in the center of a
planetary nebula, the result of the
death of a smaller star, like ours
http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/
22. The Crab Nebula is a pulsar
wind nebula associated with
a 1054 BCE supernova
24. Another Trip Around the Sun
• From the nebula come not only stars but
also protoplanetary disks of gas and dust
• Our solar system might have formed from
the disruption caused by a nearby
supernova
• Accretion in this disks once again causes
the dust to pile up and it will start to
rotate around the solar center, the center
become the star and the outer bands form
planets
25. • The gravity of the disk pulls heavier
materials toward the center giving way to
rocky planets such as Earth, Venus and
Mars
• Lighter icy materials remained in the outer
reaches of the spiral forming the giant
planets like Jupiter
• From studying meteorites it is believed
that our solar system is 4.6 billion years
old
http://www.windows.ucar.edu
26. A diagram of our solar system
http://www.diagramofsolarsystem.com/
27. • Our Sun
▫ Age- 4.5 billion years old
▫ Distance from Earth-150,000,000 km
▫ Diameter-109x the size of Earth
▫ ( 1,390,000 km)
▫ Mass- 333,000x the mass of Earth
▫ Composition -73 % hydrogen, 25% helium, 2%
other ( carbon, iron, neon, nitrogen, silicon,
magnesium, sulfur)
28. The Inner Planets
• Terrestrial Planets
• Dense rocky compositions
• Few or no moons, no ring systems
• Silicate minerals form their crust
• Iron and nickel cores
• 3 of 4 have atmospheres ( Venus, Earth,
Mars) and weather patterns
• Mercury’s was blown off by stellar winds
30. Asteroid Belt
• Asteroid- small solar system bodies that
orbit the sun
• Located between the planets Mars and
Jupiter
• From a few feet to hundreds of miles wide
▫ It contains over 40,000 rocks over ½ mile
across
32. The Outer Planets
• Gas Giants
• Jupiter and Saturn consist of a large
amount of hydrogen and helium
• Uranus and Neptune possess a greater
proportion of ices ( frozen water,
ammonia, methane)
• All of the gas giants have ring systems but
only Saturn’s is observable from earth
36. Earth-Sun, Like peas in a pod
• The Earth’s orbit around the sun is called
a revolution, this revolution takes 365.26
days
• Hence every four years we have a leap
year to catch up
• The orbit is elliptical, causing our distance
from the sun to vary, and our energy from
the sun fluctuates by about 6%
37. Round and Round we go..
• On January 3rd
the Earth is closest to the
sun(147.3 million Km), this is called the
perihelion
• On July 4th
the Earth is the farthest from
the sun(152.1 million Km), this is called
the aphelion
• The average distance from the sun is
149.6 million Km
39. • There are two major events in the Earth’s
orbits- the solstice and the equinox
• The solstices occur in the winter (Dec
21/22) and in the summer (June 21/22)
• The equinoxes occur in the spring (Vernal,
March 20/21) and the fall (Autumnal,
Sept. 22/23)
• During the equinoxes there are 12 hours
of day/12 hours of night
• The summer solstice is the longest day of
the year
40. You spin me right round…
• The Earth rotates on an axis, and
imaginary line that runs through the poles
of the Earth
• Earth’s axis is not completely vertical, it is
tilted 23.5o
from perpendicular
• It is the relationship between Earth’s tilt
and its orbital revolution that creates the
seasons
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6h.html
44. How the tilt of the Earth affects which hemisphere is
facing the sun
45. • Earth is actually closest to the sun in the
winter time, and furthest away in the
summer
• When it is summer in the northern
hemisphere then it is winter in the
southern hemisphere
46. Round and Round..
• The Earth rotates east to
west, or counter-
clockwise (when viewed
from the North Pole)
• The rotation of the Earth
takes approx. 24 hours
47. • Seasonal effects on the Earth
▫ Changes in solar altitude
▫ Changes in day length
▫ Changes in apparent solar intensity
▫ Changes in temperature
• Changes in the seasons are the most
extreme at the poles and minimized at the
equator
49. Light from the sun
• Solar Radiation is received in parallel rays of
energy
• Insolation- the measurement of solar energy
received on a given surface( Earth)
• Commonly expressed as the average
irradiance, W/ m2
or kWh/(m2
*day)
• Intensity of incoming solar radiation
(insolation) is related to angle of incidence.
