Mobile ad-hoc networks have frequent host and topology changes with no cellular infrastructure and require multi-hop wireless links for data transmission between nodes. Routing protocols must discover routes between nodes that may not be directly connected. Table-driven protocols like Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) and Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) maintain up-to-date routing tables through periodic broadcasts but generate significant control overhead. DSDV uses sequence numbers to distinguish stale routes and avoid loops while WRP maintains four tables for routing information.
This document discusses reactive routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), focusing on the Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol. It describes how AODV works by broadcasting Route Request packets when a route is needed, and nodes responding with Route Reply packets if they have a valid route. Intermediate nodes store the address of previous nodes to forward packets. The document outlines the key components of Route Request and Route Reply packets, and notes advantages of AODV such as on-demand route establishment and use of destination sequence numbers, with drawbacks including control overhead and bandwidth consumption from periodic beaconing.
The document discusses on-demand driven reactive routing protocols. It provides an overview of table-driven vs on-demand routing protocols and describes two popular on-demand protocols - Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) in detail. DSR uses source routing by adding the complete route to packet headers. AODV maintains routing tables at nodes and relies on dynamically establishing next hop information for routes.
This document summarizes several reactive routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Reactive protocols create routes only when needed by a source. Dynamic Source Routing uses route requests and replies to find paths, while Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm builds and maintains a directed acyclic graph rooted at destinations. Some protocols aim to improve quality of service or support real-time data streams through techniques like bandwidth estimation and mobility prediction. Source Routing with Local Recovery reduces overhead by allowing intermediate nodes to perform local error recovery using route caches when possible.
This document discusses different types of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks. It begins by classifying routing protocols into four categories: proactive (table-driven), reactive (on-demand), hybrid, and geographic location-assisted. It then provides more details on proactive protocols like DSDV, and reactive protocols like DSR and AODV. For DSDV, it describes how routing tables are regularly exchanged and updated when link breaks occur. For DSR and AODV, it explains how routes are discovered on-demand via route requests and replies. Key differences between DSR and AODV are also summarized.
The document discusses several MAC protocols for ad hoc networks including MACA, MACAW, and PAMAS. MACA uses RTS and CTS packets to avoid collisions but does not provide ACK. MACAW is a revision of MACA that includes ACK. It significantly increases throughput but does not fully solve hidden and exposed terminal problems. PAMAS uses a separate signaling channel for RTS-CTS and a data channel. It allows nodes to power down transceivers when not transmitting to save energy.
Lecture 19 22. transport protocol for ad-hoc Chandra Meena
This document discusses transport layer protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with an introduction to MANETs and the need for new network architectures and protocols to support new types of networks. It then provides an overview of TCP/IP and how TCP works, including congestion control mechanisms. The document discusses challenges for TCP over wireless networks, where packet losses are often due to errors rather than congestion. It covers different versions of TCP and their approaches to congestion control. The goal is to design transport layer protocols that can address the unreliable links and frequent topology changes in MANETs.
This document discusses reactive routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), focusing on the Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol. It describes how AODV works by broadcasting Route Request packets when a route is needed, and nodes responding with Route Reply packets if they have a valid route. Intermediate nodes store the address of previous nodes to forward packets. The document outlines the key components of Route Request and Route Reply packets, and notes advantages of AODV such as on-demand route establishment and use of destination sequence numbers, with drawbacks including control overhead and bandwidth consumption from periodic beaconing.
The document discusses on-demand driven reactive routing protocols. It provides an overview of table-driven vs on-demand routing protocols and describes two popular on-demand protocols - Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) in detail. DSR uses source routing by adding the complete route to packet headers. AODV maintains routing tables at nodes and relies on dynamically establishing next hop information for routes.
This document summarizes several reactive routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Reactive protocols create routes only when needed by a source. Dynamic Source Routing uses route requests and replies to find paths, while Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm builds and maintains a directed acyclic graph rooted at destinations. Some protocols aim to improve quality of service or support real-time data streams through techniques like bandwidth estimation and mobility prediction. Source Routing with Local Recovery reduces overhead by allowing intermediate nodes to perform local error recovery using route caches when possible.
This document discusses different types of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks. It begins by classifying routing protocols into four categories: proactive (table-driven), reactive (on-demand), hybrid, and geographic location-assisted. It then provides more details on proactive protocols like DSDV, and reactive protocols like DSR and AODV. For DSDV, it describes how routing tables are regularly exchanged and updated when link breaks occur. For DSR and AODV, it explains how routes are discovered on-demand via route requests and replies. Key differences between DSR and AODV are also summarized.
The document discusses several MAC protocols for ad hoc networks including MACA, MACAW, and PAMAS. MACA uses RTS and CTS packets to avoid collisions but does not provide ACK. MACAW is a revision of MACA that includes ACK. It significantly increases throughput but does not fully solve hidden and exposed terminal problems. PAMAS uses a separate signaling channel for RTS-CTS and a data channel. It allows nodes to power down transceivers when not transmitting to save energy.
Lecture 19 22. transport protocol for ad-hoc Chandra Meena
This document discusses transport layer protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with an introduction to MANETs and the need for new network architectures and protocols to support new types of networks. It then provides an overview of TCP/IP and how TCP works, including congestion control mechanisms. The document discusses challenges for TCP over wireless networks, where packet losses are often due to errors rather than congestion. It covers different versions of TCP and their approaches to congestion control. The goal is to design transport layer protocols that can address the unreliable links and frequent topology changes in MANETs.
Routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks Divya Tiwari
The document discusses routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. It outlines several key challenges for these protocols, including mobility, bandwidth constraints, error-prone shared wireless channels, and hidden/exposed terminal problems. It also categorizes routing protocols based on how routing information is updated (proactively, reactively, or through a hybrid approach), whether they use past or future temporal network information, the type of network topology supported (flat or hierarchical), and how they account for specific resources like power.
