- Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Bertalan Lajos str 7., bdg MT, r 61b, Budapest, H-1111 - +36-30-374-0671
A középkorban elterjedtek voltak az ún. díszítő kovácshegesztéssel készült kard-és késpengék, amelyeknél díszítő céllal foszforvas rétegeket kovácsoltak be. Ezek legismertebb változatai a damaszkolt pengék, amelyeknek a középső része... more
A középkorban elterjedtek voltak az ún. díszítő kovácshegesztéssel készült kard-és késpengék, amelyeknél díszítő céllal foszforvas rétegeket kovácsoltak be. Ezek legismertebb változatai a damaszkolt pengék, amelyeknek a középső része (magja) damaszkolt volt, ehhez pedig az élt többnyire acélból kovácshegesztették hozzá. Négy damaszkolt kardpengéből és öt díszítő kovácshegesztéssel készült késpengéből (amelyek közül 3 volt damaszkolt) származó mintán végeztünk összehasonlító metallográfiai és SEM-EDS vizsgálatokat, amelyekkel a következő két kérdésre kerestük a választ: Milyen anyagpárosításokkal készültek jellemzően a damaszkolt kés és kardpengék? Milyen foszfortartalmú foszforvasat használtak fel a díszítő célra? Az eredmények alapján megállapítottuk, hogy a középkori damaszkolt kés és kardpengékben díszítő kovácshegesztésre kizárólag foszforvasat használtak fel, amelynek foszfortartalma átlagosan 0,4-1,4wt% volt. A damaszkolás kétféle anyagpárosítással történt: lágyvas+foszforvas és acél+foszforvas. Ha a hőkezeléseket is figyelembe vesszük, akkor háromféle anyagpárosítást nevezhetünk meg: lágyvas+fosz-forvas, normalizált acél+foszforvas és nemesített acél+foszforvas.
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Pattern welding is a forging technique used for making and employing laminate composites that reveal a surface pattern after polishing and etching. The technique was widely used within the period of the late 2nd to the 14th century AD in... more
Pattern welding is a forging technique used for making and employing laminate composites that reveal a surface pattern after polishing and etching. The technique was widely used within the period of the late 2nd to the 14th century AD in the manufacture of ostentatious swords, scramasaxes, knives and spear-heads. Although pattern welding derived from piling wrought iron and steel together, deliberately created surface patterns were, since the 2nd century at the latest, revealed by composites employing phosphoric iron as the basic constituent. As the readability of the patterned surfaces is significantly enhanced by etching, one can assume that historical pattern welded objects were somehow etched. Hence, the basic question arises: which material combination and what etching parameters lead to the most contrasting and visible pattern? Another important question is: how can archaeometallurgists and conservator-restorers reveal surviving pattern welded elements of archaeologically excavated iron objects without a risk of misinterpretation and destabilization of the objects studied? In an attempt to answer these questions, samples detached from patterned welded rods combining phosphoric iron, wrought iron and steel were ground and etched using six different acids (which could be available in the 2nd-14th centuries) under various conditions concerning acid concentration, temperature and etching time. The etching test revealed that the most visible pattern appears in the case of composites combining phosphoric iron and tempered steel, when hydrochloric acid is applied as etchant. When concerned parts of archaeological iron objects are subjected to etching, applying a weak solution of nitric acid in gradually increased concentration or temperature seems to be the most convenient method for the particular purpose.
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Egy 5. századi gazdag fejedelmi sírból, Zsitvabesenyı (a mai Dél-Nyugat Szlovákia területén található Bešeňov) mellıl elıkerült egy kard, mely kora egyik csúcstechnológiájának, a díszítı kovácshegesztésnek (damaszkolásnak) nyomait... more
Egy 5. századi gazdag fejedelmi sírból, Zsitvabesenyı (a mai
Dél-Nyugat Szlovákia területén található Bešeňov) mellıl elıkerült
egy kard, mely kora egyik csúcstechnológiájának, a díszítı kovácshegesztésnek
(damaszkolásnak) nyomait hordozza magán.
Dél-Nyugat Szlovákia területén található Bešeňov) mellıl elıkerült
egy kard, mely kora egyik csúcstechnológiájának, a díszítı kovácshegesztésnek
(damaszkolásnak) nyomait hordozza magán.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
In order to facilitate everyday archaeometallographic research into archaeological and/or historical objects, a method employing results of metallographic examination and hardness measurements to estimate phosphorus content in iron... more
In order to facilitate everyday archaeometallographic research into archaeological and/or historical objects, a method employing results of metallographic examination and hardness measurements to estimate phosphorus content in iron artifacts is introduced in the paper. Furthermore, phosphorus contents encountered in phosphoric iron that was used deliberately as a special material (for pattern-welding etc.) are discussed here. Despite certain limitations, the proposed method can be used for the estimation of the phosphorus content of archaeological iron examined either currently or in the past.