Higher angles = higher intensity
50. • The sun irradiates 63,000,000 W/ m2
• Depending on distance and size of an
object, we can calculate the amount of
energy that we receive
51. A 1 mi sunbeam striking
the Earth at 90o
disperses
it energy over 1mi of
surface, while a sunbeam
striking at 30o
spreads the
energy over a surface
area of 2 miles
52. • At the top of the atmosphere- 1,366 W/
m2
of energy is received (2 billionths )
• Atmospheric phenomena such as clouds
and weather patterns affect the amount of
solar energy that reaches the surface
• Geographic location, time of day and
landscape can also affect the amount of
energy received
• Perpendicular locations receive roughly
1000 W/ m2
on a clear day
• Earth’s average insolation is 250 W/ m2
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Solar_radiation
55. Earth’s energy budget
• 30% of the sun’s energy is reflected by
the atmosphere and the surface
• 19 % is absorbed by the clouds and
atmosphere itself, an reradiated back into
space
• 51% of the energy is absorbed by the
landscape and oceans to warm it
• 70% of the total energy we receive is
reradiated back into space
• 0.023 % of that energy is used for
Photosynthesis to fuel the food chain
59. Time after time
• The geologic time scale is broken up into
several pieces
▫ Eons ( 4 total, ½ billion years or more)
▫ Era (12 total, several hundred million
years)
▫ Periods (defines periods of life)
▫ Epochs( tens of million years)
▫ Age ( millions of years)
64. Time after time..
• Hadean Eon 4.6-4.0 BYA
▫ Formation of the Earth’s crust and
bombardment by comets and asteroids
• Archean Eon 4.0-2.5 BYA
▫ First life appears, plate tectonics
established, oxygen poor atmosphere
• Proterozoic Eon 2.5 BYA – 542MYA
▫ First multicellular animals toward the end, 4
major mountain building episodes
(orogeny) [ Grenville & Pan-African] and
the oldest known and most severe
glaciation event
65. • Phanerozoic Eon 542 MYA-present
• Paleozoic Era 542-252MYA
▫ Cambrian Period- Began with the
Cambrian explosion, first skeletonized
animals
▫ Ordovician Period- ended with a mass
extinction
▫ Silurian Period-estuarine, freshwater and
terrestrial ecosystems developm, major
terrestrial life
▫ Devonian Period- age of fishes, first land
vertebrates, diversification of the vascular
plants
66. ▫ Mississippian Period-first terrestrial
tetrapods
▫ Pennsylvanian Period-”coal age”-major
plant fossils that make up the major coal
seams
▫ Permian Period- the end of this era is
marked by the most extensive mass
extinction in the past 600 million years
rise of dinosaurs and modern critters, lots
of insects, major dominance of coniferous
plants
67. • Mesozoic Era 252-65.5 MYA
▫ Triassic Period –recovery from previous
mass extinction, rise of the dinosaurs, early
mammals, first coral reefs
▫ Jurassic Period – “Age of the Dinosaurs”,
first birds(aves), first parasites
▫ Cretaceous Period- extinction of the
dinosaurs, birth of the angiosperms
68. • Cenozoic Era 65.5MYA – present
• Paleogene Period
▫ Paleocene Epoch – “Age of Mammals”
begins, seeded vascular plants dominant
▫ Eocene Epoch –maximum extent or warm
and tropical vegetation, evolution of marine
mammals
▫ Oligocene Epoch- appearance of most of
the still living mammal families
69. • Neogene Period
▫ Miocene Epoch – most of the extant
marine invertebrates exist, major ocean
circulations form, seasonal climates
dominate the north hemisphere
▫ Pleistocene Epoch- human geographic
expansion and cultural development, first
major human-influenced extinctions
▫ Halocene Epoch- present day- climate
warming following the last ice age,
continents drying out, polar regions
contract, plant communities change with
climate
http://paleobiology.si.edu/geotime/main/
71. Welcome to Earth, third rock
from the sun..
• Earth is the fifth largest planet and the
largest terrestrial planet
• The shape of the Earth is an oblate
spheroid-”squished ball”
• The diameter across the equator is 43 km
larger than the pole to pole diameter
▫ Diameter is roughly 12,742km
• Mass = 5.98 x1024
kg
73. • Chemical composition-
▫ 32.1 % Iron
▫ 30.1 % Oxygen
▫ 15.1 % Silicon
▫ 13.9 % Magnesium
▫ 2.9 % Sulfur
▫ 1.8 % Nickel
▫ 1.5% Calcium
▫ 1.4% Aluminum
▫ 1.2% Other trace elements
75. • The Earth has several layers
▫ The Crust- the hard outer shell
Thin and floating on molten mantle
(Lithosphere)
Two main types Oceanic (6-11km) and
Continental (30 km)
Broken up into several large plates called
tectonic plates
▫ The Mantle
Begins between 10-30km below the crust
2,900km thick, 80% of the Earth’s Volume
Divided into the inner and outer mantle
76. Outer mantle (10-300km) 1,400 - 3,000o
C
Molten rock, part closest to crust is thicker and
slower moving, plastic-like consistency
(Asthenosphere)
Inner mantle (300-2,890km), 3000o
C
• The Core
• Found 2,900km below the surface
• Dense ball of iron and nickel
• Two layers
• Outer core-molten metal, 2,200km thick
-Rotates around the inner
core and creates Earth’s
Magnetic field
• Inner core- solid due to pressures, even
though its 3,700o
C , 1,250km thick
http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm
80. • The Earth is also divided up into four
spheres
▫ Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
the Atmosphere
81. • Lithosphere-”rocky sphere” the
outermost portion that provides a platform
for life, contains the crust and the
uppermost portion of the mantle
▫ The asthenosphere is located just
underneath- moves the tectonic plates
• Hydrosphere-”water sphere” the liquid
realm of the Earth, principally the mass of
water in the worlds oceans
▫ 70% of the surface is covered with water
▫ 366.3 trillion gallons
82. • Biosphere-” Life sphere” Most of the
biosphere is contained within a thin layer
of the planet called the life layer
▫ Overlaps with all of the other spheres
▫ 2200-4000 Gigatons of Biomass (2.2-4
Trillion tons)
