giridhar mvss

The reflectance spectrum or spectral reflectance curve is the plot of the reflectance as a function of wavelength. Spectral signature is the difference in reflectance or emittance characteristics with respect to wavelength. Spectroradiometer is an instrument used for measurement of reflectance in percentage values from the objects. It has been using in many fields such asvegetative stress analysis, Forestry Analysis, Marine and Wetlands studies measurement etc. The graph given by Spectroradiometer is between percentages of reflectance on Y-axis and Wavelength in nanometer on X-axis. Graphs suggest how much percentage of energy reflects from incident energy and the drawn graph which is not a straight line or smooth curve. Rise and fall indicates the water absorption bands. Dips vary with material to materials which also depends on molecules present which them. Healthy vegetation will absorb more light than unhealthy or stress condition vegetation. If the reflectance is more than 26% then the crop is in healthy condition if it is less than 26% means crop is in stress condition. For any vegetation dips can be found at 400nm, 500nm, 550nm, 670nm, 770nm, 870nm and 920nm. There may be the same dips for a particular crop irrespective stages but percentage of reflectance will be vary because of chlorophyll , leaf internal structure and moisture content. In the present study, the spectral reflectance of tomato controlled conditions in Sri KondaLaxman Horticultural University of Telangana (Rajendra Nagar) farmhouse from the visible/near infrared spectra of sensitive spectral band was applied to develop a method for rapid detection of spectral reflectance.

The Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is an index of the total amount of organic substances in water, playing a key role in assessing the efficiency of a wastewater purification process. It is used in a wide array of applications from management of wastewater treatment plant influent and effluent, to drinking water supply management, and monitoring of impurities in process and surface waters. In this respect, a key issue is to find the most efficient analytical method to determine the amount of TOC in the wastewater, both in terms of time, cost and accuracy of results. Ferric chloride and Alum, which are the most common types of coagulants in water treatment plants of Iran as well as many other countries, were investigated with the aim of determining their capabilities to reduce TOC of urban lake samples namely Durgam Cheruvu, Chinna Maisamma Cheruvu, Khajaguda Cheruvu, Sunnam Cheruvu, Timmidkunta Cheruvu and Malaka Cheruvu in and around HITEC city and Borabanda collected in the month of June 2016. In the present study, Jar tests were carried out to optimize coagulant dose and study the effect of Alum and Ferric chloride on TOC effectively using Alum and Ferric chloride tested within (50-100 mg/L) dose range. The highest TOC removal efficiency was within 5-15 % for Alum and Ferric chloride over applied range of dose. Both applied coagulants demonstrated promising performance in reducing total organic carbon content from the urban lake samples.

Spectroradiometer is an instrument which works based on principle of remote sensing, collecting data without making any physical contact with objects. Basically Spectroradiometer is used in many fields such as oil industry, food industry, Vegetative stress analysis, Surface color measurement. Spectral analysis is a fast, non-destructive and invasive method. If the reflectance is more than 26% then the crop is in healthy condition if it is less than 26% means crop is in stress condition. For any vegetation dips can be found at 400nm, 500nm, 550nm, 670nm, 770nm, 870nm and 920nm. There may be the same dips for a particular crop irrespective stages but percentage of reflectance will be vary because of chlorophyll , leaf internal structure and moisture content. In this paper study moved on cluster beans crop and variety of cluster beans for local names such as Meena and Rani at maturation stages. Objective of the study is to develop spectral library for Cluster beans for selected study area located in Sri Konda Laxman Horticultural University Rajendra nagar farmhouse using Spectroradiometer.

In the present study, a rainfall map of the study area was prepared by Thiessen polygon method for years 2000-2014 and the rainfall data for daily was obtained from which normal average monthly, yearly was analyzed. GIS is used to explore spatial patterns of the trends over the entire Kaddam basin. GIS software can easily handle, store, analyze, manipulate and retrieve spatial data map preparation can be easily implemented using GIS environment. The rainfall data over the years was collected and maps were obtained with the help of GIS. Yearly and monthly rainfall is analyzed along the Kaddam watershed quantifying aspects as the anomaly of rainfall amounts and the spatial distribution of rainfall data. A trend analysis for Monthly average rainfall is done for year 2000-2014 which shows a very high rainfall in the region of Inderavelly and comparatively very low rainfall in Khanapur. Average rainfall shows a decreasing rainfall trend in the basin during the period 2000-2004, which is reversed during the period 2004–2005 resulting in increasing rainfall trend in the basin. The most probable year of change was found to be 2004 in annual and monsoonal rainfall which proved to be a drought year and year 2013 showed a considerable increase in rainfall.

In-line coagulant injection facility is an innovative application technology in restoring Eutrophic lakes. In this technology, guidelines for dose calculation and application are lacking. Coagulation in combination with flocculation and sedimentation is a process that is commonly used in water treatment to remove undesirable contaminants. Ferric chloride and Alum, which are the most common types of coagulants in water treatment plants of Iran as well as many other countries, were investigated with the aim of determining their capabilities to reduce turbidity of water sample collected from Durgam Cheruvu in the month of June 2016. In this study, Jar tests are carried out to optimize coagulant dose and study the effect of Alum and Ferric chloride on Physicochemical parameters such as pH, EC, TDS, SO 4 , NO 3 , Cl and Alkalinity. Results showed that coagulation process could remove turbidity effectively using Alum and Ferric chloride tested within (50-100 mg/L) dose range. It was noted that turbidity removal is dependent on pH, coagulant dosage as well as initial turbidity of lake for both used coagulants. The highest turbidity removal efficiency was within 66-76 % for Alum and 71-80% for Ferric chloride over applied range of dose. Both applied coagulants demonstrated promising performance in turbidity removal from the lake sample.

