Forest Biodiversity Division

In Peninsular Malaysia the treesSaraca thaipingensis (Caesalpiniaceae) andCrypteronia griffithii (Crypteroniaceae) are inhabited by ants. In the vicinity of Gombak, near Kuala Lumpur, the hollow internodes of youngSaraca thaipingensis plants are colonized mainly by twoCladomyrma species. In larger trees aCrematogaster sp. is also found.Crypteronia griffithii is inhabited by a third species ofCladomyrma. None of these species is conspecific with any of the threeCladomyrma taxa so far described. The colonies are founded by single mated queens, which have a conspicuous, sphecid wasp-like behaviour when searching for host plants and nest sites. They chew holes into the plant internodes and hollow them out to provide nest sites. Coccids and pseudococcids are cultivated within the internodes. The homopterans are not carried by queens on their nuptial flights. They apparently find their way by themselves into the cavities or are perhaps carried there by the worker ants. TheCladomyrma ants onCrypteronia are not aggressive, in contrast to those onSaraca thaipingensis. The relationship ofCrypteronia with ants seems to be obligatory, whereasSaraca was only partly colonized byCladomyrma. The interaction ofSaraca withCrematogaster sp. is loose and facultative, since theCrematogaster sp. also lives on other three species. Our studies have now revealed fourCladomyrma spp. which are regularly associated with plants. The genus therefore seems to have an entirely myrmecophytic way of life.

To conserve a rare plant, conservation programs must be guided by the biological attributes of the species. What constitutes the most critical biological information for plant conservation has been the issue of discussion for the last 30 years. Most scientists promote an approach that is either ecological or genetic in emphasis. Ecological and genetic processes will often interact synergistically to influence the population viability and to determine the persistence of populations in the long run. Consequently, conservation management of plant species, in addition to ecological information, requires a robust understanding of underlying genetic processes as well as the variation within and between populations. Conservation has a cost and the resources available for conservation programs are always limited. Therefore, conservation management strategies should not only be scientifically justified but also practical in terms of resource availability. Shorea lumutensis is a rare and endemic dipterocarp in Peninsular Malaysia. A comprehensive research activity was initiated to assess the population ecology and population genetics of S. lumutensis to elucidate specific ecological and genetic requirements and subsequently to set conservation strategies and priorities. This paper is apparently the first attempt at applying both the ecological and genetic approaches into conservation management of a rare dipterocarp. In addition, this paper also attempts to link the gaps between conservation research and conservation management in a realistic manner. It is our hope that this study will serve as a model for the study of other rare dipterocarps which should be given priority for conservation.

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiling revealed genetic diversity among three populations ofLicuala glabra var. glabra, an understorey palm growing in the dipterocarp forests of Terengganu, Malaysia. The Bukit Bauk population had individuals without aerial stems. The Bukit Besi individuals had stem heights to 30 cm, while those of the Rasau Kerteh population had stems up to 4 m in height. Southern blot analysis confirmed that an apparent monomorphic band generated by the primer OPU-17 among the three different populations corresponds to the same locus. Six primers were used to generate 87 RAPD bands that formed 2-state character raw data for estimating genetic distances using the simple matching coefficient of similarity. The phenogram generated by UPGMA of the RAPD data grouped the individuals from the three populations under three clusters. This was in agreement with the morphological grouping. The infraspecific L. glabra var.selangorensis Becc. was grouped closer to the L. glabra var. glabra individuals than to the outgroupL. scortechinii Becc. Principal component analysis supported the observation from the phenogram. The results show discrete genetic structuring in the populations studied and provide useful information for future conservation measures.

Analyses of the spatial distribution pattern, spatial genetic structure and genetic diversity were carried out using a 33-ha plot in a hill dipterocarp forest for three dipterocarps with different habitat preferences, i.e. Shorea curtisii on the ridges, Shorea leprosula in the valleys and Shorea macroptera both on the ridges and in the valleys. The significant spatial aggregation in small-diameter trees of all the three species was explained by limited seed dispersal. At the large-diameter trees, only S. macroptera showed random distribution and this might further prove that S. macroptera is habitat generalist, whilst S. curtisii and S. leprosula are habitat specific. The levels of genetic diversity estimated based on five microsatellite loci were high and comparable in all the three studied species. As the three studied species reproduced mainly through outcrossing, the observed high levels of genetic diversity might support the fact that the plant mating system can be used as guideline to infer the levels of genetic diversity, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The lack of spatial genetic structure but significant aggregation in the small-diameter trees of all the three species might indicate limited seed dispersal but extensive pollen flow. Hence, if seed dispersal is restricted but pollen flow is extensive, significant spatial aggregation but no spatial genetic structure will be observed at the small-diameter trees, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The inferred extensive pollen flow might indicate that energetic pollinators are involved in the pollination of Shorea species in the hill dipterocarp forests.