• Atmosphere-” Air sphere” The gaseous
layer that surrounds the Earth. It supplies
some of the basic features that support
and sustain life on this planet
▫ 4 Major layers, 99% is Nitrogen and
Oxygen
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/mearth.html
83. Mapping our planet..
• The Equator divides the world into
Northern and Southern Hemispheres
• Latitude-angular measurement of the
distance north or south of the Equator
▫ Range: 0-90o
N or S
▫ 1o
is roughly 69 miles on the surface
• Parallels of Latitude - Imaginary lines that
connect points of equal latitude, thus
slicing the earth into equal “layers” like on
a wedding cake
86. • The Prime Meridian divides the world into
eastern and western hemispheres
• Longitude the angular measurement of
distance east or west of the Prime
Meridian or Greenwich Meridian.
▫ Range: 0-180o
E or W
89. Geographic Grid
• The combination of longitude and latitude
that makes every point on this Earth
easily identifiable and locatable
90. World Address of Major Cities
Berlin, Germany
Beijing, China
Paris, France
Moscow, Russia
London, England
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
91. World Address of Major Cities
Berlin, Germany -52.9o
N 12.5o
E
Beijing, China – 39.95o
N 116.5o
E
Paris, France – 48.8o
N 2.25o
E
Moscow, Russia – 55.8o
N 37.6o
E
London, England – 51.5o
N 0.1o
W
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 22.95o
S 43.2o
W
92. Map Projections
• Mapping the surface of the Earth is
difficult because it is round and maps are
typically flat
• 3 major types of map projections are used
▫ Conic
▫ Cylindrical/Mercator
▫ Azimuthal
95. • Conic Projections
▫ Good for northern/ southern locations
distorts near the edges-equator
• Mercator Projections
▫ Good for equatorial locations but distorts
near the poles
• Azimuthal /Planar
▫ Limited scope or area covered, but
preserved the ideas of direction on the map
97. River Deep, Mountain High
• Geomorphology-the scientific study of
landforms and the processes that shape
them
98. Water, water everywhere..
• Oceans
▫ Arctic Ocean
Smallest and most shallow, Partially covered
in sea ice, temp and salinity vary, least salty
of all oceans
▫ Atlantic Ocean
Second largest, 25% of water area, currently
growing, Divided into north and south Atlantic
by equator
▫ Indian Ocean
Third largest, 20% of water area, begins at
the 20o
E meridian
99. ▫ Pacific Ocean
Divided up into the north and south pacific
Largest ocean, and deepest ocean
Currently shrinking
▫ Southern/ Antarctic Ocean
Fourth largest ocean, completely surrounds
Antarctica
101. • Sea of Okhotsk
• Sea of Japan
• Hudson Bay
• East China
• Andaman
• Black Sea
• Red Sea
• South China Sea
• Caribbean Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• Bering Sea
• Gulf of Mexico
• Arabian sea
Major Seas
103. Major Mountain Ranges
• Himalayas
▫ Highest mountain range, “land of snow”,
located in southern Asia, between India and
southern Asia, one of the youngest mtn
ranges- Mt Everest- 29,029ft tall
• Alps
▫ Located in south central Europe, one of the
largest and highest mtn ranges, 750 miles
long- Mont Blanc 15.771 ft
104. • Andes
▫ Located in South America, runs north to south
along western edge of continent
• Rockies
▫ Vast system in western North America,
stretches from Canada to New Mexico, about
3000 miles long-Mount Elbert-14,440 ft
105. Mtn Ranges by Continent (don’t copy)
• Antarctica:
▫ Antarctic Peninsula,
Transantarctic Mountains
▫ The highest mountain,
Vinson Massif in the
Ellsworth Mountains,
peaks at 4897 m.