Land, surface waters, and ground water worldwide, are increasingly affected by contaminations from industrial, research experiments, military, and agricultural activities either due to ignorance, lack of vision, carelessness, or high cost of waste disposal and treatment. Large amount of water is being consumed in agriculture, industry, domestic and municipal use which imposes a further demand on this resource. Every community produces both liquid and solid wastes in day to day life. The water supply of the community results into wastewater after it has been fouled by a variety of uses. Today most of the water bodies are polluted by anthropogenic activities including release of untreated sewage. Hence, there is a gradual decline in the availability of fresh water. Plants act as bio-filters in the wastewater treatment technologies. Interest in phytoremediation as a method to solve environmental contamination has been growing rapidly in recent years. Phytoremediation involves growing plants in a contaminated matrix to remove environmental contaminants by facilitating sequestration and/or degradation (detoxification) of the pollutants. In this paper, marshy plants Colacasia esculenta and Canna indica are used. The studies aim at developing and assessing sewage treatment efficiency through Constructed wetland pilot scale plant for treatment of sewage to recycle and reuse. Treatment site is JNTUH Campus. Parameters to be analyzed: EC, DO, COD, BOD, pH, TDS, TSS, TS, NO 3 , PO 4 , SO 4. The efficiency of the two plants for phytoremediation is compared. The treated water obtained was clear in color and the values indicate that Canna indica is more efficient than the Colacasia esculenta. The future scope of the phytoremediation may ensure the better performance by using the Genetically Modified plants by combining different species for the Phytoremediation technique.

Grass Reference evapotranspiration as ' the rate of evapotranspiration from a hypothetical reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m , a fixed surface resistance of 70 sec/m and an albedo of 0.23 closely resembling the evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass of uniform height actively growing completely shading the ground and with adequate water'. Evapotranspiration is one of the major components of the hydrologic cycle. Accurate estimation of RET is essential in many environmental studies such as hydrologic water balance, irrigation scheduling, and efficient water resource planning and management. Different meteorological parameters such as Maximum and minimum temperature, Maximum and minimum relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours shall be collected in order to estimate RET. Various methods are available in the literature to determine Reference evapotranspiration based on temperature methods, radiation methods and combination methods. However, all the methods are not suitable for accurate estimation of RET for all the study areas, as RET methods are site specific. Keeping this in view, it is proposed to study and estimate daily, monthly and yearly reference evapotranspiration for the study area using the above methods. Paleru sub basin (K-11) of river Krishna, located in the Andhra Pradesh has been considered for the study area. Out of all the available methods, a suitable method for estimation of RET shall be identified pertaining to the study area.

Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to be distinguished readily from other types of land cover. Spectral reflectance curve for healthy green vegetation exhibits the "peak-and-valley" configuration. The peaks indicate strong reflection and the valleys indicate predominant absorption of the energy in the corresponding wavelength bands. In general, healthy vegetations are very good absorbers of electromagnetic energy in the visible region. Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to be distinguished readily from other types of land cover. Using multi spectral remote sensing, plant species mapping has always posed a problem because of the discontinuous bands. This has lead to research into the use of electromagnetic energy continuously. Hyper spectral remote sensing is capable to record reflectance values at nanometers and acquire very narrow, many, contiguous spectral bands throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. In this present research work developed spectral libraries using SVC spectroradiometer for prominent species of Poaceae available at Rajendra nagar agricultural university, Hyderabad by measuring and analyzing their reflectance curves uses SVC software. The chlorophyll absorption bands are observed at 490nm and 670nm for the species of the Graminaceae. The red edge for all the spectral signatures is observed at the 720nm commonly. The different percentages of reflectance is observed for variety species as the type of chlorophyll and cell structures of the leaves which are reflected in visible and near infrared regions varies which is explained in detailed hyperspectral remote sensing by recording the reflectance in very narrow bands.

Deteriorating water quality of lakes is alarming concern in Hyderabad city. This is on the whole true for lakes which are surrounded by urbanized area and industries. Disposal of waste water and sewage has become menacing problem in cities due to increased population. Lakes facing degradation due to anthropogenic activities such as directing sewage, domestic waste and effluents into lakes and changes in land use pattern etc. thus leading to the worsening of environmental sustainability. This study is main consideration to assess the characterization of water quality parameters, to identify polluting sources and its impacts. Water quality measurements had been carried out during pre and post monsoon seasons of the year 2015 for 30 lakes which are considered in research. Water samples were collected and tested for chemical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved solids, CO 3 , HCO 3 , CL, F, NO 3 , SO 4 , Na, K, Ca, Mg and Total Hardness) using Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Based on the water quality analysis, the concentrations of parameters during post monsoon was found to be lesser than pre monsoon season which is phenomenon of rainwater dilution in lakes during monsoon. From the analysis it is discerned that concentration of all parameters varying moderately during pre and post monsoon seasons, excluding parameters like fluorides and nitrates. The anomalous concentrations of F ranging from 1.53 mg/lit – 1.63 mg/lit and NO 3 ranging greater than 30 mg/lit for some lakes which are more than BIS.

Water, Land and Vegetation are the three basic natural resources essential for any life support system on the surface of Earth.Today the world is facing serious environmental problems like resource depletion, environmental degradation, scarcity of clean water and loss of biodiversitydue to increase in population. It is necessary to restore the ecological imbalance by developing these degraded wastelands and harness the full potential of available water resources and prevent its further degradation. Urbanization and industrialization are mainly responsible for changes in Land Use Land Cover thus contributing to degradation of the natural environment.These changes are leading to numerous environmental problems ranging from local to global scale such as decreased water supply, local climate alteration, land degradation, increased energy demands, increased water, air, soil pollution, poor sanitation facilities, traffic congestion, reduction in biomass and carbon storage/sequestration. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) particularlydue to urbanization has become the top priority andmany studies have been conducted with a goal to better understand the impact and issues related to LULC changes. The problems relating to water, degraded land, and its management are not only complex but also multi-dimensional in nature. Maintaining a balance between urban development and optimal utilization of available fresh water resources is a great challenge to engineers and hydrologists, thus an integrated watershed management approach needs to be adopted. The strategies employed shall not only be able to resolve conflicts among different users by keeping in view of ever increasing developmental activities in watershed regions but also to create awareness about the importance of sustainable watershed development.The goal of this review paper is to investigate the complexities of Land Use Land Coverchanges in the past in Hyderabad area and their influence on environment and specially onwater bodies. It also emphasizes how modern geospatial techniques like SDSS, Remote Sensing and GIS could be effectively used to detect the LULC changes at the earliest and take necessary measures so as to restore its majesty.

