Biological Sciences

Plant diversity and rarity have been relatively well studied for bryophytes in Canadian western boreal peatlands, but there is little information on vascular plants. Diversity, community composition, and rarity of bryophytes and vascular plants were determined, and relationships examined among these and environmental variables in five peatland types at Duck Mountain, Manitoba: wooded bogs, black spruce swamps, wooded moderate-rich fens, open moderate-rich fens, and open extreme-rich fens. Total diversity was 299 species, comprised of 87 bryophytes and 212 vascular plants. Mean diversity followed a unimodal distribution over a bog – rich fen gradient. Wooded moderate-rich fens (59.0) and black spruce swamps (53.4) had the highest mean diversity, whereas wooded bogs (32.3) and open extreme-rich fens (34.7) had the lowest mean diversity. Occurrences of locally rare species followed the same general pattern, and provincially rare vascular plants were found primarily in wooded moderate-rich fens and black spruce swamps, and were mostly orchids. Reasons for these patterns are complex, but high diversity appears to be related to high habitat heterogeneity and moderate environmental variables, such as pH and alkalinity and low diversity appears related to environmental extremes, e.g., pH and alkalinity, in bogs and extreme-rich fens. Wooded peatlands have comparatively high plant diversity and rarity and require consideration if the focus is biodiversity conservation. This will become increasingly important in landscapes where development pressures are high.

We undertook a survey of the vegetational ecology of 94 peatlands at Duck Mountain, Manitoba to discriminate differences among peatland types at the southeastern edge of the boreal plain, especially black spruce swamps, and to clarify boreal swamp terminology. The majority of peatlands surveyed were wooded, relatively small (mean = 1.8 ha), and in depressions on the landscape. A classification and indicator species analysis identified the dominant peatland types as moderate-rich fens, with bogs and extreme-rich fens as rare. Black spruce swamps were relatively common and often found on gentle slopes. They were distinguished from wooded fens by larger trees (mean height = 9.7 m; diameter = 12.6 cm), denser overstory (68%), shallower peat depth (90 cm), and small size (1.6 ha). Although most similar to wooded moderate-rich fens by vegetation, black spruce swamps have a denser bryophyte layer and more mesic plant species. Significant indicator species on hummocks and drier areas include Pleurozium schreberi, Hylocomium splendens, Equisetum sylvaticum, Petasites frigidus var. palmatus, Cornus canadensis, Linnaea borealis, Rosa acicularis, Moneses uniflora, Geocaulon lividum, Orthillia secunda, Equisetum arvense, Listera cordata, and Mertensia paniculata. Species characteristically found in black spruce swamp hollows include Rhizomnium pseudopunctatum, Rhizomnium gracile, and Plagiochila porelloides. We discuss conifer swamp terminology globally, and recommend that black spruce swamps be recognized as a peatland type distinct from eastern white cedar-dominated boreal swamps found in the eastern boreal region, wooded fens, and black spruce-dominated uplands. The environmental gradients most strongly associated with an ordination of the Duck Mountain peatland plant community data were forest mensuration variables, e.g., overstory density (range = 7 – 80%), peat depth (0.4 – +3.0 m), peat C:N (14 – 67), organic C (54 – 98%), bulk density (0.19 – 64.00 g/cc), surface-water temperature (3.0 – 19.5 ºC), specific conductivity (0 – 989 µS/cm), and Ca2+ (1.8 – 111.4 mg/L). Wooded bogs were distinguished from the other peatland types based on mean pH (3.8), alkalinity (0.2 mg/L), Ca2+ (5.0 mg/L) and other cations, but there was much overlap among the fens and black spruce swamp. A number of isolated, topographically high, open peatlands were characterized by plant species with affinities to open moderate-rich fens, including Drepanocladus aduncus, Helodium blandowii, Salix discolor, Equisetum fluviatile, and Calamagrostis canadensis, but mean surface water pH (5.4), Ca2+ (13 mg/L), DOC (47 mg/L), and NH4+ (188 µg/L) were more similar to wooded bogs. This may be the consequence of fluctuating water levels. The potential impact of climate change, in addition to current impacts from logging, emphasizes the importance of understanding the vegetation and environmental variables in southern boreal peatlands.