We studied vegetative and reproductive characters of 74 herbarium specimens of Licuala glabra Griff. (Palmae) collected from 22 localities throughout Peninsular Malaysia. To test the null hypothesis that there are no distinct groups within the species, cluster analysis (nearest neighbour), principal coordinates and principal components analyses were performed on the set of 43 qualitative and quantitative characters. The results obtained suggested that: (1) there are three infraspeciflc groups within the species, viz., the two published varieties glabra and selangorensis as well as a possible third novel taxon; (2) there is clustering of individuals corresponding to their geographic localities; (3) clusters generated using only reproductive characters indicate a biogeographic distribution of populations correlated with the mountain ranges in the peninsula.

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was used to study variation among and within selectedIxora (Rubiaceae) populations and mutants. Six populations of I. congesta yielded identical banding patterns suggesting genetic uniformity of this species. However, six populations of I. coccinea varieties (three red-flowered, two yellow-flowered and one red-flowered wild-type) exhibited infraspecific differences in RAPD profiles. Small and large leaves of an atavistic mutant cultivar of I. coccinea were also subjected to RAPD analysis. An extra band was amplified in the large leaves that was absent in small leaves, suggesting that the phenotypic alteration in this taxon is due to genetic mutation rather than epigenetic changes. Similarly, an extra band was detected in the white sectors of I. Variegated compared to the green sectors, suggesting that the shoot apical meristems of this cultivar exist as a genetic chimera. DNA gel blot hybridization was performed to confirm the specificities of selected bands. Our study indicates that differences among individuals of various populations and mutants may be detected using RAPD markers.

Mutualistic associations between ants and plants often involve a third partner, scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). In southeast Asia, plant-ants of the genus Cladomyrma live together with coccoids in hollowed twigs of a wide range of ant-plants (myrmecophytes). Established colonies never lack sap-sucking scale insects and the ants appear to be dependent on the honeydew excretions of their trophobionts. Acquisition of scale insects thus seems to be an important step in the successful establishment of a new colony on a host plant. Coccoids may either be transported by a foundress ant on her nuptial flight (vertical transmission via co-dispersal) or ant and coccoid disperse on their own and associate anew during colony initiation (horizontal transmission). Here we test the assumption that founding gynes of Cladomyrma do not transport scale insects during their dispersal flight, and we determine when and how trophobionts are acquired. The results obtained in this study show that although coccoids are not carried by foundresses, their numbers within founding chambers of Cladomyrma increased with the founding stage. In all Cladomyrma species, colony-founding is claustral and the entrance hole into the nest chamber is first plugged with pith debris and later grows over by wound callus. However, access of trophobionts into hollow twigs is facilitated either by additional small openings (‘secondary slits’) produced by the foundress ant after hollowing out a nest chamber or by the maintenance of an orifice at the entrance hole during the founding period. Immature pseudococcids experimentally placed onto twigs close to a Cladomyrma foundation readily entered these slits. Exclusion experiments suggest that foundresses of C. petalae are less successful in rearing their first offspring if entry of coccoids into founding chambers is prevented.

Two new species of Scaphochlamys, S. krauensis Y. Y. Sam and S. pusilla Y. Y. Sam, from the Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang are described and illustrated. Another two Scaphochlamys species, S. pennipicta and S. oculata are also reported from Krau Wildlife Reserve, considerably extending their known distribution. An identification key for all four Scaphochlamys species found in the Krau Wildlife Reserve is provided.

Malaysia has approximately 15,000 species of vascular plants. Its flora is distributed between two major geographical regions; Peninsular Malaysia on mainland Asia and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. Peninsular Malaysia has over 8,300 plant species and Sabah and Sarawak in a recent estimate have about 12,000 species. Total species endemism for Peninsular Malaysia is about 30%; its tree endemism is 26.3%. For Sabah and Sarawak, the endemism level is higher, recently revised figures gave a tree species endemism of 42.1%. Malaysia has recently published its national strategy for plant conservation, which now forms the basis of conservation activities for the country. Since 2004, we have been running a project entitled “Conservation Monitoring of Rare and Threatened Plants of Peninsular Malaysia”, in which conservation status assessment is scored for a number of families. Results of the assessment of 458 taxa included 46.1% in some threat category. Detailed conservation studies are in progress for 33 species of threatened plants. Initial work on these species include spatial distribution studies at regional level based on herbarium records, and at a more local level, population studies to determine demography of populations. Regular phenological observations were also made for many of the species.