The document discusses ad-hoc networks and their key characteristics. It describes several challenges in ad-hoc networks including limited battery power, dynamic network topology, and scalability issues. It also summarizes several ad-hoc network routing protocols (e.g. DSDV, AODV, DSR), addressing both table-driven and on-demand approaches. Additionally, it outlines some ad-hoc MAC protocols like MACA and PAMAS that aim to manage shared wireless medium access.
This document discusses medium access control (MAC) protocols, which regulate access to a shared wireless medium between nodes. It covers key requirements for MAC protocols including throughput efficiency, fairness, and low overhead. It also describes challenges like the hidden terminal problem, exposed terminal problem, and sources of overhead from collisions, overhearing, and idle listening. Finally, it categorizes common MAC protocols as fixed assignment, demand assignment, and random access and notes additional energy conservation requirements for wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) which provides reliable, connection-oriented data transmission over the internet. TCP establishes a virtual connection between endpoints, ensuring reliable delivery through mechanisms like positive acknowledgement and retransmission. It uses a sliding window algorithm to guarantee reliable and in-order delivery while enforcing flow control between sender and receiver. Key aspects of TCP include connection establishment and termination, port numbers, segments, headers, and addressing end-to-end issues over heterogeneous networks.
Lecture 7 8 ad hoc wireless media access protocolsChandra Meena
1) The document discusses issues with media access control (MAC) protocols in ad hoc wireless networks, including problems like hidden terminals and exposed nodes.
2) It classifies MAC protocols as synchronous, asynchronous, receiver-initiated, or sender-initiated. The RTS-CTS handshake is presented as a solution to the hidden terminal problem.
3) However, the RTS-CTS approach has shortcomings like collisions when RTS and CTS messages are sent by different nodes or when multiple CTS messages are granted. Solutions to the exposed node problem are also discussed.
The document discusses several routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks:
- DSR allows nodes to cache and share routing information for more efficient routing but has larger packet headers due to source routing. AODV uses only next hop information, keeping routing tables smaller.
- Both protocols use route discovery and maintenance, but AODV proactively refreshes routes while DSR reacts to failures. AODV also uses sequence numbers to prevent loops and choose fresher routes.
- Overall, DSR is better for networks where routes change infrequently while AODV scales better and maintains only active routes, at the cost of higher routing overhead during route discovery. Security remains a challenge for both protocols.
Global State Routing (GSR) maintains a global knowledge of network topology like link state routing but avoids inefficient flooding. Each node periodically exchanges its link state table only with neighbors, not the entire network. This reduces overhead compared to link state routing. GSR nodes use Dijkstra's algorithm on the accumulated link state information to compute optimal paths locally without global flooding.
This document provides notes on ad hoc networks from R N S Institute of Technology. It begins with an introduction comparing cellular and ad hoc wireless networks. Ad hoc networks are infrastructureless networks that use multi-hop radio relaying. The document then discusses applications of ad hoc networks such as military operations, emergency response, wireless mesh networks, and wireless sensor networks. It also covers key issues in ad hoc networks including medium access, routing, multicasting, and energy management. The first unit focuses on these introductory concepts and applications of ad hoc networks.
This document discusses different types of routing protocols. It describes static routing protocols where routes are manually configured by an administrator. It then covers dynamic routing protocols which automatically update routing tables. The main dynamic routing protocols covered are RIP, RIPv2, IGRP, and EIGRP. RIP is a distance vector protocol that exchanges full routing tables every 30 seconds. RIPv2, IGRP, and EIGRP are also discussed with their key characteristics.
How to put these nodes together to form a meaningful network.
How a network should function at high-level application scenarios .
On the basis of these scenarios and optimization goals, the design of networking protocols in wireless sensor networks are derived
A proper service interface is required and integration of WSNs into larger network contexts.
This document discusses routing and multicast protocols at the MAC, routing, and application layers. It describes key modules like transmission, receiving, and neighbor list handling at the MAC layer. At the routing layer, it discusses unicast and multicast routing tables, forwarding, tree construction, and session maintenance. The application layer handles data transmission, multicast session initiation and termination, and route repair. It also compares source tree and shared tree approaches, and soft state and hard state maintenance mechanisms.
Mac protocols for ad hoc wireless networks Divya Tiwari
The document discusses MAC protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. It addresses key issues in designing MAC protocols including limited bandwidth, quality of service support, synchronization, hidden and exposed terminal problems, error-prone shared channels, distributed coordination without centralized control, and node mobility. Common MAC protocol classifications and examples are also presented, such as contention-based protocols, sender-initiated versus receiver-initiated protocols, and protocols using techniques like reservation, scheduling, and directional antennas.
The document summarizes contention-based MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks. It discusses the PAMAS protocol, which provides detailed overhearing avoidance and uses two channels - a data channel and control channel. Signaling packets like RTS, CTS, and busy tones are transmitted on the control channel. It also covers concepts like low duty cycles, wake up mechanisms, and protocols like S-MAC that coordinate node schedules to reduce idle listening. Quizzes are included to test understanding of discussed concepts.
Fast Ethernet increased the bandwidth of standard Ethernet from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. It used the same CSMA/CD access method and frame format as standard Ethernet but with some changes to address the higher speed. Fast Ethernet was implemented over twisted pair cables using 100BASE-TX or over fiber optic cables using 100BASE-FX. The increased speed enabled Fast Ethernet to compete with other high-speed LAN technologies of the time like FDDI.
Lecture 23 27. quality of services in ad hoc wireless networksChandra Meena
The document discusses quality of service (QoS) in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It covers several key topics:
1) The challenges of providing QoS in MANETs due to their dynamic and decentralized nature.
2) Different approaches to QoS classification and provisioning at various network layers. This includes MAC layer solutions like IEEE 802.11e and network layer solutions like QoS-aware routing protocols.
3) Specific QoS routing protocols discussed, including ticket-based, predictive location-based, and trigger-based distributed protocols.