Logging in peatlands is not yet common in the western boreal region of Canada. We undertook a study to determine the impacts of logging on peatlands 1-4 and 9-12 years post harvest by comparing plots in clear-cut areas with plots in remaining wooded sections of peatlands at Duck Mountain, Manitoba. Increased surface water temperature, NH4+, and SRP were observed in 1-4 year class clear-cut plots. Advance regeneration of Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP was unchanged between wooded and clear-cut plots, despite significantly higher numbers of shrub stems, more exposed peat, and increased rutting in clear-cut plots. Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch regeneration was markedly higher in clear-cut plots of both age classes, while higher regeneration of Pinus banksiana Lamb. was observed only in 1-4 year class clear-cut plots. Total plant diversity was approximately 30% higher on clear-cut plots. By taxa, vascular plant diversity was greatest in clear-cut plots, and bryophyte/lichen diversity was greatest in wooded plots. Plant cover was significantly higher in wooded plots of both age classes, but by taxa there was no difference for vascular plants in the 9-12 year class comparison. Evidence of stable shrub community formation and species composition changes suggests that minimization of site disturbances when logging peatlands should be a management goal.

Ecoregions are increasingly being used as a framework for conservation planning. The Mid-Boreal Uplands Ecoregion stretches across Canada from Manitoba to British Columbia. From the perspective of conservation and to understand the dynamics of plant diversity and community composition in a common wetland type, we examined the plant communities and environmental variables in 80 wooded moderate-rich fens within this ecoregion. Regional diversity totalled 273 species, with 86 bryophytes and 187 vascular plants. Total diversity was greatest in Manitoba and decreased in a longitudinal trend west through Saskatchewan and Alberta. This may be related, in part, to orographic precipitation at Manitoba sites and a gradient of growing degree days. Richness of locally rare vascular plants exhibited a clear west to east gradient. Ten species of provincially rare vascular plants were observed across the ecoregion, but without pattern. Ordinations and other analyses revealed distinct plant communities for all three locations, with vascular plant assemblages more discrete than bryophyte assemblages. Bryophyte diversity increased with latitude and longitude, whereas vascular plant diversity decreased. Additionally, elevation, precipitation, surface water alkalinity, water temperature, percent overstory density, and peat organic C played a role in determining species richness and community composition. Overall, species composition and diversity in a single wetland type exhibited continuous change across multiple political jurisdictions at the ecoregion scale. Conservation plans for wetlands at the ecodistrict scale may be preferable.

Worldwide, governments, the private sector, and non-government organizations face the challenge of balancing wetland conservation with promotion of wise use of resources and appropriate associated economic development. Similar challenges exist in Alberta. Over the span of a few decades the province has evolved from no wetland policy to a leader on no-net-loss policy and practice. However, as a revised policy is poised to be announced, Alberta may now become a province with potentially diminished wetland protection if replacement of lost wetlands is not considered. As growth continues in the province, Albertans are becoming increasingly concerned about environmental issues, as are those elsewhere in the world. At this juncture, Alberta has the unique opportunity to continue the leadership charge on wetland policy and practice, and can set the precedent for effective and balanced wetland conservation and management in Canada, and elsewhere.

Wetlands are Alberta’s keystone ecosystem and resource. Keystone ecosystems are those that are particularly important from the perspective of ecology or management, and whose influence and significance is greater than their geographic presence. In Alberta, wetlands are found in all biomes and are inextricably linked to the province’s aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Alberta’s wetlands provide a wide range of functions and values. This keystone ecosystem will become progressively more important with increased development and climate change. The state of Alberta’s wetlands is a bellwether for the condition of the province’s aquatic resources and, ultimately, the quality of life for Albertans.

In Alberta there are two primary wetland types in two geographic regions that require two different management strategies. Most of the province’s wetlands are peatlands (bogs, fens, conifer swamps) in the Peatland Zone. This region coincides with, but is larger than, the green area (78% vs. 61%). Here wetland loss is generally unknown but likely relatively smaller compared to the south. Current and planned developments, however, will likely lead to significant wetland losses here. The remaining wetlands in Alberta are mineral soil wetlands (marshes, shallow water wetlands, and shrub swamps) found primarily in the province’s Mineral Soil Wetland Zone. The zone is similar to, but smaller than, the white area (22% vs. 39%). Here wetland loss approaches 65% and it is critical to preserve what remains, restore what has been impacted, and construct new wetlands to add value.

The Peatland and Mineral Soil Wetland regions differ significantly by wetland type, area, land ownership, population, land use pressure, and authority to set regulations. Herein lays the opportunity for Alberta to lead the development of two novel policies and practices that will address the different requirements of both zones. Examples of wetland policy and practice exist in other provinces and countries that can be used as models. In Alberta, policy for wetlands in the Mineral Soil Wetland Zone, where the highest loss has occurred, would benefit from a no-net-loss and a mitigation sequence of 1) avoid impacts, 2) mitigate or minimize impacts, and 3) compensate for irreducible impacts. The established 3:1 compensation ratio with a sliding scale for distance from original wetland is a useful replacement for lost wetland function and value until a standardized wetland evaluation system can be developed for this zone. Application of the mitigation sequence concept in Alberta has recently been identified as disfavouring avoidance of wetlands with resulting wetland loss. However, with some adjustment, no-net-loss and wetland compensation can remain proven concepts that enhance wetland conservation in Alberta.