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Research Interests:
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In recent years it has been indicated by archaeometric investigations that phosphoric-iron (P-iron, low carbon steel with 0,5-1,5wt% P), which is an unknown and unused kind of steel in the modern industry, was widely used in different... more
In recent years it has been indicated by archaeometric investigations that phosphoric-iron (P-iron, low carbon steel with 0,5-1,5wt% P), which is an unknown and unused kind of steel in the modern industry, was widely used in different parts of the world in medieval times. In this study we try to explore the role of phosphorus in the arhaeometallurgy of iron and answer some questions regarding the smelting bog iron ores with high P-content. XRF analyses were performed on bog iron ores collected in Somogy county. Smelting experiments were carried out on bog iron ores using a laboratory model built on the basis of previously conducted reconstructed smelting experiments in copies of excavated furnaces. The effect of technological parameters on P-content of the resulted iron bloom was studied. OM and SEM-EDS analyses were carried out on the extracted iron and slag samples. On the basis of the material analyses it can be stated that P-iron is usually extracted but the P-content is highly affected by technological parameters. Typical microstructures of P-iron and of slag could also be identified. It could also be established that arsenic usually solved in high content in iron as well.
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Several archaeometrical investigations were carried out on archaeological iron artefacts and iron blooms in recent years and it can be stated that although P is an avoided element in modern industry, iron with enhanced phosphorus content... more
Several archaeometrical investigations were carried out on archaeological iron artefacts and iron blooms in recent years and it can be stated that although P is an avoided element in modern industry, iron with enhanced phosphorus content (P-iron) was used in different parts of the world in medieval times. We have conducted several smelting experiments using copies of an excavated, embedded type of furnace smelting P-rich bog iron ores from Somogy County. P-iron was regularly extracted in these experiments. Nevertheless, there is only very little archaeometrical evidence of producing and using P-iron in the Carpathian basin.
Based on our earlier experimental observations, the main goal of our recent study was to answer the question of whether phosphorus has a role in the archaeometallurgy of iron in the Carpathian basin, especially in Somogy County.
In order to answer this question we have carried out SEM-EDS analyses on iron slag samples originating from five excavated bloomery workshops from the 8-10th centuries. P appeared in 2-5 wt% in these samples, and the typical microstructure of the slag samples was needled tricalcium-phosphate. The slag samples also contained a high amount of Ca (5-21 wt%), which was situated mostly in olivine phase.
Concerning the results of SEM-EDS analysis of the slag samples we can state that P-rich local bog iron ores were smelted during the bloomery process in Somogy County and adding limestone to control the P content of the resulted iron bloom can also be inferred.
Based on our earlier experimental observations, the main goal of our recent study was to answer the question of whether phosphorus has a role in the archaeometallurgy of iron in the Carpathian basin, especially in Somogy County.
In order to answer this question we have carried out SEM-EDS analyses on iron slag samples originating from five excavated bloomery workshops from the 8-10th centuries. P appeared in 2-5 wt% in these samples, and the typical microstructure of the slag samples was needled tricalcium-phosphate. The slag samples also contained a high amount of Ca (5-21 wt%), which was situated mostly in olivine phase.
Concerning the results of SEM-EDS analysis of the slag samples we can state that P-rich local bog iron ores were smelted during the bloomery process in Somogy County and adding limestone to control the P content of the resulted iron bloom can also be inferred.
Research Interests:
This film shows how iron was made in the 10th century in the Carpathian Basin. The film was made in the Iron Smelting Camp in 2012 in Somogyfajsz.
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There are different types of the early medieval bloomery furnaces located in the Carpathian Basin. One of the built-in type furnaces is the so-called Fajsz-type. This kind of bloomery from the 10th century AD – named after Somogyfajsz,... more
There are different types of the early medieval bloomery furnaces located in the Carpathian Basin. One of the built-in type furnaces is the so-called Fajsz-type. This kind of bloomery from the 10th century AD – named after Somogyfajsz, the most widely known site of this type (Gömöri 2006) – was the first one whose use was a characteristic feature of the Hungarian conquerors. The Fajsz-type furnace was approximately 70-100cm tall and it was built into the side wall of a workshop pit with its full height.