When network congestion occurs, routers become overloaded and either cannot forward packets fast enough or must discard queued packets to make room for new arrivals. Congestion is caused by packet arrival rates exceeding link capacity, insufficient memory, bursty traffic, or slow processors. Congestion control aims to efficiently use the network at high load and involves all routers and hosts, while flow control operates point-to-point between sender and receiver. Congestion control techniques include warning bits, choke packets, load shedding, random early discard, and traffic shaping to detect, recover from, and avoid congestion.
Routing protocols are essential for wireless sensor networks to efficiently transmit collected sensor data to data sinks. The document discusses several challenges in designing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks and surveys different routing techniques including flat, hierarchical, and geographic routing. It provides LEACH and PEGASIS as examples of hierarchical routing protocols that use clustering and data aggregation to reduce energy consumption.
IP multicast is a method of sending Internet Protocol (IP) datagrams to a group of interested receivers in a single transmission. It is often employed for streaming media applications on the Internet and private networks.(wikipedia)
This document discusses and compares two routing protocols: distance vector routing and link state routing. Distance vector routing involves each node sharing its routing table only with its neighbors, while link state routing involves each node having knowledge of the entire network topology. The document outlines the working principles, drawbacks like count to infinity, and pros and cons of each approach.
DQDB is a dual bus communication protocol standard for metropolitan area networks. It uses two unidirectional logical buses to transmit data in opposite directions and each station is connected to both buses. A distributed queue mechanism is used where each station maintains independent queues for each bus to transmit data on a first-come, first-served basis and ensure fairness.
Abstract— A MANETs is a self-configuring network is a collection of mobile hosts that are connected via a wireless link. Opportunistic data forwarding has drawn much attention in the research community of multihop wireless networks. Opportunistic data forwarding is the lack of an efficient, lightweight proactive routing scheme with strong source routing capability. In this project proposed to a lightweight proactive source routing (PSR) protocol. PSR can be maintained at different network topology information than distance vector (DV), link state (LS), optimized link State routing (OLSR), then reactive source routing [e.g., dynamic source routing (DSR)]. In this project concentrate on reducing the overhead at the base line protocols, then testing to the better data transportation. Network Simulator (NS-2) help in testing and implementing to this project for effectively reduced to the overhead in the data transportation.
Study of Attacks and Routing Protocol in Wireless Networkijsrd.com
Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) are attractive as a new communication paradigm. Ad hoc routing protocols for WMNs are classified into: (1) proactive, (2) reactive, and (3) hybrid approaches. In general, proactive routing is more suitable for a stationary network, while reactive routing is better for a mobile network with a high mobility. In many applications, a node in WMN is mobile but it can fluctuate between being mobile. Wireless mesh networks is an emergent research area, which is becoming important due to the growing amount of nodes in a network.
Routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks Divya Tiwari
The document discusses routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. It outlines several key challenges for these protocols, including mobility, bandwidth constraints, error-prone shared wireless channels, and hidden/exposed terminal problems. It also categorizes routing protocols based on how routing information is updated (proactively, reactively, or through a hybrid approach), whether they use past or future temporal network information, the type of network topology supported (flat or hierarchical), and how they account for specific resources like power.
The document discusses ad-hoc networks and their key characteristics. It describes several challenges in ad-hoc networks including limited battery power, dynamic network topology, and scalability issues. It also summarizes several ad-hoc network routing protocols (e.g. DSDV, AODV, DSR), addressing both table-driven and on-demand approaches. Additionally, it outlines some ad-hoc MAC protocols like MACA and PAMAS that aim to manage shared wireless medium access.
This document discusses medium access control (MAC) protocols, which regulate access to a shared wireless medium between nodes. It covers key requirements for MAC protocols including throughput efficiency, fairness, and low overhead. It also describes challenges like the hidden terminal problem, exposed terminal problem, and sources of overhead from collisions, overhearing, and idle listening. Finally, it categorizes common MAC protocols as fixed assignment, demand assignment, and random access and notes additional energy conservation requirements for wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) which provides reliable, connection-oriented data transmission over the internet. TCP establishes a virtual connection between endpoints, ensuring reliable delivery through mechanisms like positive acknowledgement and retransmission. It uses a sliding window algorithm to guarantee reliable and in-order delivery while enforcing flow control between sender and receiver. Key aspects of TCP include connection establishment and termination, port numbers, segments, headers, and addressing end-to-end issues over heterogeneous networks.
Lecture 7 8 ad hoc wireless media access protocolsChandra Meena
1) The document discusses issues with media access control (MAC) protocols in ad hoc wireless networks, including problems like hidden terminals and exposed nodes.
2) It classifies MAC protocols as synchronous, asynchronous, receiver-initiated, or sender-initiated. The RTS-CTS handshake is presented as a solution to the hidden terminal problem.
3) However, the RTS-CTS approach has shortcomings like collisions when RTS and CTS messages are sent by different nodes or when multiple CTS messages are granted. Solutions to the exposed node problem are also discussed.
The document discusses several routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks:
- DSR allows nodes to cache and share routing information for more efficient routing but has larger packet headers due to source routing. AODV uses only next hop information, keeping routing tables smaller.
- Both protocols use route discovery and maintenance, but AODV proactively refreshes routes while DSR reacts to failures. AODV also uses sequence numbers to prevent loops and choose fresher routes.
- Overall, DSR is better for networks where routes change infrequently while AODV scales better and maintains only active routes, at the cost of higher routing overhead during route discovery. Security remains a challenge for both protocols.
Global State Routing (GSR) maintains a global knowledge of network topology like link state routing but avoids inefficient flooding. Each node periodically exchanges its link state table only with neighbors, not the entire network. This reduces overhead compared to link state routing. GSR nodes use Dijkstra's algorithm on the accumulated link state information to compute optimal paths locally without global flooding.