Mineral Soil Wetland Zone policy is the low-hanging fruit in Alberta. Policy development in the Peatland Zone is more challenging and will require extensive consultation, resources, funding, and research. Here, time is of the essence. Nothing less should be acceptable given that the province’s most ambitious development plans are in the region with the most wetlands. In the interim, priority should be given to conserving wetlands in the region until the creative solutions can be explored and a Peatland Zone policy developed.

Both wetland policies would be enhanced with support from the following programs and products: a validation program for qualified wetland workers and agencies; a provincial wetland inventory; a made-in-Alberta wetland classification, and; individual evaluation systems for the Peatland and Mineral Soil Wetland Zones using holistic broad-based indicators including hydrological, biological, social, rarity, and other aspects. Care must be taken when determining function and placing values on wetlands. Wetland rarity is independent of function and value as much as function is independent of value. Rarity or importance must not be used at the cost of the lost function and value in ‘common’ wetland types that are deemed nonessential. There is an important temporal aspect of value. Value judgements made on wetlands today may not reflect future values, the same way that past value judgements have not served us in the present. Wetlands must remain a legacy.

The province, industry, and academic institutions can support a research centre of excellence for applied wetland science in western Canada. Scientists have been conducting wetland research in Alberta for over 30 years. The research continues to grow and there is excellent expertise and top-rate research facilities. Through consolidation of expertise and resources, Alberta can become an international exporter of wetland knowledge, technology, and innovation. Current climate change models are forecasting an overall movement of development northwards into peatland-rich areas of Canada and Alberta is uniquely placed to develop progressive techniques for wetland construction, restoration, and mitigation.

Wetlands in Alberta are at a crossroads. They are the province’s keystone resource. The challenge is to balance conservation of our wetland legacy with wise use of resources and appropriate economic development. Alberta now has the opportunity to be among those jurisdictions that play a key leadership role in the development of novel and effective wetland policy, practice, research, and technology.

Wetlands are arguably Alberta’s keystone ecosystem. They are inextricably linked through function to the province’s aquatic and terrestrial environments. Many of these functions have high monetary and conservation values. Development of Alberta’s bountiful resources has created significant wetland management challenges from municipal to federal levels of government. These include the ability to identify and delineate wetlands, evaluate wetland function and value, and develop balanced wetland policy and practices. Government, industry, and researchers are currently engaged in developing a variety of progressive wetland management tools. These include an inventory, a classification system, wetland health and function assessment tools, and novel restoration and construction initiatives. Alberta’s draft wetland policy was once lauded as one of North America’s most progressive wetland instruments. Less is known of the province’s new wetland policy and the long-term repercussions of its implementation. Alberta’s wetlands are bipartite. They are comprised of two primary types in two geographic regions in the province: the peatland zone in the north and mineral soil wetland zone in the south. There are significant differences in wetland cover, wetland function and value, and land use between these two zones. Developing effective policy and management strategies will necessitate recognition of this duality. The challenges associated with managing Alberta’s wetlands present a unique opportunity for the province to assume a leadership role. As wetland practitioners and administrators, knowledge exchanged at this workshop will enhance our understanding of wetland tools and their application to management of Alberta’s keystone ecosystem.

Ecoregions are increasingly being used as a framework for conservation planning. The Mid-Boreal Uplands Ecoregion stretches across western Canada from Manitoba to British Columbia. Within this Ecoregion (Manitoba to Alberta), we compared the plant communities and environmental variables in 80 sites of a single wetland type, wooded moderate-rich fen. Wooded moderate rich fens are a common boreal wetland, but among peatland types, are most likely to have the highest species diversity and number of rare plant species. Regional diversity totalled 273 species and was comprised of 86 bryophytes and 187 vascular plants. Total local diversity was greatest in Manitoba, and decreased in a longitudinal trend through Saskatchewan and Alberta. This may be related, in part, to the influence of orographic precipitation at Manitoba sites and to a decreasing gradient of growing degree days. Of the vascular plants in which provincial rarity information was available, ten species were observed across the Ecoregion. Ordinations and other analyses revealed distinct plant communities for all three locations, although bryophyte assemblages were more similar among locations than those of vascular plants. Bryophyte diversity increased with latitude and longitude, whereas vascular plant diversity decreased. Species composition over this continental scale exhibited a continuous change, even within a single wetland type in one Ecoregion. Conservation plans based on Ecoregion boundaries are preferable to political boundaries, but need to account for changes in abiotic conditions (e.g. precipitation) and biotic aspects (e.g., proximity to boundaries and transition zones).

