Pollination ecology

In the Andes of Central Chile, flowering commences 1–2 months earlier on equatorial-(north-) facing than on polar-(south-) facing slopes, and pollinator assemblages also differ between these habitats. In order to understand the potential influence of these differences on gene flow, we monitored flowering periods and insect visitation rates to flowers of 60 individuals of Anarthrophyllum cumingii (Papilionaceae) on two equatorial-and two polar-facing slopes in the Andes of central Chile (33 35 0 S;70 32 0 W). Flowering began about 30 days earlier on equatorial-facing slopes. Flowering periods of individuals on slopes with the same aspect had a mean overlap of 0.52, while those on opposite slopes had a mean overlap of 0.15. On equatorial-facing slopes Yramea lathionoides (Lepidoptera) accounted for 60% of the visits to flowers of A. cumingii, while on polar-facing slopes Centris cineraria (Hymenoptera) was responsible for more than 80% of flower visits. Average similarities of visitor assemblages among individual plants on slopes with the same aspect was 0.83, while the mean similarity between individuals on opposite slopes was only 0.23. Within slopes fluorescent dyes were dispersed up to 40 m from the donor plants, but there was no movements of dyes between individuals growing on opposite slopes, even when they were separated by less than 10 m. Synchronous blooming and a common pollen vector are necessary conditions for pollen exchange between individuals. The overall probability of pollen exchange estimated by multiplying the inter-individual overlap for both factors, was nearly 0.5 for individuals growing on slopes with the same aspect, and less than 0.04 for individuals growing on opposite slopes. Consequently, at equivalent distances, the probability of pollen exchange between individuals growing on slopes of opposite aspect is more than 10-times lower than between those growing on the same slopes. Seed dispersal cannot compensate for restricted gene flow through pollination, because seeds of A. cumingii were dispersed less than 2 m away from a parent plant. Presumably, restricted gene flow could enhance genetic divergence between populations on slopes of contrasting aspects. This factor could be important in contributing to the high diversity and endemism in the Chilean Andes.

The fynbos of South Africa is renowned for its high richness of plant species, many of which are insect- pollinated. We conducted a visual survey of arthropod activity to examine how environmental factors influence activity patterns across the biome. We estimated the activity of moving medium- to large-sized Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera using an abundance-weighted presence score. Broken stick regression analysis shows that insect activity increased with ambient air temperatures to between 22 and 30 °C and then stabilized in the case of Hymenoptera, or decreased for Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. There was also a clear negative impact of wind speed on arthropod activity. Insect activity across the biome was poorly explained by landscape temperature and rainfall variables, and was instead  best explained by flower availability. A summer-autumn survey observed greater insect activity with no within-month variation, while the transition from winter to spring for the winter-spring survey saw more insect activity associated with the later months. More detailed studies of activity in the fynbos are needed at the species level, as predicted climate change impacts on temperature suggest likely consequences for  plant-pollinator interactions, agricultural pest species, and arthropod-predator interactions.

This study was mainly conducted to assess the diversity of Eulophids and their host-parasite relationships. Two species of Genus Aprostocetus Westwood (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae: Tetrastichinae) have been discovered from Shitlakhet, Almora, India. Many species of the subgenus Aprostocetus are primary parasitoids of hosts in plant galls produced by various gall forming insects. Both the reported tetrastichine wasps were parasitizing to a gall forming psylloid, Pauropsylla ficicola Kieffer causing leaf galls on Ficus auriculata Lour. P. ficicola Kieffer is a very serious pest of this economically important tree. During the taxonomic investigation authors came across with two species of the Genus Aprostocetus emerged from the leaf galls in which one species is identified and redescribed as Aprostocetus ficicolae Singh and other one is described as A. Shitlakhetensis sp. nov. Which is new to Biological Science. This new species was distinguished from other allied species of the Genus Aprostocetus by various morphological characters. For the healthy production of fruits and leaves of Ficus auriculata, these two species of parasitic wasps could be used to manage the infestation caused by this pest.