This document provides notes on ad hoc networks from R N S Institute of Technology. It begins with an introduction comparing cellular and ad hoc wireless networks. Ad hoc networks are infrastructureless networks that use multi-hop radio relaying. The document then discusses applications of ad hoc networks such as military operations, emergency response, wireless mesh networks, and wireless sensor networks. It also covers key issues in ad hoc networks including medium access, routing, multicasting, and energy management. The first unit focuses on these introductory concepts and applications of ad hoc networks.
This document discusses different types of routing protocols. It describes static routing protocols where routes are manually configured by an administrator. It then covers dynamic routing protocols which automatically update routing tables. The main dynamic routing protocols covered are RIP, RIPv2, IGRP, and EIGRP. RIP is a distance vector protocol that exchanges full routing tables every 30 seconds. RIPv2, IGRP, and EIGRP are also discussed with their key characteristics.
How to put these nodes together to form a meaningful network.
How a network should function at high-level application scenarios .
On the basis of these scenarios and optimization goals, the design of networking protocols in wireless sensor networks are derived
A proper service interface is required and integration of WSNs into larger network contexts.
This document discusses routing and multicast protocols at the MAC, routing, and application layers. It describes key modules like transmission, receiving, and neighbor list handling at the MAC layer. At the routing layer, it discusses unicast and multicast routing tables, forwarding, tree construction, and session maintenance. The application layer handles data transmission, multicast session initiation and termination, and route repair. It also compares source tree and shared tree approaches, and soft state and hard state maintenance mechanisms.
Mac protocols for ad hoc wireless networks Divya Tiwari
The document discusses MAC protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. It addresses key issues in designing MAC protocols including limited bandwidth, quality of service support, synchronization, hidden and exposed terminal problems, error-prone shared channels, distributed coordination without centralized control, and node mobility. Common MAC protocol classifications and examples are also presented, such as contention-based protocols, sender-initiated versus receiver-initiated protocols, and protocols using techniques like reservation, scheduling, and directional antennas.
The document summarizes contention-based MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks. It discusses the PAMAS protocol, which provides detailed overhearing avoidance and uses two channels - a data channel and control channel. Signaling packets like RTS, CTS, and busy tones are transmitted on the control channel. It also covers concepts like low duty cycles, wake up mechanisms, and protocols like S-MAC that coordinate node schedules to reduce idle listening. Quizzes are included to test understanding of discussed concepts.
Fast Ethernet increased the bandwidth of standard Ethernet from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. It used the same CSMA/CD access method and frame format as standard Ethernet but with some changes to address the higher speed. Fast Ethernet was implemented over twisted pair cables using 100BASE-TX or over fiber optic cables using 100BASE-FX. The increased speed enabled Fast Ethernet to compete with other high-speed LAN technologies of the time like FDDI.
Lecture 23 27. quality of services in ad hoc wireless networksChandra Meena
The document discusses quality of service (QoS) in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It covers several key topics:
1) The challenges of providing QoS in MANETs due to their dynamic and decentralized nature.
2) Different approaches to QoS classification and provisioning at various network layers. This includes MAC layer solutions like IEEE 802.11e and network layer solutions like QoS-aware routing protocols.
3) Specific QoS routing protocols discussed, including ticket-based, predictive location-based, and trigger-based distributed protocols.
When network congestion occurs, routers become overloaded and either cannot forward packets fast enough or must discard queued packets to make room for new arrivals. Congestion is caused by packet arrival rates exceeding link capacity, insufficient memory, bursty traffic, or slow processors. Congestion control aims to efficiently use the network at high load and involves all routers and hosts, while flow control operates point-to-point between sender and receiver. Congestion control techniques include warning bits, choke packets, load shedding, random early discard, and traffic shaping to detect, recover from, and avoid congestion.
Routing protocols are essential for wireless sensor networks to efficiently transmit collected sensor data to data sinks. The document discusses several challenges in designing routing protocols for wireless sensor networks and surveys different routing techniques including flat, hierarchical, and geographic routing. It provides LEACH and PEGASIS as examples of hierarchical routing protocols that use clustering and data aggregation to reduce energy consumption.
IP multicast is a method of sending Internet Protocol (IP) datagrams to a group of interested receivers in a single transmission. It is often employed for streaming media applications on the Internet and private networks.(wikipedia)
This document discusses and compares two routing protocols: distance vector routing and link state routing. Distance vector routing involves each node sharing its routing table only with its neighbors, while link state routing involves each node having knowledge of the entire network topology. The document outlines the working principles, drawbacks like count to infinity, and pros and cons of each approach.
DQDB is a dual bus communication protocol standard for metropolitan area networks. It uses two unidirectional logical buses to transmit data in opposite directions and each station is connected to both buses. A distributed queue mechanism is used where each station maintains independent queues for each bus to transmit data on a first-come, first-served basis and ensure fairness.
Abstract— A MANETs is a self-configuring network is a collection of mobile hosts that are connected via a wireless link. Opportunistic data forwarding has drawn much attention in the research community of multihop wireless networks. Opportunistic data forwarding is the lack of an efficient, lightweight proactive routing scheme with strong source routing capability. In this project proposed to a lightweight proactive source routing (PSR) protocol. PSR can be maintained at different network topology information than distance vector (DV), link state (LS), optimized link State routing (OLSR), then reactive source routing [e.g., dynamic source routing (DSR)]. In this project concentrate on reducing the overhead at the base line protocols, then testing to the better data transportation. Network Simulator (NS-2) help in testing and implementing to this project for effectively reduced to the overhead in the data transportation.
Study of Attacks and Routing Protocol in Wireless Networkijsrd.com
Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) are attractive as a new communication paradigm. Ad hoc routing protocols for WMNs are classified into: (1) proactive, (2) reactive, and (3) hybrid approaches. In general, proactive routing is more suitable for a stationary network, while reactive routing is better for a mobile network with a high mobility. In many applications, a node in WMN is mobile but it can fluctuate between being mobile. Wireless mesh networks is an emergent research area, which is becoming important due to the growing amount of nodes in a network.