Digital image classification has an important role in extracting the categorical information from the image resulting in thematic maps which act as primary inputs for many land related studies. However the accuracy of the thematic map produced from digital classification depends on many factors like classification algorithm, parameters used in the classifier, size of the training samples etc. The spectrally rich images obtained from space borne hyperspectral sensors contain many mixed pixels due to their moderate spatial resolution and narrow band widths. Acquiring too many pure pixels from the hyperspectral image for training these datasets is a challenging task. In the present work, the space borne hyperspectral data-Hyperion has been tested with four well known classifiers Spectral Angle Mapper(SAM), Support Vector Machine(SVM) and Artificial Neural Networks(ANN) with training samples of various sizes-5, 10, 20, 30 and 50. The test was conducted twice-initially for classifying 5 classes and later for classifying 15 classes. The purity of the training samples collected was tested using Jaffari's Mathusita transformed divergence method. Analysis of the results obtained have shown that Support Vector Machine classifier gave accurate thematic maps with higher accuracies with minimum number of training samples. This shows the superiority of statistical learning theory based SVM classifier over MLC and ANN classifiers in complex and heterogeneous environments where many pure pixels are not available for training the dataset.

Rainfall analysis, on various spatial and temporal scales, has been of great concern amid the past century in view of the consideration given to worldwide environmental change by established researchers. The investigation of precipitation patterns is basically imperative for a nation like India whose food security and economy are reliant on the convenient accessibility of water. The point of the present study is to analyze the precipitation time series over a wide time interim, identifying potential patterns and evaluating their significance. In this study, a rainfall map of the study area was prepared by Thiessen polygon method for years 2000-2014 and the rainfall data for daily was obtained from which normal average monthly, yearly was analyzed. GIS is used to explore spatial patterns of the trends over the entire Kaddam basin. GIS software can easily handle, store, analyze, manipulate and retrieve spatial data map preparation can be easily implemented using GIS environment. The rainfall data over the years was collected and maps were obtained with the help of GIS. Eight rain gauge stations namely Inderavelly, Ichoda, Bazarhathnoor, Boath, Naranoor, Khanapur, Kaddam and Utnur located within the Adilabad district, Telangana, have been analyzed for the period 2000–2014 and normal yearly average rainfall has been calculated as 1178,1129,1160,1054, 1057, 974, 983 and 1154 respectively. Yearly and monthly rainfall is analyzed along the Kaddam watershed quantifying aspects as the anomaly of rainfall amounts and the spatial distribution of rainfall data. A trend analysis for Monthly average rainfall is done for year 2000-2014 which shows a very high rainfall in the region of Inderavelly and comparatively very low rainfall in Khanapur. Average rainfall shows a decreasing rainfall trend in the basin during the period 2000-2004, which is reversed during the period 2004–2005 resulting in increasing rainfall trend in the basin. The most probable year of change was found to be 2004 in annual and monsoonal rainfall which proved to be a drought year and year 2013 showed a considerable increase in rainfall.

Hyperspectral remote sensing is process of collecting and processing of information from across the electromagnetic spectrum. Hyperspectral used number of spectral bands hundreds to thousands narrow few nanometer, detects and identifies solids and liquids. The spectral analysis is a fast and non-destructive method and has been used in many fields such as vegetative stress analysis, Forestry Analysis, Marine and Wetlands studies measurement. Rise and fall of trend can be noticed which provides the information about water absorption dips varies with material to materials which also depends on molecules present which them. Healthy vegetation will absorb more light than unhealthy or stress condition vegetation. The objective of the present study is to develop the spectral reflectance of uncontrolled and controlled of tomato farming using Spectro-radiometer. To achieve the above objective Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University (Rajendranagar) is taken as study area. From the number of spectral reading taken in the field by the spectroradiometer, it has been found that the dips has been found at 400nm, 500nm, 550nm, 670nm, 770nm and 920nm wavelengths for uncontrolled and controlled tomato vegetation during maturity and harvesting stages. From the analysis dips are common at same wavelengths for both uncontrolled and controlled farming and the only difference is percentage of reflectance. This is due presence of chlorophyll content in the tomato leaves in visible region, more chlorophyll present so lesser the reflectance, whereas in near infrared region chlorophyll content is more than middle infrared and less than that of visible region so rising trend has obtained.

Vegetation covers a large portion of the earth's land surface. Its role on the regulation of the global temperature, absorption of carbon dioxide and other important functions, make it a land cover type of great significance and interest. Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to be distinguished readily from other types of land cover in an optical /near infrared image. The reflectance is low in both the blue and red regions of the spectrum due to absorption by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It has a peak at the green region. Using multi spectral remote sensing, plant species mapping has always posed a problem because of the discontinuous bands. This has lead to research into the use of hyper spectral remote sensing by recording the reflectance in very narrow bands of the electromagnetic energy continuously. Hyper spectral remote sensing is capable to record reflectance values at nanometers and acquire very narrow, many, contiguous spectral bands throughout the electromagnetic spectrum i.e., in visible, near-infrared, mid-infrared as well as in thermal infrared portion. In this present research work developed spectral libraries using SVC spectroradiometer for prominent species of Poaceae available at Rajendra Nagar agricultural university, Hyderabad by measuring and analyzing their reflectance curves uses SVC software. The chlorophyll absorption bands are observed at 390nm, 670nm for the species of the Poaceae. The common red edge for all the spectral signatures is observed at the 720nm. The different percentages of reflectance is observed for variety species as the type of chlorophyll and cell structures of the leaves which are reflected in visible and near infrared regions varies which is explained in detailed