A B S T R A C T Major hydroelectric dams are among key emergent agents of habitat loss and fragmentation in lowland tropical forests. Orchid bees (Apidae, Euglossini) are one of the most important groups of specialized pollinators of flowering plants in Neotropical forests. Here, we investigate how an entire assemblage of orchid bees responded to the effects of forest habitat loss, isolation and forest canopy degradation induced by a hydroelectric reservoir of Central Brazilian Amazonia. Built in 1986, the Balbina Dam resulted in a vast archipelagic landscape containing 3546 primary forest islands of varying sizes and isolation, surrounded by 3129 km 2 of freshwater. Using scent traps, we sampled 34 islands, 14 open-water matrix sites, and three mainland continuous forests, yielding 2870 male orchid bees representing 25 species. Local orchid bee species richness was affected by forest patch area but particularly by site isolation. Distance to forest edges, either within forest areas or into the open-water matrix, was the most important predictor of species richness and composition. Variation in matrix dispersal of individual species to increasingly isolated sites was a key determinant of community structure. Given the patterns of patch persistence and matrix movements of orchid bees in increasingly fragmented forest landscapes, we outline how forest bees respond to the landscape alteration induced by major hydroelectric dams. These results should be considered in environmental impact studies prior to the approval of new dams.

The capacity for cone-mediated color vision varies among nocturnal primates. Some species are col- orblind, having lost the functionality of their short-wavelength-sensitive-1 (SWS1) opsin pigment gene. In other species, such as the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis), the SWS1 gene re- mains intact. Recent studies focused on aye-ayes indicate that this gene has been maintained by natural selection and that the pigment has a peak sensitivity (λmax) of 406 nm, which is ∼20 nm closer to the ultraviolet region of the spectrum than in most primates. The functional significance behind the retention and unusual λmax of this opsin pigment is unknown, and it is perplexing given that all mammals are presumed to be colorblind in the dark. Here we comment on this puzzle and discuss recent findings on the color vision intensity thresholds of terrestrial vertebrates with com- parable optics to aye-ayes. We draw attention to the twilight activities of aye-ayes and report that twilight is enriched in short-wavelength (bluish) light. We also show that the intensity of twilight and full moonlight is probably sufficient to support cone-mediated color vision. We speculate that the intact SWS1 opsin pigment gene of aye-ayes is a crepuscular adaptation and we report on the blueness of potential visual targets, such as scent marks and the brilliant blue arils of Ravenala madagascariensis.

We studied the diet of the Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) in Pakistan from March 2008 to February 2009 and found that
the bats fed on 20 species belonging to 11 plant families. Of these, four families (Anacardiaceae, Bignonaceae, Malvaceae, and
Sapotaceae) were identified from remnants of flower petals in food boluses while the remaining families (Annonaceae, Arecaceae, Ebenaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, and Sapindaceae) were identified from the seeds in the boluses and from guano samples. Plants in the family Moraceae (50.7%) comprised most of the bat’s diet. Fruit of Ficus retusa (27.5%) and F. carica (23.0%) during winter, F. glomerata (30.9%) and F. religiosa (28.1%) during spring, Psidium guajava (19.6%), F. bengalensis (18.7%) and Diospyros peregrina (17.8%) during summer, and D. peregrina (71.9%) during autumn, were the most frequently identified items. The four seasonal diets varied significantly (χ2 = 435, d.f. = 18, P < 0.01). Results confirm that the ecological services rendered by P. giganteus, such as pollination and seed dispersal, outweigh its losses, such as damage to the ripe fruit. Hence, the species should not be regarded as a pest; rather efforts should be made to ensure its conservation.