This document discusses routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. It begins by outlining some key issues in designing routing protocols for these networks, such as mobility, bandwidth constraints, and frequent topology changes. It then classifies routing protocols as being either table-driven, on-demand, or hybrid approaches. Table-driven protocols maintain consistent, up-to-date routing information through periodic table updates. On-demand protocols only discover routes when needed, to reduce overhead. The document proceeds to describe several examples of these different routing protocol types.
Issues in designing a routing and Transport Layer protocol for Ad hoc networks- proactive
routing, reactive routing (on-demand), hybrid routing- Classification of Transport Layer
solutions-TCP over Ad hoc wireless Networks
ANALYSIS OF PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS UNDER SELECTED TCP...ijasuc
This document analyzes the performance of two reactive MANET routing protocols, DSR and DSDV, under TCP Vegas and TCP Newreno variants through simulations. The simulations measured packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and total packets dropped. The results showed that DSDV generally had a higher packet delivery ratio but also higher end-to-end delay and more packet drops compared to DSR. DSR performed better in terms of delay and drops due to its on-demand route discovery, while DSDV maintained more consistent routes leading to better packet delivery.
UNIT IV MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS
Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues – Routing – Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols – Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET Vs VANET – Security
- Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are autonomous systems of wireless nodes that can dynamically change topology as nodes move. Routing must adapt to these changes.
- There are two main categories of routing protocols: table-driven protocols proactively maintain consistent, up-to-date routing tables whereas on-demand protocols only determine routes when needed.
- Examples of protocols include DSDV as a table-driven protocol and AODV as an on-demand protocol, with AODV using route requests and replies to discover routes only when transmitting data.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document analyzes the effect of node density on different routing protocols under FTP and HTTP applications. It simulates scenarios with varying node densities (20-130 nodes) using routing protocols AODV, DSR, GRP and OLSR. Key quality of service (QoS) metrics - throughput, delay, network load and packet delivery ratio - are evaluated and compared. The results show that OLSR generally performs best in terms of throughput and delay for both FTP and HTTP applications. GRP performs best for network load, while AODV has the highest packet delivery ratio for FTP. In conclusion, OLSR is the best overall routing protocol for supporting FTP and HTTP applications in mobile ad-hoc networks according to
Tree Based Proactive Source Routing Protocol for MANETspaperpublications3
bstract: A mobile adhoc network (MANET) is a wireless communication network and the node that does not lie within the direct transmission range of each other depends on the intermediate nodes to forward data. Opportunistic data forwarding has not been widely utilized in mobile adhoc networks (MANETs) and the main reason is the lack of an efficient lightweight proactive routing scheme with strong source routing capability. PSR protocol facilitates opportunistic data forwarding in MANETs. In PSR, each node maintains a breadth-first search spanning tree of the network rooted at it-self. This information is periodically exchanged among neighboring nodes for updated network topology information. Here added a Mobile sink to reduce the overhead in case of number of child node increases and also to reduce the delay.
This document discusses mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) and wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It defines a MANET as a network formed spontaneously by wireless mobile nodes without any preexisting infrastructure. Key characteristics of MANETs include dynamic topologies, energy-constrained operation, limited bandwidth, and security threats. Applications include collaborative work, crisis management, and personal area networks. The document also describes different routing protocols for MANETs including table-driven, source-initiated, and hybrid protocols. It then discusses challenges in WSNs such as ad-hoc deployment, limited resources, scalability, and fault tolerance and how these influence routing protocol design.
Routing protocols for ad hoc networks can be classified as table-driven, on-demand, or hybrid. Table-driven protocols maintain fresh routing tables through periodic updates but generate high overhead. On-demand protocols discover routes only when needed via flooding but have high latency. Hybrid protocols combine the advantages of both approaches. Example protocols discussed include DSDV, DSR, AODV, and CGSR.
Comparing: Routing Protocols on Basis of sleep modeIJMER
The architecture of ad hoc wireless network consists of mobile nodes for communication
without the use of fixed-position routers. The communication between them takes place without
centralized control. Routing is a very crucial issue, so to deal with this routing algorithms must deliver
the packet in significant delay. There are different protocols for handling the mobile environment like
AODV, DSR and OLSR. But this paper will focus on performance of AODV and OLSR routing protocols.
The performance of these protocols is analyzed on two metrics: time and throughput
Performance Comparison of AODV and DSDV Routing Protocols for Ad-hoc Wireless...Narendra Singh Yadav
This document compares the performance of two routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks: Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) and Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV). It presents the results of simulations run using the ns-2 network simulator. The simulations varied the number of nodes, pause time (mobility rate), and number of data sources. The performance metrics measured were packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and normalized routing load. The results showed that AODV had higher packet delivery ratios and lower routing loads than DSDV. However, AODV experienced higher delays than DSDV due to its on-demand route discovery process. DSDV performed better in low
This document provides an overview of routing protocols in ad hoc networks. It begins with an abstract describing the objectives of surveying and comparing different classes of ad hoc routing protocols. The document then outlines the topics to be covered, including the characteristics, applications, and types of ad hoc routing protocols. Several representative routing protocols are described in detail, including table-driven, hybrid, source-initiated, location-aware, multipath, hierarchical, multicast, and power-aware protocols. The document concludes by discussing future work related to improving reusability and security of ad hoc routing protocols.
Review paper on performance analysis of AODV, DSDV, OLSR on the basis of pack...IOSR Journals
This document analyzes the performance of three routing protocols - AODV, DSDV, and OLSR - in mobile ad hoc networks based on packet delivery ratio. It simulates the protocols using NS-3 simulator over 600 seconds with 50 nodes moving randomly. The results show that OLSR has the best performance with high and stable packet delivery ratio, while DSDV has the worst performance with many dropped packets. AODV shows average performance throughout the simulation.