Soil moisture is a critical process in the water cycle. In agricultural production, the spatial variability of soil moisture can be responsible for low or spatially variable crop yields, as soil moisture is required to make nutrients soluble for plant absorption. Soil moisture fluctuates both spatially and temporally due to factors such as soil type, soil horizon, and other site-specific geologic and climatic conditions. Traditional efforts to measure soil moisture have been principally restricted to in situ measurements. The spectral analysis is a fast and non-destructive method and has been used in many fields such as oil industry, food industry, Vegetative stress analysis, Forestry Analysis, Marine and Wetlands studies, Mineral identification, and Surface color measurement. Soils darken when wet with little apparent color change. This commonly observed phenomenon is an obvious and dominant characteristic of the reflectance of soils. Several explanations for the darkening have been suggested based on at least two, very distinct theoretical hypotheses. The spectral reflectance curve of bare soil is considerably less variable. The reflectance curve is affected by moisture content, soil texture, surface roughness, presence of iron oxide and organic matter. In the present study, the spectral reflectance of soil is found from the visible/near infrared spectra of sensitive spectral band was applied to develop a method for rapid detection of soil moisture content. From the study it has been studied how reflectance varies with respect to moisture content for red soil using Spectroradiometer. In this study, soil surface reflectance data in the visible and near−infrared regions were analyzed by spectroradiometer and it is observed that the reflectance is more when the soil is dry and the less reflectance is observed when the soil is highly wetted manually. .

The current study is carried out to determine the potential trend of rainfall and assess its significance in Godavari Sub basin up to Kadam water shed in Adilabad district of Telangana State. Rainfall is a key characteristic of any water shed which place a significant role in flood frequency, flood control studies and water planning and management. In this case study, mean daily rainfall has been analyzed to determine the variability in magnitude over the period 2000 – 2014. Trend in daily precipitation data are analyzed using excel.

The study of the water quality of surface water bodies in Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) has carried out to assess the risk to ecology. A Qualitative study has also been done in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons considering the change in various parameters and its concentrations. It had been found that concentration of parameters in pre-monsoon period is higher than post-monsoon which is natural phenomenon. This study is main consideration to assess the quality of water for its best utilization like drinking and to maintain sustainable environment. Water bodies facing degradation due to anthropogenic activities such as directing human waste and changes in land use pattern etc. thus leading to the deterioration of environmental quality as well as a decrease in the surface area and depth of water bodies. Present study is to assess the quality of the water bodies in GHMC by developing a water quality index (WQI) and to predict the future pollution levels. For this purpose, 29 surface water bodies had been selected in GHMC for the study. Only two sample sites named Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar are found fit for in all studied water quality parameters on comparison with standards.

Turbidity is a principle physical characteristic of water. It is caused by suspended matter or impurities that interfere with the clarity of the water. These impurities may include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and organic matter, soluble coloured organic compounds, plankton and other microscopic organisms. Excessive turbidity in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing and may also represent a health concern. Turbid waters, containing colloidal particles, are normally treated by coagulation-flocculation followed by clarification. Generally, alum is the first coagulant of choice because of its lower cost and its widespread availability. The coagulation performance of Alum, an inorganic chemical coagulant was tested on synthetic high turbid water (90-140 NTU). In this study, the effectiveness of alum was evaluated at room temperature with initial pH (6-7.4) for two coagulant doses 10 mg/l and 20 mg/l in 250 ml synthetic high turbid water by adopting manual agitation at very low settling time conditions rather than a traditional jar test. Results showed that coagulation process could remove turbidity effectively using relatively low levels of Alum. Studies reveal that turbidity removal is dependent on pH, coagulant dose, as well as initial turbidity of water. The highest turbidity removal efficiency was 46.15 % over the applied range of turbidity. The results of the current study can be used as a baseline data for drinking water treatment facilities which uses Alum as a coagulant.

Due to increased industrialization and unplanned urbanization Hussain Sagar lake has been polluted with potentially toxic elements, other trace elements and heavy metals like As, Li and B due to discharge of untreated sewage containing municipal and industrial effluents, idol immersions, urban runoff and boating activities. The lake currently serves as a tourist spot. Out of the above mentioned pollutants Arsenic and Chromium have severe impact on human health. Several studies have been carried out to assess the level of Cr and As and have reported results exceeding the desirable limits. With regard to human health Arsenic by virtue of its nature is found to be very effective in deteriorating water quality. For improved human health, a systematic strategy for water quality assessment and monitoring needs to be formulated.

According to Statistics 783 million people across the globe do not have access to clean and safe water. In fluoride endemic areas, especially small communities with staggered habitat, defluoridation of potable water supply is still a problem. In India large population suffer from dental and skeletal fluorosis due to elevated fluoride concentration in water contaminated from geogenic and anthropogenic sources. The prominent states which are severely affected are Andhrapradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Fluoride is a persistent and non-biodegradable pollutant that accumulates in soil, plants, wildlife and in human beings. Sources of fluoride include dental products, processed beverages and foods, pesticides, tea drinks, fluorinated pharmaceuticals, mechanically deboned meat, Teflon pans and workplace exposure. Studies reveal that fresh foods and fresh water contain very little fluoride hence it is recommended to drink spring water and eat unprocessed fruits, vegetables, grains, eggs, milk and meat while there are some exceptions to this rule (e.g., seafood, tea, water from deep wells, and fresh fruit/vegetables sprayed with fluoride pesticides). Fluoride beyond desirable amounts (0.6 to 1.5 mg/l) in ground water is a major problem in many parts of the world. Therefore, knowledge of its removal, using best technique with optimum efficiency is needed .Taking the severity of the problem into consideration, the present paper aims to provide a retrospective approach on use of effective low cost adsorbents for removal of fluoride from water. Defluoridation capacity of certain low cost adsorbents like concrete, serpentine, crushed lime stone, ragi seed powder, horse gram powder, pine apple peel powder, fly-ash, charcoal, coconut shell, red soil, chalk powder, multhani matti, rice husk, seed extracts of Moringa oleifera and many more have been added to the list and discussed here in brief.