This research was carried out to evaluate the floral biology of Ipomoea acuminata, I. batata, I. cairica and I. quamoclit in Maringá, state of Paraná. Anthesis period, stigma receptivity, viability of the pollen grains and medium height of the style and filament were analyzed during the blossom period of Ipomoea. Both I. quamoclit and I. potato had their flowers opening at 6:00 a.m. and their closing at 2:00 p.m. The test of stigma receptivity demonstrated that I. quamoclit was receptive between 6:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m. and I. batata between 6:35 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. The period of higher viability of the pollen grains in I. quamoclit was the same of the stigma receptivity. In that species, there was a reduction in the frequency of viable grains of pollen next to the time of the flowers closing. There were highest frequencies of viable pollen grains in I. batata between 6:35 a.m. and 7:00 a.m.; the variations in the frequency of viability of the pollen grains keep along the day until the flowers closing. In I. acuminata, the medium height of the style was 27.245 ± 2.431 mm and the medium height of the filament was 26.439 ± 3.147 mm. In I. batata, the medium height of the style was 19.77 mm ± 1.956 mm that is higher than the medium height of the filament. The medium height of the style in I. cairica was 19.827 mm and the medium height of the filament was 17.952 mm. In I. quamoclit the medium height of the style and the medium height of the filament had both bigger and smaller height variations of the style. For that species the estimated differences between the medium height of the style at 8:30 a.m. and the filament 1 and 4; and between the medium height of the style at 10:30 a.m. and filament 3, 4 and 5 were significant. For I. batata the differences between the medium heights of the style and of the filament were significant.

Barleria prionitis produces one-day flowers which are self-compatible and homogamous. In open flower state, pollen transfer from anther to stigma does not take place until and unless those are carried by a biotic vector. However, during the abscission of corolla, when it is dragged against the stigma, the receptive stigmatic surface brushes against the anthers of the shorter epipetalous stamens and also the secondarily presented pollens in the 'pollen pocket' constituted by the hairy base of the corolla tube. Such delayed autogamous pollination takes place in the flowers irrespective of pollen deposition on their stigmas before corolla abscission. The phenomenon acts as a failsafe mechanism to ensure pollination even in case of failure of pollinator activity.

Cultivation of pollinator-dependent crops has expanded globally, increasing our reliance on insect pollination. This essential ecosystem service is provided by a wide range of managed and wild pollinators whose abundance and diversity are thought to be in decline, threatening sustainable food production. The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is amongst the best-monitored insects but the state of other managed pollinators is less well known. Here, we review the status and trends of all managed pollinators based on publicly accessible databases and the published literature. We found that, on a global scale, the number of managed A. mellifera colonies has increased by 85% since 1961, driven mainly by Asia. This contrasts with high reported colony overwinter mortality, especially in North America (average 26% since 2007) and Europe (average 16% since 2007). Increasing agri- cultural dependency on pollinators as well as threats associated with managing non-native pollinators have likely spurred interest in the management of alternative species for pollination, including bumble bees, stingless bees, solitary bees, and flies that have higher efficiency in pollinating specific crops. We identify 66 insect species that have been, or are considered to have the potential to be, managed for crop pollination, including seven bumble bee species and subspecies currently commercially produced mainly for the pollination of greenhouse-grown tomatoes and two species that are trap-nested in New Zealand. Other managed pollinators currently in use include eight solitary bee species (mainly for pollination services in orchards or alfalfa fields) and three fly species (mainly used in enclosures and for seed production). Additional species in each taxonomic category are under consideration for pollinator management. Examples include 15 stingless bee species that are able to buzz- pollinate, will fly in enclosures, and some of which have a history of management for honey production; their use for pollination is not yet established. To ensure sustainable, integrated pollination management in agricultural landscapes, the risks, as well as the benefits of novel managed pollinator species must be considered. We, therefore, urge the prioritization of biodiversity-friendly measures maintaining native pollinator species diversity to provide ecosystem resilience to future environmental changes.