An inventory was made of 50 ha of primary lowland rain forest in Peninsular Malaysia, in which ca. 340,000 trees 1 cm dbh or larger were measured and identified to species. Out of a total plot tree flora of 820 species, 76 species are known to bear edible fruit. Especially diverse were the wild species of mango (Mangifera, Anacardiaceae, 12 spp.), mangosteen (Garcinia, Clusiaceae, 13 spp.), breadfruit (Artocarpus, Moraceae, 10 spp.) and rambutan (Nephelium, Sapindaceae, 5 spp.). Median population size for all species of fruit trees was 3.0 trees per ha and 0.2 adult trees per ha. Direct economic value of wild fruit trees was small; only one species has been very much collected and sold, Parkia speciosa (Fabaceae), amounting to less than US$20 per ha per year. The potential value of the species as genetic resources is very large: 24 species are cultivated, 38 edible species are congeneric with cultivated crops and at least 10 other species bear inedible fruit but are related to cultivated crops. We conclude that the Peninsular Malaysian rain forest is exceedingly rich in wild fruit trees, that these normally live at low densities, and that their principal economic value is as genetic resources. de tierra baja primaria de selva lluviosa de Malasia Peninsular, en el cual se medió y se identificó la especie de aproximadamente unos 340,000 árboles de 1 cm de diametro (a la altura del pecho) o mayores. De un total de un terreno de flora de árboles de 820 especies, se sabe que 76 especies dan frutos comestibles. Resultaron ser particularmente variades las especies silvestres de mango (Mangifera, Anacardiaceae, 12 spp.), mangostán (Garcinia, Clusiaceae, 13 spp.), arbol del pan (Artocarpus, Moraceae, 10 spp.) y rambután (Nephelium, Sapindaceae, 5 spp). El valor mediano del tamaño de la población de todas las especies de árboles frutales fue de 3.0 árboles por hectare y de 0.2 arboles adultos por hectare. El valor económico directo de los árboles frutales silvestres resultó pequeño; solamente una de las especies ha sido muy recogida y vendida,Parkia speciosa (Fabaceae), sumando menos de US$20 por hectare por año. El valor potencial de las especies como reserva genética es muy grande: 24 especies son cultivadas, 38 especies comestibles son congéneres de cosechas cultivadas y por los menos otras 10 especies dan frutos incomestibles pero están relacionadas con cosechas cultivadas. Concluimos que la selva lluviosa de la Peninsula de Malasia es extremadamente rica en árboles frutales silvestres, que éstos normalmente viven en bajas densidades y que su principal valor económico es como reserva genética. di satu kawasan hutan hujan tanah pamah seluas 50 ha di Semenanjung Malaysia. Daripada kerja-kerja inventori ini, sebanyak 340,000 pokok yang mempunyai pepepang 1 cm atau lebih telah diukur dan dicamkan hingga ke peringkat spesies. Sejumlah 820 spesies telah dikenalpasti dan daripada jumlah ini, sebanyak 76 spesies telah diketahui menghasilkan buah yang boleh dimakan. Kepelbagaian yang luas terdapat dalam spesies liar mangga (Mangifera, Anacardiaceae, 12 spp.), manggis (Garcinia, Clusiaceae, 13 spp.), sukun (Artocarpus, Moraceae, 10 spp.) dan rambutan (Nephelium, Sapindaceae, 5 spp). Median saiz populasi untuk semua spesies buah-buahan ialah 3.0 pokok setiap hektar dan bagi pokok buahbuahan yang matang pula ialah 0.2 pokok setiap hektar. Sumbangan ekonomi secara langsung dari buah-buahan liar ini adalah kecil; hanya satu spesies sahaja iaituParkia speciosa (Fabaceae) yang biasa dikutip dan dijual dengan harga kurang dari US$20 setiap hektar setiap tahun. Spesies-spesies yang berpotensi sebagai sumber-sumber genetik adalah banyak; 24 spesies yang ditanam, 38 spesies yang boleh dimakan tergolong dalam genus yang sama (kongenerik) dengan spesies yang ditanam, dan sekurang-kurangnya 10 spesies lagi yang tidak boleh dimakan tetapi mempunyaipertalian dengan spesies tanaman. Daripada inventori ini, boleh disimpulkan bahawa hutan hujan Semenanjung Malaysia sangat kaya dengan spesies buah-buahan liar dan biasanya terdapat dalam kepadatan yang rendah, tetapi nilai ekonomi asas daripada spesies-species liar ini ialah sebagai sumbersumber genetic.

Abstract: Ficus obscura var. borneensis is a true myrmecophyte. It spontaneously forms cavities (domatia) in parts of its twigs which open by slits, These occur in the internodes and are usually not swollen. The domatia are inhabited by a variety of non-specific tree-living ants including Crematogaster spp., Cataulacus sp., Tetramorium sp., Cardio· condyla sp. and Camponotus sp.. Additionally the plant providL a su~ ar-containing secretion from extrafloral nectaries on the lower surfaces of the leaves.