Understanding and managing water resource problems involves complex processes and interactions within the watershed surface and subsurface. The development of hydrologic models to simulate the watershed has helped in generating the hydraulic response units of the watershed. As the demand for and development of watershed modeling capabilities have evolved, Soil and Water Assessment tool (SWAT) have played an essential role supporting in both data collection and analysis. In the present study area, Alipiri of Tirupathi is considered in generating the stream lines, subbasins, and watershed using quantum soil and water assessment tool. QSWAT is the interface for QGIS. From the results it is determined that soil and water assessment tool helps in knowing the total length of stream lines, areas of subbasins within the watershed area and development of water resources. Further study can be made on Hydraulics Response Units with respect to soil maps, land use land cover maps, and climatic data.

A digital elevation model (DEM) is the most basic and interesting geographical data type. Different techniques are used for acquisition of DEM source data: aerial and spatial photogrammetry, radargrammetry, SAR interferometry, airborne laser scanning (LIDAR), cartographic digitization of existing maps, traditional and modern surveying techniques. DEM generation by means of optical satellite images is become very advantageous method: it offers updated information, large area coverage, quick data access and it is very cost effective. In present study area for DEM generation, Kaddam watershed of Middle Godavari river basin has been selected. Using Shuttle Radar Topography Mission we can obtain DEM in 90m and 30m data. The article presents main sources of data for DEM generation, the interferometry processing steps for DEM generation based on the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data/model and the crucial threshold values are tried to explain.

The Spillway of Nagarjuna Sagar dam across Krishna River was severely eroded during the floods of 2009 due to cavitation which was resulted from the negative pressures developed over the spillway. On further investigation of the problem, it was found that there was a large deviation of the existed profile of the spillway from the design profile, which actually led to the development of negative pressures in such a magnitude that could create the problem. In the present study area, attempt has been made on Nagarjuna sagar Dam for investigation of pressures on spillway using air vents; study has been carried out by providing air vents of 0.01 m and 0.02 m at desired elevations for free and gated conditions in vents 1, 2 and 3 for various discharge conditions. The negative pressures obtained in different pressure levels of vent numbers has been determined and the results show that negative pressures are observed in vent 2 and 3 at different pressure points.

Godavari river is the third largest river in India. The basin falls in six different States viz., Maharasthra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Majority of the population in the State depend on agriculture. The water flows are shared among these states in the Godavari basin. In recent years, due to dwindling nature of rainfall and surface water flows, farmers are forced depend on groundwater for theie agricultural needs. The over exploitation of groundwater leads to depletion of shallow aquifer and it is big threat to food security. For the sustainable management of water resources and sustainable agriculture development, the available water resources and its variation over time need to be well understood. In the present study area, two decadal (1998-2012) groundwater levels and surface water flows are extensively analyzed. The entire Godavari basin is divided into eight sub-basins namely Indravathi, Wainganga, Warda, Pranahita, Manjeera, Middle Godavari, Upper Godavari and Lower Godavari. The analysis of surface water flows over the two decades revealed that no major change in surface water flows of the upstream river basins. But there is drastic decrease in surface water flow in the downstream river areas of Godavari. The average water yields for whole Godavari basin is 332054 MCM and it ranges from 25980 MCM in Upper Godavari basin and 61093 MCM in the Wainganga basin. In the basin water groundwater level rise is controlled by morphological features. The study can help the policy makers to suggest optimal water utilization and to plan optimal cropping pattern based on water availability in the basin.

Godavari river is the third largest river in India. The basin falls in six different States viz., Maharasthra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Majority of the population in the State depend on agriculture. The water flows are shared among these states in the Godavari basin. In recent years, due to dwindling nature of rainfall and surface water flows, farmers are forced depend on groundwater for theie agricultural needs. The over exploitation of groundwater leads to depletion of shallow aquifer and it is big threat to food security. For the sustainable management of water resources and sustainable agriculture development, the available water resources and its variation over time need to be well understood. In the present study area, two decadal (1998-2012) groundwater levels and surface water flows are extensively analyzed. The entire Godavari basin is divided into eight sub-basins namely Indravathi, Wainganga, Warda, Pranahita, Manjeera, Middle Godavari, Upper Godavari and Lower Godavari. The analysis of surface water flows over the two decades revealed that no major change in surface water flows of the upstream river basins. But there is drastic decrease in surface water flow in the downstream river areas of Godavari. The average water yields for whole Godavari basin is 332054 MCM and it ranges from 25980 MCM in Upper Godavari basin and 61093 MCM in the Wainganga basin. In the basin water groundwater level rise is controlled by morphological features. The study can help the policy makers to suggest optimal water utilization and to plan optimal cropping pattern based on water availability in the basin.

The Indian economy is largely rural, hence the development of rural areas depends upon the optimum management of natural resources particularly the Water resources. A Drainage basin (or) Watershed can be considered as a preferable unit for initiating water conservation and management practices .Watershed management is an integration of technology within the natural boundaries of a drainage basin for land, hydrological, biotic and vegetative resources development to fulfill the population needs on sustainable basis. The study deals with the Integrated watershed management of Parvathagiri mandal which is located in Warangal district of the Andhra Pradesh. The study area extends between 79 o 30' E and 17 o 30' N and 79 o 50' E and 17 o 50' N. Toposheets numbers are 56O/9SE, 56O/10NE, 56O/13SW & 56O/14NW on 1:25,000 scale provides the physiographic coverage of the study area. Total extent of the study area is 162 sq. kms. In this study, the Akeru river basin area of Parvathagiri mandal in Warangal district having selected for detailed morphometric analysis. The study performed manual and computerized delineation and drainage sampling, which enables applying detailed morphological measures. Topographic maps in combination with remotely sensed data, were utilized to delineate the existing drainage system, thus to identify precisely water divides. This was achieved using Geographic Information System (GIS) to provide computerized data that can be manipulated for different calculations for morphometric analysis. The obtained morphometric analysis in this study tackled: 1) stream behavior, 2) morphometric setting of streams within the drainage system and 3) interrelation between connected streams. The advanced application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques has lead to estimation of morphometric analysis based on different parameters. Topographical map and IRS LISS-III satellite image are used for preparing different thematic maps using ARCGIS9.2 and Erdas imagine 9.1 software.