Estima-se um total de 2,9 milhões de colônias de A. mellifera nos EUA e dois milhões dessas colônias estão diretamente envolvidas em polinização de culturas, produção de mel e cera (MORSE E CALDERONE, 2000). Os mesmos autores relataram que 2.500.000 colônias são utilizadas na polinização dos USA,
contra 2.035.000 no ano de 1989. Esse aumento de 18,6% deu-se devido ao aumento da indústria da amêndoa na Califórnia que somou mais 300.000 dessas colônias. Outro fator foi o aumento da população dos Estados Unidos que cresceu 10% na
última década, contabilizando para 10% o aumento da produção de alimentos e, ao mesmo tempo, somando mais 200.000 colônias de abelhas Apis mellifera. Em uma estimativa mais recente (GALLAI et al., 2008) constataram que o valor econômico mundial do serviço de polinização por insetos, principalmente abelhas, foi de 153 bilhões de euros em 2005 para as principais culturas que alimentam o mundo. No Brasil, os estudos sobre o valor econômico da polinização e seus déficits ainda são escassos. As informações limitadas demonstram que a agricultura no Brasil pode crescer muito mais, uma vez que a produtividade poderá aumentar com o
emprego de técnicas de polinização que sejam adequadas a uma área agrícola específica ou ecossistema. A deficiência de informações remete ao grande potencial para pesquisas
aplicadas com abelhas e ao desenvolvimento da agricultura no país e no mundo. O que diretamente está relacionado às diversas áreas como Engenharia Florestal, Zootecnia, Biologia, Agronomia, Estatística, Matemática, Melhoramento Animal e
Vegetal, Genética Quantitativa e Molecular, entre outras. A polinização é um serviço imprescindível para a manutenção das culturas agrícolas e da biodiversidade. A quantificação ainda deficiente desse serviço em valores econômicos justifica todas as iniciativas nacionais e internacionais para a preservação dos insetos polinizadores, mais especificamente das abelhas, que até agora não abrangem toda a extensão territorial do nosso país e do mundo.

Since the publication of the last Lebanese and Syrian classical flora, the only complete work on Lebanese flora is an illustrated book based on the same taxonomy and nomenclature with a few exceptions and some additions. Specifically on the Lebanese orchids, one book has illustrated orchids in the field with an unusual taxonomic point of view. Several Euro-Mediterranean monographs propose a conflicting taxonomy that is not always useful in identifying living specimens. Several years of exploration throughout Lebanon allowed the authors to build considerable knowledge of the orchid flora and its taxonomy. Other works made on adjacent areas completed the investigations and provided some useful indications to build taxonomic understanding and compile a preliminary checklist of Orchidaceae. Historical nomenclature was reanalysed from a modern point of view; recent critical appellations were confronted with biogeography and integrative evolutionary taxonomy, and some poorly known taxa are highlighted and their taxonomy is reinvestigated. A total of 51 species and subspecies are listed for Lebanon. Two new chorological records for Lebanon (Epipactis helleborine “subsp. praecox” nom. provis.; Ophrys alasiatica) and four new nomenclatural combinations (Androrchis × ehdenica, Epipactis helleborine subsp. turcica, Ophrys episcopalis subsp. libanotica, Serapias vomeracea subsp. levantina) are presented. At least 14 taxa are regionally endemic, seven of which are limited to two border countries, the other seven being too poorly known for conclusions about their biogeography.

While the presence of some phytophagous bats species in Neotropical cities is generally known, detailed information on their feeding habits in urban ecosystems is still limited. In some highly developed urban spaces, native plant species are scarce, therefore phytophagous bats living in those conditions could be relying only on resources offered by introduced vegetation. This study describes the diet of Glossophaga soricina in the campus of Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina in the city of Lima, Peru. To achieve this, from September 2016 to May 2017, bats were captured using mist nets to collect samples of feces and pollen from their body surface. The phytophagous diet of G. soricina comprised resources offered by at least 25 species of cultivated plants, nearly all of them introduced to Lima. Glossophaga soricina mainly fed on the nectar/pollen of Agave angustifolia, Eucalyptus spp., Crescentia cujete and Musa spp., and fruits of Piper aduncum and Morus nigra. Insects were also registered in its diet. It consumed many non-chiropterophilous flowers and most of its principal resources are not abundant in the study area. Results suggest that G. soricina is a generalist nectarivore that has adapted its dietary habits to consume nectar/pollen of a wide variety of flowers and complements its diet with fruits and insects. It is concluded that introduced cultivated vegetation permits the persistence of G. soricina in the city; hence unsuitable green areas management could negatively affect its local populations. More studies on ecology of urban phytophagous bats in Lima and other Neotropical cities are required to conserve their populations in those altered ecosystems.