This document analyzes the performance of three routing protocols - AODV, DSDV, and OLSR - in a mobile ad hoc network simulation using the NS-3 simulator. It describes the key characteristics of each protocol and the simulation setup, which involved 50 nodes moving according to a random waypoint model. The performance metric studied was packet delivery ratio. The results showed that OLSR achieved the highest packet delivery ratio, performing better than AODV and DSDV in delivering packets from source to destination nodes over the 600 second simulation.
IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineerin...ijceronline
This document summarizes a research paper that evaluates the performance of two routing protocols (AODV and DSDV) under different traffic patterns (TCP and CBR) in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) simulation. The paper describes MANET characteristics and challenges for routing. It provides an overview of reactive (AODV), proactive (DSDV), and hybrid routing protocols. It also defines TCP and CBR traffic patterns. The research aims to analyze and compare the packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay of AODV and DSDV under different traffic loads using the NS-2 simulator. Preliminary results show that reactive protocols perform better in terms of these metrics.
Prediction Algorithm for Mobile Ad Hoc Network Connection BreaksIJCNCJournal
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2. Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
Host movement frequent
Topology change frequent
No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links.
Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
A
B A
B
2
3. The Routing Problem
S
D
D´S´
The routing problem is to find a route from S to D when some or all of the
nodes are mobile.
The MAC protocol is concerned with per-link communications, not end-
to-end. While Routing Protocol deal with end-to-end communication.
3
4. Ad-hoc Routing Protocol
A standard, that controls how nodes decide which way
to route packets between computing devices in a mobile ad hoc
network .
In ad-hoc networks, nodes are not familiar with the topology of their
networks; instead, they have to discover it.
The basic idea is that a new node may announce its presence and should
listen for announcements broadcast by its neighbours.
Each node learns about nodes nearby and how to reach them, and may
announce that it, too, can reach them.
4
5. MAC Vs Routing Protocols
The MAC protocol is concerned with per-link
communications, not end-to-end.
While Routing Protocol deal with end-to-end
communication.
5
6. Traditional routing algorithm
InWired network
1. Static :
2. Dynamic
a) DistanceVector
b) Link State
DistanceVector (DV)
Each node maintains a table giving the distance from itself to all possible
destination.
Periodically broadcasts update packets to each of the neighbors.
Bellman-Ford algorithm
Finding the shortest path to determine the correct next hop of its neighbors.
When presented a packet for forwarding to some destination, each router
simply forwards the packet to the correct next hop router.
Problem: route looping & count to infinity
6
7. 7
Traditional routing algorithm
Example of DV: 0
5
1
2
4
3Destination Next Hop Distance
0 2 3
1 2 2
… … …
Routing table at node 5 :
8. Distributed Bellman-Ford Algorithm
We consider only the number
of hops as the cost for sending
a message from a source to a
destination.
Suppose node 1 wants to
send a message to node 4.
Since the shortest path
between 1 and 4 passes
through 2, 1 will send the
message to 2.
1
2
4
3 5
8
9. Problems with Distributed Bellman-
Ford Algorithm
All routing decisions are taken in a completely distributed
fashion. Each node uses its local information for
routing messages.
However, the local information may be old and
invalid. Local information may not be updated promptly.
This gives rise to loops.A message may loop around a
cycle for a long time.
9
10. 10
Traditional routing algorithm
Link State (LS)
Each node maintains a view of the network topology with a cost
for each link.
Each node periodically broadcasts the cost of its outing links to
all other nodes.
Using a shortest-path algorithm to choose its next hop for each
destination.
11. 11
Traditional routing algorithm(4/4)
Example of LS:
•At node 5, based on the link state packet,
topology table is constructed:
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0
2 0 1 1 0 1 1
3 0 1 0 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 1 1 1
5 0 0 1 0 1 1
0
5
1
2
4
3
{1}
{2,4}
{0,2,3}
{1,4,5}
•Dijkstra’s Algorithm can then be used
for the shortest path
{2,3,5}
{1,4}
12. 12
Problems of traditional routing algorithms
Dynamic of the topology
frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants
Limited performance of mobile systems
periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing
to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize
limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the
exchange of routing information
Asymmetric links
connection in wireless network may be not symmetric
13. Limitation of Wireless Network
Deals with the typical limitations of Ad-hoc networks, which
include
Resource poor devices
Limited bandwidth
high error rates
Continually changing topology
Battery power
Most constraining is battery power
13
14. Goal of Routing Protocol
1. Minimal control overhead:
Control messaging consumes bandwidth,processing resources and battery
power to both transmit and receive a message.
Should not send more than the minimum no of control message they
need for operation.
While transmitting is roughly twice as power consuming as
receiving.Thus need to reduce control messaging
2. Minimal processing overhead
Algo that are computationally complex require more processing
cycles, thus consume more resources.
Protocol should be lightweight and use a minimum of
processing resources from the mobile devices
14
15. Goal of Routing Protocol
3. Multihop routing capability
Transmission range of mobile node is limited.
Routing protocol must be able to discover Multihop routes between
source and destination so that communication between those node is
possible who are not in direct transmission range of each other.
4.Dynamic topology maintenance
Once route is established , link may be break due to movement of
nodes.
A viable routing path must be maintained even while the
intermediate nodes, or even the source or destination nodes are
moving.
If link breaks, it must be handled quickly with a minimum of
associated overhead.15
16. Goal of Routing Protocol
5. Loop prevention
When a routing loop exits , data and control packets may traverse
the path multiple times until either the path or fixed and the loop is
eliminated or until he time to live (TTL) of the packet reaches zero.
As bandwidth is scarce and packet processing and forwarding is
expensive, routing loops are extremely wasteful of resources.
Loops should be avoided all the times
16
17. Formation of Loops
Network given above
Node A is transmitting data to node C via node B.
If the link between nodes B and C goes down and B has not yet informed
node A about the breakage, node A transmits the data to node B assuming that
the link A-B-C is operational and of lowest cost.