Spectroradiometer is an instrument used for determining the radiant energy distribution in a spectrum, combining the functions of a spectroscope with those of radiometer. A Spectroradiometer makes an objective, physical measurement in radiometric units at each wavelength, but this may be converted into a more subjective photometric equivalent which indicates how the radiation is perceived by the eye: its luminous quality. The measured radiation may be expressed in a number of ways, depending upon how the radiation entering the Spectroradiometer is collected, and how it is processed by the system software. The objective of the present study is to develop spectral library for Predominant crops in chevela mandal using Spectroradiometer. The study area considered for the present study covers 36 villages in Chevela mandal, Rangareddy district, Hyderabad. Latitude and longitude of the study area is 17°18′24″N 78°08′07″ E to 17.3067°N 78.1353°E, which covers about 36 villages and 30 panchayats.

The irrigation water requirement of a command area mostly dependent on the nature of the crop, climate and the nature of the soil where the crop is grown. A thorough understanding of the cropping pattern and the nature of soil helps in estimating the irrigation water requirement and subsequently crop water requirement in that command area. This shows the need to use up-to-date and real time information pertaining to the climate, the type of soil and the type of crops being grown within the command area. Mostly command area is covered under rice cultivation and a very few percentage of cultivation is under commercial crops. Due to this, water requirements were analyzed for rice crop during the rabi season. Crop evapotranspiration and net irrigation demand is estimated using the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) CROPWAT model and the software was run for all combinations of soils. The soils of the study area are initially classified in to six units and then reclassified and merged in to three classes sandy, clay and loamy. Irrigation requirements were calculated and projected from the daily water demand to ten-days and monthly time periods.

The present study aimed to calculate Water Quality Index (WQI) by the analysis of twenty-one physico-chemical parameters on the basis of Weighted Arithmetic Index in order to assess the suitability of ground water for drinking in Kattedan Industrial Area, Ranga Reddy District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Water Quality Index, a technique of rating water quality, is an effective tool to assess spatial and temporal changes in ground water quality. It serves the understanding of water quality issues by integrating complex data and generating a score that describes water quality status. The WQI is used to classify water quality as excellent, good, poor, very poor and unfit for drinking. The parameters were measured for the calculation of WQI at nine groundwater sampling locations in September 2012.The found values were compared with the ICMR/BIS water quality standards. The results observed on WQI for the different sampling locations were found to fall under the class of poor (100-200) class at sample locations S1,S2,S5,S6,S7 to very poor (200-300) class at sample locations of S3,S8 and S9.The analysis reveals that the ground water of the area was not conforming to drinking standards and hence needs some treatment before consumption, and it also needs to be protected from the perils of contamination. It is concluded that WQI can be used as a tool in comparing the water quality of different sources.

With the help of MATLAB which is a high-level technical computing language, groundwater recharge estimation model is been developed. It analyses the various input parameters for quantification of ground water recharge. The model is developed for Soil Water Balance Method (SWBM). The study area considered for developing the model is JNTUH, Kukatpally, Hyderabad. For simulation of this model 27 years of climatic data has been collected from 1986 to 2012. From the model results its observed that annual recharge of ground water varies from 151 x 10 3 m 3 to 519 x 10 3 m 3 Minimum recharge is about 151 x 10 3 m 3 during the year 2011 obtained from soil water balance method (SWBM). The maximum recharge is 519 x 10 3 m 3 in the year 1996. The average recharge during the simulation period is found to be 288 x 10 3 m 3 .

Hybrid power generating systems mainly focuses on the renewable energy resources. In our hybrid model Solar and Wind has been planned to use to generate electricity. This configuration allows the two sources to supply the load separately or simultaneously depending on the availability of energy resources. As we know this type of model are involved with high installation costs, so these are least preferred. The main objective of the present study is to convert the solar and wind into electricity and to optimize the energy requirement in economical mode. It reduces the environmental pollution using environmental friendly technology and also creates awareness among people regarding renewable energy resources consumption at low cost as possible.. The study area considered for the present study is Kamala Nehru Girls Hostel in Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University campus which was located in Kukatpally of Hyderabad city, Ranga Reddy District. It is situated in between 17º30´to 17º29´North Latitudes and 78º23´to 78º24Éast Longitudes.

There is an appreciable and adagio impact of mining on surface and groundwater. Rapid development of mining throughout the world with the galloping advances in science and technology is changing the shape of our planet and also hydrological region at micro level. World top quality galaxy granite (Gabbro) occurs in Chimakurthi mandal of Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh. From the analysis of data pertaining to mining, rainfall and groundwater levels (1999-2010), it is observed that, the rainfall in the mandal shows declining trend over the successive years and more prominent since 2002 onwards. There is no noticeable effect of rainfall on groundwater recharge, because of poor aquifer system.

The Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model in GIS as an interface is parameterized and simulated for runoff of study area of the Godavari River sub basin in Adilabab, Andhra Pradesh with delineated area of 258245.79 Ha. The model divided study area into 35 sub basin and 107 Hydrological Response Units. The study area has stimulated by giving the parameters such as Soils, Landuse/Landcover, Precipitation, Temperature, etc., as input files for effects of land use on runoff volumes with daily time step for the periods 2006 to 2010. The model has shown that trend of both yearly simulated runoff and observed runoff indicated increasing trend over the study area. All the hydrological parameters which are spatially and temporally variable were given as input files and found to be more accurately estimated through DEM and GIS with SWAT. The results of SWAT model adequately predicted the runoff volumes of the watershed and compared against observed for 5 years annual surface runoff of sub basin for years 2006 to 2010 are 51.48%, 48.21%, 44.45%, 44.87% and 58.17% respectively of the annual effective rainfall. The simulated runoff registered variation owing to the predominant rocky and land use/land cover being a forest with 73% of the study area. The difference between simulated runoff and observed runoff variance for the above corresponding durations are 9.72%, 9.88%, 10.40%, 9.49% and 8.29% respectively. Present study demonstrated that GIS is found to be flexible to apply on large areas, enables gathering of all data in a common data base for spatial analysis and watershed characterization. This study has demonstrated that this SWAT model is a useful tool for predicting the runoff in watersheds.