• Africa:
▫ Atlas, Eastern African
Highlands, Ethiopian
Highlands
• Asia:
▫ Hindu Kush, Himalayas,
Taurus, Elburz, Japanese
Mountains
• Australia:
▫ MacDonnell Mountains
• Europe:
▫ Pyrenees, Alps,
Carpathians, Apennines,
Urals, Balkan Mountains
106. • North America:
▫ Appalachians, Sierra
Nevada, Rocky
Mountains, Laurentides
• South America:
▫ Andes, Brazilian
Highlands
118. Major River Systems
• North American
▫ St Lawrence-2350 mi long, follows a fault
line and drains the Great Lakes
▫ Rio Grande
▫ Colorado- 1450 miles long, cut the largest
canyon system in the world including the
Grand Canyon
▫ Hudson- 315 mi long, serves New York and
can be navigated beyond the mtns
▫ Mississippi River – 3,870 miles long, 1.25
million mi2 drainage, longest river flowing
southward, 25 major cities located on it
banks
123. • South America
▫ Amazon – 3,920 miles long, 2.3 mi2
drainage, largest basin in the world,
greatest flow (180,000 m3)
126. • African
▫ Nile- 4,180 mi long, 1.7 million mi2
drainage, White and Blue Nile tributaries,
Egyptians Agricultural is dependent upon
seasonal flooding, flows north
▫ Congo – 2900 mi long, 1.4 mil mi2
drainage, longest river flowing westward,
crosses the equator twice
▫ Zambezi – 2,200 mi long, 548,000 mi2
drainage, flows over Victoria falls
128. • Asian
▫ Tiger & Euphrates -1795 mi long, home
of ancient Mesopotamia, serves major Iraqi
cities
▫ Yangtze (Chang Jiang) – 3964 mi
long,698,000 mi2 drainage, the lifeline of
China
▫ Yellow (Huang He) -3,395 miles long,
290,000 mi2 drainage, some of the river is
higher than the surrounding area
▫ Ganges- 1560 mi long, sacred river of
India
131. • European
▫ Danube – 1,176 mi long, 320,000 mi2
drainage
▫ Rhine- 820 mi long, commercially the most
important river of Europe
135. • Inside the geographic divide, all of the
water in an area will eventually flow into
one river channel
• The very small streams that first collect
water at the source of the river are called
headwaters
• Headwater tributaries are ranked by size,
1st
order are the smallest, when they
combine they form 2nd
order streams, that
will eventually come together and form 3rd
order streams, so on and so on…
139. • Rivers channels are typically made up of
a stream bed, with banks on either side,
outside of the river banks are called flood
plains
• The edge of the floodplain where the
land and the stream meet is called a
riparian zone or area
• It is usually lined with riparian
vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic
plants.
• These areas are important because they
help prevent erosion, aiding in soil
conservation. This is because they buffer
the effects of fast moving flood waters
142. • Where the water pours out of a river
channel into a larger body of water is
called a delta
• The delta is where all of the sediment that
is suspended in a stream dumps out, as
the water slows
147. Types of Rivers
▫ Youthful Rivers
A river with steep gradient, few tributaries
and a rapid flow, the channel is usually deep
and narrow
▫ Mature Rivers
Less steep gradient, flows more slowly. Many
tributaries and higher discharge. Channel
becomes wider with time
▫ Old Rivers
River with a low gradient and very little
erosion, usually have extensive flood plains
▫ Rejuvenated Rivers
A river that has be lifted by tectonic uplift
149. Plate Tectonics
• Theory was developed to explain large
scale motions of Earth’s lithosphere
• Developed by Alfred Wegener
• Very important because it maintains the
balance of carbon in the environment
• Earth’s crust is broken up into several
major plates(7-8) and various secondary
plates
• Continental Drift + Sea Floor Spreading +
data = Theory of Plate Tectonics
153. Evidence for Plate Tectonics
• Puzzle like fit of the continents
• Fossil Distribution, Geologic similarities on
opposing shores
• Sea-Floor Polarity patterns
• Age of sea floor
159. • The lithospheric plates ride around on the
asthenosphere- plastic-like layer of the
upper mantle
• Plates interact with one another at 1 of 3
types of plate boundaries
▫ Convergent –collision boundaries where
plates move toward each other
▫ Divergent –where the plates are moving
away from one another
▫ Transform boundaries- where plates slide
past each other, side to side
161. Plate Boundaries
• Convergent Boundaries
▫ Ocean-Ocean
one plate(typically the older one) will subduct
under the other volcanic island arc
▫ Ocean-Continental
The oceanic plate will subduct under the
continental plate melt volcanic arc &
trench
▫ Continental-Continental
Neither plate will subduct plates begin to
fold and crumble mountain ranges
163. Mariana Trench – deepest part of
the world’s oceans
2550 km long, 70 km wide
Challenger Deep
11,033 meters deep (36,000 ft)
If Mt. Everest was set in the bottom
it would be covered by 6000 ft of
water