Node B knows of the broken link and tries to reach node C via node A, thus
sending the original data back to node A.
Furthermore, node A receives the data that it originated back from
node B and consults its routing table.
Node A's routing table will say that it can reach node C via node B (because it
still has not been informed of the break) thus sending its data back to
node B creating an infinite loop.17
18. Routing Protocol : Assumptions
1. All nodes are homogenous resources and capabilities.
2. Same transmission range of nodes.
3. Bi-directional links
4. Protocol are designed for moderately sized networks of 10
to 100 nodes.
18
19. Ad Hoc Routing Protocol
Routing protocols category :
(a)Table-driven,
(b) Source-initiated on-demand-driven.
19
20. Routing Protocols
Table Driven / Proactive protocols
Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
On-Demand Driven/ Reactive protocols
Determine route if and only when needed
Source initiates route discovery
Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
Hybrid protocols
Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
20
21. Table Driven / Proactive protocols
Proactive protocols are based on periodic exchange of control
messages and maintaining routing tables.
Derived from traditional distance vector and link state protocol used in
wireline internet.
Each node maintains complete information about the network
topology locally.
This information is collected through proactive exchange of partial routing
tables stored at each node. Since each node knows the complete
topology, a node can immediately find the best route to a
destination.
Limitation :
Generates large volume of control messages and this may take up a
large part of the available bandwidth.
The control messages may consume almost the entire bandwidth with a large
number of nodes and increased mobility.
21
22. Table Driven / Proactive protocols
Maintains fresh lists of destinations & their routes by
periodically distributing routing tables throughout the network
Attempts to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing information from each
node to every other node in the network.
Require each node to maintain one or more tables to store
routing information.
They respond to changes in network topology by propagating route updates
throughout the network to maintain a consistent network view.
These Protocols are differ in the number of necessary routing-related
tables and the methods require to broadcast the changes in
network structure.
Some examples of proactive protocols are :
Destination Sequenced DistanceVector (DSDV)
WRP
CGSR22
23. 23
Table-Driven Routing Protocols
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV)
C. E. Perkins and P. Bhagwat,“Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computer,” Comp. Commun. Rev., Oct. 1994, pp. 234-244.
Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
S. Murthy and J. J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves,“An Efficient Routing Protocol forWireless
Networks,”ACM Mobile Networks andApp. J., Special Issue on Routing in Mobile
Communication Networks, Oct. 1996, pp. 183-197.
Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)
C.-C. Chiang,“Routing in Clustered Multihop, MobileWireless Networks with Fading
Channel,” Proc. IEEE SICON ’97,Apr. 1997, pp. 197-211.
24. 1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
(DSDV)
C.E.Perkins and P.Bhagwat,“Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-
Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computer,”Comp.Commun.Rev.,Oct.1994,pp.
234-244.
Table-driven routing protocol
Expansion of distance vector based on Classical distributed Bellman-Ford routing
mechanism include freedom from loops in routing tables.
MainAdvantage of using this protocol is that it avoid the routing loops in a mobile
network of routers.
Each node maintains a routing table of the possible destinations within the non-
partitioned network and the number of routing hops / radio hops (Hand Over Point)
to each destination are recorded.
Routing information is always made readily available, regardless of whether the source node
requires a route or not.
24
25. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
DSDV(Cont…)
A sequence numbering system is used to allow mobile hosts to
distinguish stale routes from new ones.
Routing table updates are sent periodically throughout the network to
maintain table consistency.
It generates a lot of control traffic in the network, rendering an inefficient
utilization of network resources.
To minimize the routing updates, variable sized update packets are
used depending on the number of topological changes.
DSDV uses two types of route update packets.
Full Dump update Packet
Incremental update Packet
25
26. DSDV(Cont…)
Full dump update Packet:
Packet carries all available routing information and can require
multiple network protocol data units (NPDUs).
Take multiple NPDU’s
During periods of occasional movement, these packets are transmitted
infrequently.
Incremental packets update Packet :
Fitted into a single NPDU.
are used to relay only information that has changed since the last full
dump.
26
27. DSDV (Cont…)
New route broadcasts will contain
Address of the destination node
Number of hops to reach the destination
Unique Sequence number :
The sequence numbers are generally even if a link is present; else, an odd
number is used.
The number is generated by the destination, and the emitter needs to send
out the next update with this number.
The route labeled with the most recent sequence number (in
increasing order) is always used.
In the event that two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with the smaller hop count is used.
27
28. DSDV (Cont…)
When X receives information fromY about a route to Z
Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent
fromY
If S(X) > S(Y),then X ignores the routing information received fromY
If S(X) = S(Y),and cost of going throughY is smaller than the route known
to X, then X setsY as the next hop to Z
If S(X) < S(Y),then X setsY as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to
equal S(Y)
X Y Z
28
29. DSDV (Cont…)
Destination Next Hop
Number of
Hops
Sequence
Number
InstallTime
A A 0 A 46 001000
B B 1 B 36 001200
C B 2 C 28 001500
For example the routing table of Node A in this network is
29
32. DSDV Overview
Advantages
Much less delay involved in the route setup process.
Incremental updates with sequence no tag makes existing wired network
protocol adaptable to ad-hoc network.
Disadvantage
Generates a lot of control traffic in the network, rendering an inefficient
utilization of network resources.
Small network with high mobility or a large network with low mobility can
completely chock the available bandwidth.
In order to obtain information about a particular destination node., a node has
to wait for a table update message initiated by the destination node,
32
33. 2. Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
S. Murthy and J. J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves,“An Efficient Routing Protocol
forWireless Networks,”ACM Mobile Networks andApp. J., Special
Issue on Routing in Mobile Communication Networks, Oct. 1996, pp.
183-197.
Similar to DSDV, inherits the properties of the distributed
Bellman-Ford algorithm.
It achieves loop freedom.
InWRP, routing nodes communicate the distance and second-to-last
hop information for each destination in the wireless network.