The research focused on the management of stormwater and sewage generated in a
developed urban area - Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. This involved the design of sanitary sewers, stormwater collection networks and a central sewage treatment plant. The total estimate of the wastewater generated from various locations was 5.067 million litres per day based on the population of approximately 26,131. The existing sewage disposal system in use in the institution was the septic tank-soakaway arrangement for individual buildings. The design of the sanitary sewers and stormwater collection networks are based on the principles of hydraulics. The results obtained were used to analyze and design the drains and pipe sizes for the open channels and the closed conduits respectively. The size of the drains for stormwater collection networks was designed with the assumption of 0.75 and 1 meter width. Also, calculations were made for square drain (depth equals width)
to be able to select practicable sizes. For optimum size solution, pipe size of 100 mm was found to be suitable for wastewater conveyance from the office areas. The sizes of pipes calculated for flows from residential quarters are too small, hence available commercial pipe sizes were selected. Wastewater samples were collected at various locations and were determined through laboratory tests to ascertain the concentrations of significant physical, chemical and biological content of the wastewater for proper selection of appropriate treatment processes. A BOD concentration of 350 mg/l and 353 mg/l obtained for residential and office areas respectively translated to high pollution load requires treatment before ultimate discharge into the receiving stream. The proposed sewage treatment plant was sited
at the lowest topographical level, far enough from the office and residential quarters. This would allow flow by gravity from the various points. The sewage treatment plant components selected include screen chamber, grit chamber, skimming tank and rectangular/circular primary settling/sedimentation tank (PST), which are designed to optimal dimensions.

Four states contain over 401 species of bees, about which little is known except for a few common species. Forests of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont were largely cleared in colonial times, then trees grew back as of the 1870s. Canopy closure, urbanization, and intensive agriculture have led to reduced habitats for bees. Managed and wild bees of the region are found especially in forest openings. Many visit flowers across different plant species, though an estimated 15% visit only one or a few plant taxa. Because bee life histories, population dynamics, and host plant relations are incompletely known, an emphasis on habitat is appropriate because the environment can be manipulated. We list 15 bee habitats with natural and anthropogenic features, and suggest 40 plant taxa that may be effective in plantings for bees. Pollination systems in two native crops, lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) and cranberry (V. macrocarpon), are better-studied than most crops; from these we developed an economic perspective on altering habitat to support bees. Threats to bees include habitat loss, pests and pathogens, pesticides, and climate change. We consider practical aspects for improving pollinator habitats. The adoption of suggested habitat improvements will help meet goals in bee conservation and pollination security, and could aid in protecting pollination of the native flora. We identify gaps in knowledge to help prioritize future research directions.

Microscopy Cells are small and in almost all situations a microscope is needed to observe them and their subcellular components. In fact the invention of the microscope led to the discovery and description of cells by Hooke in 1655. The microscope is still an extremely important tool in biological research. Microscope as the name suggests are instruments that help to enlarge minute (micro = very small) organisms or their parts. A microscope not only presents a magnified view of the object but also 'resolves' it better. There are two fundamentally different types of microscope:

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera, is well-known for its role in honey production, its ecological importance in plant reproduction and biodiversity, and more importantly, the pollination of many economically significant crops in the United States (Staveley, Law, Fairbrother, & Menzie, 2014; vanEngelsdorp & Meixner, 2010). The food we eat from the most nutritious crops in our diets – key fruits and vegetables – as well as some crops used as fodder in meat and dairy production significantly depend on the key ecosystem service that honey bees  provide: natural insect-mediated pollination (Tirado, Simon, & Johnston, 2013). As the predominant and most economically important group of pollinators in most geographical regions, both managed and wild honey bees pollinate most wild plants so that they may reproduce, thereby directly or indirectly supporting wild habitats that provide other ecosystem services (Tirado et al., 2013). One can then see the possible ramifications of the ongoing bee colony decline in recent years; however, the economic and ecological consequences tend to be viewed separately in their own scope, and it is not entirely clear how the two areas intersect.

To manage agroecosystems for multiple ecosystem services, we need to know whether the management of one service has positive, negative, or no effects on other services. We do not yet have data on the interactions between pollination and pest-control services. However, we do have data on the distributions of pollinators and natural enemies in agroecosystems. Therefore, we compared these two groups of ecosystem service providers, to see if the management of farms and agricultural landscapes might have similar effects on the abundance and richness of both. In a meta-analysis, we compared 46 studies that sampled bees, predatory beetles, parasitic wasps, and spiders in fields, orchards, or vineyards of food crops. These studies used the proximity or proportion of non-crop or natural habitats in the landscapes surrounding these crops (a measure of landscape complexity), or the proximity or diversity of non-crop plants in the margins of these crops (a measure of local complexity), to explain the abundance or richness of these beneficial arthropods. Compositional complexity at both landscape and local scales had positive effects on both pollinators and natural enemies, but different effects on different taxa. Effects on bees and spiders were significantly positive, but effects on parasitoids and predatory beetles (mostly Carabidae and Staphylinidae) were inconclusive. Landscape complexity had significantly stronger effects on bees than it did on predatory beetles and significantly stronger effects in non-woody rather than in woody crops. Effects on richness were significantly stronger than effects on abundance, but possibly only for spiders. This abundance-richness difference might be caused by differences between generalists and specialists, or between arthropods that depend on non-crop habitats (ecotone species and dispersers) and those that do not (cultural species). We call this the ‘specialist-generalist’ or ‘cultural difference’ mechanism. If complexity has stronger effects on richness than abundance, it might have stronger effects on the stability than the magnitude of these arthropod-mediated ecosystem services. We conclude that some pollinators and natural enemies seem to have compatible responses to complexity, and it might be possible to manage agroecosystems for the benefit of both. However, too few studies have compared the two, and so we cannot yet conclude that there are no negative interactions between pollinators and natural enemies, and no trade-offs between pollination and pest-control services. Therefore, we suggest a framework for future research to bridge these gaps in our knowledge.

This paper comprises Part II of a review of flower visitation and pollination by Diptera (myiophily or myophily). While Part I examined taxonomic diversity of anthophilous flies, here we consider the rewards and attractants used by flowers to procure visits by flies, and their importance in the lives of flies. Food rewards such as pollen and nectar are the primary reasons for flower visits, but there is also a diversity of non-nutritive rewards such as brood sites, shelter, and places of congregation. Floral attractants are the visual and chemical cues used by Diptera to locate flowers and the rewards that they offer, and we show how they act to increase the probability of floral visitation. Lastly, we discuss the various ways in which flowers manipulate the behaviour of flies, deceiving them to visit flowers that do not provide the advertised reward, and how some flies illegitimately remove floral rewards without causing pollination. Our review demonstrates that myiophily is a syndrome corresponding to elements of anatomical, behavioural and physiological adaptations of flower-visiting Diptera. The bewildering diversity of anthophilous Diptera and of the floral attractants and rewards to which they respond allows for only broad generalizations on myiophily and points to the need for more investigation. Ecological relationships between flies and flowers are critical to the survival of each group in many habitats. We require greater understanding of the significance of flies in pollination, especially in the face of recent pollinator declines.