SUMMARY
Balancing peatland conservation with appropriate economic development is a significant challenge in Alberta, Canada. Wetlands are extensive in areas where the scale of industrial activity is large. This includes extraction of significant petroleum reserves in the form of oil sands. Little is known of potential cumulative impacts on peatlands, but the effects will potentially be high. This includes climate change impacts. While novel wetland restoration and construction initiatives are being developed, wetland policy and management initiatives have not kept pace with peatland loss and alteration. Peatland conservation could be enhanced through the recognition of wetlands as Alberta’s keystone ecosystem, two distinct provincial wetland zones, identification of wetland function and value, and establishment of no-net-loss policy.

Using patient data from the Wildlife Rehabilitation Society of Edmonton, we assessed reasons for admission, overall success of rehabilitation, and compared temporal trends with human population growth in the region. Over the survey period 13,375 individuals from 271 species were admitted. These included 11,637 birds (87%), 1,727 mammals (13%), and 11 herptiles (<0.1%). Outcome data were not reliably collected from 1990 through 2007 so it is not possible to provide a valid rate of
the rehabilitated animal release for those years. However, starting in 2008 outcome data was collected for the majority of
animals with the average  release rate of 45.7% from 2008 through 2012. There was a strong relationship between Edmonton’s population growth and the annual intake of wildlife (R² = 0.84, F = 104.6, P = 0.001). This study provides an overview of wildlife intake trends from 1990 through 2012 and is the first known published retrospective of wildlife intake in Alberta.

I first became interested in the wolves of southwestern Manitoba while conducting peatland research at Duck Mountain during the last two summers. At first all I saw were wolf tracks and scat along the logging roads, but then I began to find the remains of ungulates, usually moose that had been taken by wolves in the forested peatlands (Figure 2). On lucky days, the silence of hot summer afternoons was broken by the howls of wolf pups and once two adults called very close to the camp. These experiences fueled a long-time fascination with wolves and I embarked on a quest to discover more about the wolves in the region. My search led me over Duck Mountain and south to Riding Mountain National Park and the results have revealed a remarkable story of the mountain wolves of southwestern Manitoba. Duck and Riding Mountains are two in a series of highlands that dot the landscape of southwestern Manitoba (Figure 1). Separated by only 35km of farmland, these landforms are not mountains in the...

Introduction This article is Part I of a two-part series on peatland creatures. In this installment I&#39;ll provide background information on the five wetland classes in Canada and the associated creatures there, and then focus on peatlands and vertebrates, from mammals to fish. Part II will focus on peatlands and invertebrates, including insects and amoebae, then outline wetlands from the perspective of conservation and animals. A table including all of the creatures discussed in both installments will be provided with Part II. Canadian wetlands are important to a great number of creatures, from the largest moose to the smallest protozoan. Of the five wetland classes in Canada, shallow water wetland, marsh, swamp, fen, and bog (NWWG 1997), wildlife use is best known in marshes and shallow water wetlands. Found in coastal and inland areas, marshes and shallow water wetlands are the poster &#39;children&#39; for wildlife, especially birds. These habitats provide feeding, breeding, n...

Introduction This article is the last of a two-part series on peatland creatures. Here, I focus on peatlands and invertebrates and some microfauna, and then outline wetlands from the perspective of conservation and creatures of all sizes. A table with peatland creatures, great and small, is included below. Invertebrates are essential food sources for animals in higher trophic levels and some plants at lower trophic levels. They are a common component of most wetland types and appear to be less affected by the acidity of water than other animals. Water availability appears to be the critical aspect, with ephemeral and permanent pools providing key habitat; temporary extreme conditions such as drought or too much water can play havoc on specific lifecycle stages (Neckles et al. 1990). Invertebrates are closely tied to their environment and their fossilized parts are important aspects of understanding plant succession (Roper 1996, Whitehouse 2004) and the potential impacts of global wa...

Microplastics are globally ubiquitous contaminants, but quantitative data on their presence in freshwater environments are sparse. This study investigates the occurrence, composition, and spatial trends of microplastic contamination in the North Saskatchewan River flowing through Edmonton, Alberta, the fifth largest city in Canada. Surface water samples were collected from seven sites throughout the city, upstream and downstream of the city, and near potential point sources (i.e., a wastewater treatment plant). Samples were spiked with fluorescent microbeads as internal standards and extracted by wet peroxide oxidation and density floatation. Microplastics were found in all samples , ranging in concentration from 4.6 to 88.3 particles·m −3 (mean = 26.2 ± 18.4 particles·m −3). Fibers were the dominant morphology recovered, and most were of anthropogenic origin and chemically identified as dyed cotton or polyester by Raman microspectroscopy. The majority of fragments were identified a...