Surface water bodies are the water on the surface of the planet such as in streams, river, lake, wet land, or oceans. Non saline surface water is replenished by precipitation and by recruitment from ground water. It is lost through evaporation, seepage and abstracted by mankind for agriculture, living, industry etc. The present study deals with monitoring the surface water bodies located in the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC), twelve mandals has been monitoring. Surface water bodies were delineated using toposheets supplied by Survey of India and processed in GIS environment. The twelve mandals are namely Balanagar, Ghatkesar, Hayatnagar, Kandukur, Maheswaram, Malkajgiri, Wargal, Qutbullahpur, Shamirpet, Sherlingampally and Yacharam. The main objective of the work is to identify and calculate the extent of surface water bodies in the GHMC Mandals. The work carried out shows the number of water bodies present in each mandal and the total area covered by the water bodies in that mandal as per the toposheets before urbanization. From the study it has been found that there are 983 surface water bodies in 12 mandals of GHMC, in which Shamirpet mandal have got 144 water bodies which is the highest number in a mandal and Ghatkesar mandal have got only 26 surface water bodies which represents the lowest number in a mandal. The largest water body in area is Osman sagar with 1996.32 hectares of Sherlingampally mandal and smallest water body in area is Bachupalli open scrub kunta with 0.23 hectares of Qutbullahpur mandal.

Hyperspectral remote sensing involves acquisition of digital images in many narrow, contiguous spectral bands throughout the visible, Near Infrared (NIR), Mid-Infrared (MIR) and Thermal Infrared (TIR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. These systems typically collect 200 or more bands of data which enables the construction of an effectively continuous reflectance for every pixel in the scene. Higher spectral resolution enables hyperspectral remote sensing instruments capable of detailed identification of material, geological features and vegetation at finer level, which is not possible with conventional multispectral remote sensing. Multispectral data are acquired in a relatively small number of spectral bands with broad spectral band widths, where as the hyper spectral data bands are numerous and narrow. Many surface materials have unique absorption and reflectance characteristics that are only 10-20nm wide. The detailed reflectance spectrum acquired by hyperspectral remote sensing makes it possible to identify and distinguish the material and conditions on the ground in ways that is impossible even with very high resolution multispectral imagery.The objective of the present study is to develop spectral signature library using Hyperspectral Remote Sensing for the study area. The study area considered for the present study covers 36 villages in Chevella mandal, Rangareddy district, Hyderabad. Latitude and longitude of the study area is 17°18′24″N 78°08′07″ E to 17.3067°N 78.1353°E, which covers about 36 villages and 30 panchayats. Hyperspectral remote sensing is to measure quantitatively the components of earth system from calibrated (radiance, reflectance, or emissivity) spectra acquired as images in many narrow and contiguous spectral bands. In vegetation application this is done by using spectral absorption crop coverage area or to distinguish the type of crop, the stage of the crop growth, stress and yield of the crop.

Renewable Energy is the energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat which are continually replenished. Hybrid power generation model mainly focuses on the renewable energy resources. These sources of energy can meet the world's demand without dismantling the stability of Earth. Hybrid power system model is mainly to meet the increasing energy demand through nonconventional energy sources. In our proposed hybrid model Solar, Wind and Rain water has been planned to use to generate electricity. This configuration allows the three sources to supply the load separately or simultaneously depending on the availability of energy resources. The objectives of the present study are to convert the solar, wind and rain water into electricity and to optimize the energy requirement using these nonconventional energy resources. It reduces the environmental pollution using clean or environmental friendly technology and creates awareness among people regarding renewable energy resources.The study area considered for the present study is Kamala Nehru Girls Hostel in Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University campus which was located in Kukatpally of Hyderabad city, Ranga Reddy District. It is situated in between 17º30´to 17º29´North Latitudes and 78º23´to 78º24Éast Longitudes.

In view to the increasing water scarcity and effective water management, it is highly essential for the irrigation engineers to understand and estimate the crop water demand in a command area to efficiently utilize the water resources for irrigation. The irrigation water requirement in a command area mainly depends on the nature of the crop and the nature of the soil in which the crop is grown. Hence, there is a need to acquire up-to-date real time information on the irrigated area, the type of crops being grown and the type of soil within the command area of each canal. Satellite images provide a useful input for the identification of crops and when used in conjunction with other collateral data like soil and meteorological data have proved to be effective for land use and crop identification. A knowledge of the type of crop being grown and the nature of soil present in the command area of a canal will give the estimates of the crop water requirement and irrigation water requirement in the command area. The objective of the present study is to estimate the irrigation demand in Wazirabad command area, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh to ensure high efficiency of water use by the crops throughout the crop period. There are 11 Water User's Associations in the command area and under which 12 Canal blocks were delineated. These blocks were again delineated in to 212 sub blocks. In Wazirabad command area, farmers do the paddy cultivation in two seasons-" Kharif " and " Rabi ". The water usage in Rabi Season is considerably high due to dry weather compared to normal weather throughout the Kharif season. Hence, the present study is completely focused on estimating and analyzing the water demand and usage in Rabi season. Multi date Satellite data IRS P6 LISS III were used to estimate the paddy and fallow land to generate the canal/block wise and WUA wise crop statistics. In conjunction to satellite data, other collateral data such as climate and soil data were also integrated on GIS platform. Water loss due to percolation in the field, crop evapo-transpiration and canal conveyance were identified and calculated. CROPWAT model was used to determine the crop evapo-transpiration. These losses were calculated Chak/Sub Block wise and WUA wise for two different years 2007 and 2009. Based on the analysis of crop type and crop statistics from satellite data and calculation of percolation, conveyance and evapo-transpiration losses from the crop, meteorology and soil data, the net irrigation water requirements have been computed on daily and finally on decadal basis. The study observed a growth in paddy crop in the year 2009 than in year 2007. The increase of 2 paddy cultivation demands the utilization of more water as a result of which, more water loss was encountered in the command area. This study further indicates that there exists a 5 to 20% of water deficiency in some WUAs and also water surplus in some WUAs varying from 15 to 40%.