Background
Experimental manipulations of floral nectar in food deceptive species can reveal insights
into the evolutionary consequences of the deceptive strategy. When coupled to pollen tracking,
the effects of the deceptive pollination syndrome on both male and female reproductive
success may be quantified. Attraction of pollinators in deceit-pollinated species often relies
on producing a conspicuous floral display which may increase visibility to pollinators, but inturn
may increase within plant selfing.
Methodology
To understand the role of deception in Orchidaceae reproduction we studied Cypripedium
candidum. All species of the Cypripedium genus employ a generalized food deceptive pollination
strategy and have been suggested as a model system for the study of pollinator
deception. We conducted a nectar addition experiment that randomly assigned the four
plants closest to a transect point to receive one of four histochemical dyes. Two individuals
selected for nectar addition in each of altogether 25 blocks received 2μl of 25% sucrose
solution in the labellum of each flower, while two others received no artificial nectar. Number
of fruits produced, fruit mass and fruit abortion were scored at the end of the four-month
experiment.
Results
Nectar addition increased (p<0.0001) self-pollination and pollen discounting by nearly 3x,
while plants not receiving nectar had greater (p<0.0001) numbers of non-self pollinia deposited
and lower rates of pollen discounting. There was a non-significant (p = 0.0645) trend for
deceptive plants to set more fruit, while presence of nectar did not affect pollen export.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates the adaptive advantages of food deception by showing a concurrent
reduction in particular male and female functions when a food reward is restored to a deceptive flower. We found generalized food deception to not only decrease inbreeding
depression in the system, but concurrently have no effect on pollinator attraction and fruit
set when compared with rewarding flowers.

Pollinator-dependent agriculture heavily relies upon a single pollinator-the honey bee. To diversify pollination strategies, growers are turning to alternatives. Densely planted reservoirs of pollen- and nectar-rich flowers (pollination reservoirs, hereafter "PRs") may improve pollination services provided by wild bees. Our focal agroecosystem, lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton), exists in a simple landscape uniquely positioned to benefit from PRs. First, we contrast bee visitation rates and use of three types of PR. We consider the effects of PRs on wild bee diversity and the composition of bumble bee pollen loads. We contrast field-level crop pollination services between PRs and controls four years postestablishment. Last, we calculate the time to pay for PR investment. Social bees preferentially used clover plantings; solitary bees preferentially used wildflower plantings. On average, bumble bee pollen loads in treatment fields contained 37% PR pollen. PRs significantly increased visitation rates to the crop in year 4, and exerted a marginally significant positive influence on fruit set. The annualized costs of PRs were covered by the fourth year using the measured increase in pollination services. Our findings provide evidence of the positive impact of PRs on crop pollination services.

Many flowering plants engage in mutualistic interactions with animals in order to sexually reproduce, exchanging food rewards such as nectar and pollen for the service of pollen transfer between flowers. Floral reward variation strongly influences visitation patterns of both pollinating mutualists and non-mutualist consumers, with consequences for both male and female components of plant reproductive success. Despite the importance of pollination to ecological systems, the pollination ecology of many plants is poorly known. At seven sites over three years, we studied the mating system, floral visitors and pollen limitation of turtlehead (Chelone glabra L.), an eastern North America wetland herb. We found that the plant is autogamous, but requires pollinator visitation to set seed. C. glabra flowers are protandrous, with floral rewards that vary between male and female sex phases. We found diurnal variation in reward presentation that was a function of both floral phenology and consumer behaviour. Bombus vagans Smith, the most common visitor to C. glabra flowers, removed a large fraction of available pollen (> 36%) in single visits to newly opened flowers, and compared to other flower visitors, passively transported more pollen on flights between flowers and deposited more to conspecific stigmas, suggesting it was the most effective pollinator. The solitary bee Hylaeus annulatus L. made frequent visits to flowers, but contributed little to pollination due to morphological mismatch and because it avoided male-phase flowers. Despite high bee visitation rates, flowers were pollen limited for seed production, possibly indicating a negative effect of non-pollinating flower visitors on plant reproductive success.