In our research we tried to answer some basic questions regarding the early medieval technology of iron metallurgy in Pannonia. What kind of iron ores were used in the bloomery? What was the available productivity of bloomeries and the quality of iron blooms like? What kind of technological parameters were suitable for a successful metallurgical technology?
During the past three years an engineering team set out to discover this medieval technology in a collaborated study with archaeologists using experimental archaeology involving more than 30 reconstructed smelting experiments in the Fajsz-type furnace (Thiele 2011). In these experiments the main influencing parameters of the technology (i.e. temperature distribution in the furnace, air supply, gas composition, quality and quantity of iron ore and charcoal, etc.) were measured. The raw materials and samples of the obtained iron bloom and slag were examined by chemical (ICP), metallographic, energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) and mineralogical (X-ray diffraction) analysis. Chemical and metallographic investigations of iron ore and slag finds found in excavation sites of Fajsz-type bloomeries and workshops (Ágh 1999) and from other medieval sites in the Carpathian Basin (Török 2010) were carried out as well.
The experiences of experimental smeltings have been compared with the archaeometallurgical remains of Pannonia. These comparisons provide guidance to further understanding the subject. By these results the physicochemical and metallurgical parameters of the technology will be more approachable. Contemporaneously the reconstructional experiments serve as feedback concluding the technical characteristics of Hungarian ironmetallurgy of the 10th century as well as the materials testing of the finds.
In our research we tried to answer some basic questions regarding the early medieval technology of iron metallurgy in Pannonia. What kind of iron ores were used in the bloomery? What was the available productivity of bloomeries and the quality of iron blooms like? What kind of technological parameters were suitable for a successful metallurgical technology?
During the past three years an engineering team set out to discover this medieval technology in a collaborated study with archaeologists using experimental archaeology involving more than 30 reconstructed smelting experiments in the Fajsz-type furnace (Thiele 2011). In these experiments the main influencing parameters of the technology (i.e. temperature distribution in the furnace, air supply, gas composition, quality and quantity of iron ore and charcoal, etc.) were measured. The raw materials and samples of the obtained iron bloom and slag were examined by chemical (ICP), metallographic, energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) and mineralogical (X-ray diffraction) analysis. Chemical and metallographic investigations of iron ore and slag finds found in excavation sites of Fajsz-type bloomeries and workshops (Ágh 1999) and from other medieval sites in the Carpathian Basin (Török 2010) were carried out as well.
The experiences of experimental smeltings have been compared with the archaeometallurgical remains of Pannonia. These comparisons provide guidance to further understanding the subject. By these results the physicochemical and metallurgical parameters of the technology will be more approachable. Contemporaneously the reconstructional experiments serve as feedback concluding the technical characteristics of Hungarian ironmetallurgy of the 10th century as well as the materials testing of the finds.
Research Interests:
In the north-western part of Pannonia inferior province, which was situated in the present territory of Hungary, the Romanised native aristocracy pursued a very rare and spectacular burial rite for 150 years on the territory of the... more
In the north-western part of Pannonia inferior province, which was situated in the present territory of Hungary, the Romanised native aristocracy pursued a very rare and spectacular burial rite for 150 years on the territory of the Eravisci tribe (Mráv 2001, Kiss 1989). Amongst the rich appendices, they also placed two-and for-wheeled carts, and the bodies of the horses which pulled them along with their sets of harnesses in the graves. These horse-drawn vehicles served as a means of transport to the other world. Several archeologically analysed and reconstructible cart finds have emerged from the more than 30 rich cart graves known in Pannonia at present, which supply an inexhaustible and so far unexploited source of the history of ancient technology (Kiss 1989, Röring 1983, Raepsaet, 1982, Венедиков, 1960).
The excavations have provided the most new data to enhance our knowledge of the two-wheeled cart, thus we have chosen the material analysis of the iron parts of the two-wheeled carts found in these graves as the topic of our presentation (Thiele et al, 2012). We have conducted metallographic and energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analyses of 50 iron parts from 5 two-wheeled carts of different ages and constructional mechanisms.
Analysing the results of the material analyses, we can get an insight into the material quality of the iron used by the cart smiths of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, by introducing an engineering aspect, we can make a new and complex picture of the selection of sufficient iron material and the application an effective forging and heat-treatment technology against the mechanical strain at the time. As a result of our research, we can get a deeper understanding of a long-forgotten industry: the craft of the ancient cart smiths.