Runoff is normally generated on limited areas such as impervious or less impervious areas, saturated areas whereas neighbouring vegetated areas do not generate any direct runoff. This needs to be taken into account in Rainfall-Runoff modeling and thus in the delineation of areas differing characteristically from neighbouring areas in runoff generation. As the input parameters which influence runoff component vary spatially at micro levels, fully distributed models allow the catchment to be divided into a number of square or rectangular grid elements, linked to channel reaches that run along the slope of the watershed. In the present paper, a GIS based Fully Distributed Rainfall-Runoff Model (FDRRM) has been developed on the basis of SCS-CN method for computing daily runoff at subgrid level. Grid map preparation for the study area with a square grid size of 1 km x 1 km has been carried out in GIS environment. The study area has been divided into 2785 number of grids. Thiessen network map, Land Use/ Land Cover map and Hydrologic Soil Group maps along with the Grid area map of the study area were overlaid to identify each unique land use-soil group as well as rain gauge information for each sub grid and 5761 subgrids have been obtained for the study area. Comparison between variation of daily rainfall and calculated daily runoff was carried out for the period from 1996 to 2006. It is found that yearly calculated runoff in the study area varied from 37.56% to 42.55% for the period from 1996 to 2006. The Nash Coefficient of Efficiency (CE) indicated values of 83%, 84% and 89% for daily, monthly and yearly runoff.

Globally, water scarcity is being witnessed at every corner of world irrespective of resource availability. The fresh water sources either surface or ground water resources are in constant peril owing to pollution, degradation and over exploitation. Judicious use and sustainable water conservation practices are the need of the hour. In an effort towards sustainability, an initiation has been taken up in Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad campus to recharge rainwater artificially into the aquifers. In the study area, five rainwater recharge structures with 9 injection wells at different locations were constructed for harvesting the rain water and recharging into the confined and unconfined aquifers. Apart from these, three Piezometers were drilled in the campus to study the groundwater level fluctuations due to artificial recharge. An attempt is made to monitor these injection wells. Physico-Chemical water quality parameters like pH, Potassium parameters were tested for samples collected from these injection wells. Spatial analysis has been developed in GIS environment from the results of physico-Chemical parameters and is compared with BIS: 105000, 1991 standards.

The study of water resources at watershed scale is widely adopted as approach to manage, assess and simulate these important natural resources. The development of remote sensing and GIS techniques has allowed the use of spatially and physically based hydrologic models to simulate as simply and realistically as possible the functioning of watershed systems. Indeed, the major constraint that has hindered the expansion use of these tools was the unavailability or scarcity of data especially in the developing countries. Soil and Water Assessment Tool is widely used to support water quantity and quality studies. SWAT and digital elevation models (DEM) can be used to perform watershed delineation to a point, a reach, or an area of interest, which is usually one of the first steps in such studies. This paper presents the methodology that preprocesses the DEM in order to facilitate interactive watershed delineation. As a result, watersheds can be delineated quickly and with consistent time response, regardless of the DEM size, or the size of the resulting watershed. In present study area Kaddam watershed of Godavari river basin has been selected. With the help of DEM file generated, Soil and Water Assessment Tool is used for delineation of Kaddam watershed. The stream line generation, number of subbasins and subbasins area has been established.

Surface water bodies are the water on the surface of the planet such as in streams, river, lake, wet land, or oceans. Non saline surface water is replenished by precipitation and by recruitment from ground water. It is lost through evaporation, seepage and abstracted by mankind for agriculture, living, industry etc. The present study deals with applications of infiltration studies for effective management of water resources in costal belt-Gara Mandal of Srikakulam District. The rainfall data between the years 1995 – 2010 has been collected and rainfall intensity was observed by collecting monthly rainfall data. The collected rainfall data is analyzed to understand the characteristics of rainfall data such as statistical parameters and frequency parameters. The trend is determined with the help of moving average curves. Based on the moving average curves developed for the study area it is observed that the rainfall trends are decreasing for the months of January, February, April , May, September, October, November , December. For the remaining months rainfall trend id fluctuating. From the infiltration curves it is found that, at 3 locations the rate of infiltration obtained is in the range of 300 to 800mm/hr and other remaining locations are below 100mm/hr. It is also observed that in future there may be less rainfall in potential months. So, Ground water levels in the study area may decrease and may cause salt water intrusion because of costal belt.

The objective of the present study is to estimate the daily net radiation from the remote sensing images for Nagarjuna Sagar Left Bank Canal Command Area, Andhra Pradesh, India. Net radiation is one of the important parameter for further estimation of actual evapotranspiration. The study was conducted for the day of the imagery taken by the LANDSAT satellite on 22 nd October 2011 with thermal and near infrared (NIR) bands. The study area lies between latitude 16 0 35 " 06.34 " N to 17 0 02 " 40.77 " N and longitude 79 0 16 " 16.42 " E to 80 0 03 " 03.11 " E. The command area map was digitized on the toposheet and processed for the estimation of net radiation with the help of ARCVIEW and ERDAS. The DN values of bands were used to estimate radiance, reflectance, Net radiation and soil heat flux. The thermal range of bands has been used to estimate temperature related components like the estimation of net radiation and sensible heat flux. After the estimation of all energy balance components the evaporative fraction was used to estimate the daily rate of actual evapotranspiration using SEBAL algorithm. The minimum and maximum net radiation estimated in the command area is 8.1183 W/m 2 and 225.3886 W/m 2 respectively on the day of pass. Further, from the net radiation and soil heat flux, the actual evapotranspiration was also calculated for the entire command area which will be useful for effective crop water management at a local level.