Belong to the class of path findingAlgorithm;
uses the length and predecessor to destination in the shortest path.
Eliminates the “count to Infinity” Problem by forcing nodes to do
consistency check of the predecessors
It provides faster route convergence when a link failure event occurs.
33
34. WRP (Cont…)
If a node is not sending packets,
It must send a HELLO message within a specified time period to ensure
connectivity
Otherwise, the lack of messages from the node can indicate the failure of
that wireless link and this may cause a false alarm.
When a mobile receives a HELLO message from a new node, that new node
information is added to the mobile's routing table, and the mobile sends the
new node a copy of its routing table information.
Differs from DSDV in table maintenance and in the update procedures.
DSDV maintains only one topology table,
WRP uses a set of tables to maintain more accurate information
34
35. WRP (Cont…)
WRP must maintain four tables, namely:
(a) Distance table :
Contain network view of the neighbors of a node.
indicates the number of hops between a node and its destination
(b) Routing table:
indicates the next-hop node
(c) Link-cost table:
Link-cost table reflects the delay associated with a particular link.
The LCT contains the cost (e.g., the number of hops to reach the destination) of relaying
messages through each link.
The cost of a broken link is infinity.
(d) Message Retransmission List (MRL) table.
The MRL contains
The sequence number of the update message,
A retransmission counter,
An acknowledgment required flag vector,
A list of the updates sent in the update message.
The MRL records which updates in an update message need to be retransmitted and
which neighbors should acknowledge the retransmission.
35
36. 36
WRP (cont.)
An Update message is sent after processing updates from neighbors or a
change in link to a neighbor is detected.
After receiving an update message free of errors, a node is required to send a
positive acknowledgment (ACK).
If a node is not sending messages, it must send a hello message within a
specified time period to ensure connectivity.
Example:
J
K
I
B
(0, J)
(2, K)
(2, K)
(1, K)
X1
1
10
1
5
10
(, K)
(10, B)
(10, I)
(11, B)
38. WRP Overview
Advantages
Same as that of DSDV,
It has faster convergence and involves fewer table updates.
Disadvantage
WRP requires large memory storage and resources in maintaining its tables.
Complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a larger memory and greater
processing power from nodes in the ad hoc wireless network.
At high mobility, the control overhead involved in updating table entries is almost the
same as that of DSDV
Not suitable for highly dynamic and also for a very large ad hoc wireless network.
The protocol is not suitable for large mobile ad hoc networks as it suffers from limited
scalability.
38
39. 3. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing
(CSGR)
C.-C. Chiang, “Routing in Clustered Multihop, MobileWireless Networks with Fading Channel,” Proc.
IEEE SICON ’97,Apr. 1997, pp. 197-211.
Table-driven-based routing protocol
Uses a hierarchical network topology while previous protocol employ flat
topologies
Mobile nodes are grouped into clusters. These grouping may be based on
a no of criteria, but most commonly they are based on either location, or
functionality.
The cluster boundaries are based on transmission range of the cluster
leaders known as cluster head(CH).
Cluster Head
Process control packets on behalf on their member nodes, thus form a routing
backbone within the network
allows some form of control and coordination among a group of ad hoc hosts
Clustering provides a framework for code separation (among clusters),
channel access, routing, and bandwidth allocation.
Different cluster Heads could operate on different spreading codes on a CDA system.39
40. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing
(CSGR)
To elect a cluster head, a distributed cluster head selection algorithm is used.
When a cluster head moves away, another new cluster head must be selected.
Problem occur If a cluster head is changing frequently and nodes will be spending a lot
of time converging to a cluster head instead of forwarding data toward their intended
destinations.
To avoid invoking cluster head reselection every time the cluster membership
changes, a least cluster change (LCC) algorithm is introduced.
Using the LCC algorithm, cluster heads only change
when two cluster heads come into contact
when a node moves out of the range of all other cluster heads.
Tie is broken either using the lowest ID or highest connectivity algorithms.
A token based scheduling is used within a cluster for sharing the bandwidth
among the members of the cluster.
40
41. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing
(CSGR)
CSGR uses Destination Sequenced DistanceVector (DSDV) as the underlying
routing scheme.
It modifies DSDV by using a hierarchical cluster-head-to-gateway routing approach to
route traffic from source to destination.
Routing is performed over clusterheads and not individual nodes.
Gateway nodes
Nodes that are within communication range of two or more cluster heads.
Gateway nodes serve as bridge nodes between two or more clusters.
Expected to be able to listen to multiple spreading codes that are currently
operation in the cluster in which the node exits as a member.
Performance is influenced by token scheduling and
code scheduling that are handled at CH and41
42. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing
(CSGR)
CSGR assumes that all communication passes through Cluster-Head
A packet sent by a node is first routed to its cluster head, and then the
packet is routed from a cluster head to a gateway to another
cluster head, and so on until the cluster head of the destination node
is reached.
The packet is then
transmitted to the
destination.
42
43. Cluster Switch Gateway Routing
(CSGR)
Each node keep two table
Cluster member table
It stores the destination cluster head for each mobile node in the network.
Being broadcasted by each node periodically using DSDV manner.
Nodes receiving this update will refresh their cluster member tables.
Routing table
Being used to determine the next hop in order to reach the destination.
On receiving a packet, a node will consult its cluster member and
routing tables to determine the nearest cluster head along the
route to the destination.
The node then checks its routing table to determine the next hop node to use
reach the cluster head.
43
47. 47
Comparisons of the characteristics of
table-driven routing protocol
Table driven DSDV WRP CGSR
Routing philosophy Flat Flat Hierarchical
Loop-free Yes Yes, but not
instantaneous
Yes
No. of required tables 2 4 2
Frequency of update
transmissions
Periodically and as
needed
Periodically and as
needed
Periodically
Updates transmitted to Neighbors Neighbors Neighbors and
cluster head
Utilize hello message Yes Yes No
Critical nodes No No Cluster head