The excavations have provided the most new data to enhance our knowledge of the two-wheeled cart, thus we have chosen the material analysis of the iron parts of the two-wheeled carts found in these graves as the topic of our presentation (Thiele et al, 2012). We have conducted metallographic and energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analyses of 50 iron parts from 5 two-wheeled carts of different ages and constructional mechanisms.
Analysing the results of the material analyses, we can get an insight into the material quality of the iron used by the cart smiths of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, by introducing an engineering aspect, we can make a new and complex picture of the selection of sufficient iron material and the application an effective forging and heat-treatment technology against the mechanical strain at the time. As a result of our research, we can get a deeper understanding of a long-forgotten industry: the craft of the ancient cart smiths.
Research Interests:
Two different models have been developed under laboratory conditions based on the experiences of smelting experiments carried out in bloomery furnaces patterned on some excavated 10-12th century ones. Using Rudabánya iron ore,... more
Two different models have been developed under laboratory conditions based on the
experiences of smelting experiments carried out in bloomery furnaces patterned on some
excavated 10-12th century ones. Using Rudabánya iron ore, experiments were conducted in a
closed pot and in a small open shaft furnace. During the experiments the air supply, the
temperature and the weight of the iron ore and the charcoal were measured. SEM-EDX
analyses were performed on bloom pieces obtained from the experiments. The results of the
modelling converge well with the results of the previous smelting experiments. The iron yield
could be calculated and the metallurgical process of the medieval iron smelting could be
better understood on the basis of the measurements and results.
experiences of smelting experiments carried out in bloomery furnaces patterned on some
excavated 10-12th century ones. Using Rudabánya iron ore, experiments were conducted in a
closed pot and in a small open shaft furnace. During the experiments the air supply, the
temperature and the weight of the iron ore and the charcoal were measured. SEM-EDX
analyses were performed on bloom pieces obtained from the experiments. The results of the
modelling converge well with the results of the previous smelting experiments. The iron yield
could be calculated and the metallurgical process of the medieval iron smelting could be
better understood on the basis of the measurements and results.
Mankind may have discovered iron several thousands years ago but until the late medieval ages this important raw material was made from the iron ore in a one-step process in the small bloomery furnaces (direct production of iron). The... more
Mankind may have discovered iron several thousands years ago but until the late medieval
ages this important raw material was made from the iron ore in a one-step process in the small
bloomery furnaces (direct production of iron). The smelting temperature was only about
1100-1300°C which meant that the melting point of the iron was not reached. Due to the
relative low metallurgical temperature the product of this ancient technology was a spongystructured
solid iron mass with some unwanted slag. This was commonly known as the ironbloom.
For decades, interest has increased in the ancient metallurgy technologies and a new
discipline evolved: The archaeometallurgy.
How did the ironworkers make the iron in their small furnaces in the early medieval ages (7-
12th cent. AD)? During the past two years a team in a collaborated study with archaeologists
set out to discover the workings of this ancient technology using experimental archaeology
consisting of more than 20 smelting experiments. From these experiments the parameters of
the technology (i.e. temperature, gas-composition) were measured and the resulting iron ore,
slag and iron-bloom samples were examined (i.e. chemical, metallographic and mineralogical
analysis).
Based on the results of these smelting experiments, measurements and analysis, it is possible
to draw some conclusions regarding the physical-chemical and metallurgical processes of the
early medieval iron production.
ages this important raw material was made from the iron ore in a one-step process in the small
bloomery furnaces (direct production of iron). The smelting temperature was only about
1100-1300°C which meant that the melting point of the iron was not reached. Due to the
relative low metallurgical temperature the product of this ancient technology was a spongystructured
solid iron mass with some unwanted slag. This was commonly known as the ironbloom.
For decades, interest has increased in the ancient metallurgy technologies and a new
discipline evolved: The archaeometallurgy.
How did the ironworkers make the iron in their small furnaces in the early medieval ages (7-
12th cent. AD)? During the past two years a team in a collaborated study with archaeologists
set out to discover the workings of this ancient technology using experimental archaeology
consisting of more than 20 smelting experiments. From these experiments the parameters of
the technology (i.e. temperature, gas-composition) were measured and the resulting iron ore,
slag and iron-bloom samples were examined (i.e. chemical, metallographic and mineralogical
analysis).
Based on the results of these smelting experiments, measurements and analysis, it is possible
to draw some conclusions regarding the physical-chemical and metallurgical processes of the
early medieval iron production.