Transtornos Externalizantes
Transtornos Externalizantes
Transtornos Externalizantes
FACULDADE DE MEDICINA
PSIQUIATRIA
PORTO ALEGRE
2011
2
FACULDADE DE MEDICINA
PSIQUIATRIA
Dissertação de Mestrado
Agradecimentos
há 25 anos, por ter me trazido para trabalhar com ele e com o grupo,
travamos nestes anos tanto no trabalho quanto nas mesas dos Cafés.
leitura esta que foi vital para que ele assumisse a forma que assumiu.
Gregory e Rafael.
4
Dedicatória
Dedico este trabalho aos meus dois amores, meu filhotão Marcelo, em
anos.
5
Lista de abreviaturas
TC - Transtorno de Conduta
Sumário
Sumário.......................................................................................................... 06
Resumo ......................................................................................................... 07
Abstract .......................................................................................................... 09
1. Introdução .................................................................................................. 10
3. Justificativa ................................................................................................ 20
4. Objetivos .................................................................................................... 21
5. Metodologia ............................................................................................... 22
7. Artigo ......................................................................................................... 25
10. Anexos...................................................................................................... 57
Resumo:
transtornos na vida adulta ainda é motivo de discussão. Este estudo tem como
(n=178); TDAH com história de TOD (sem TC) (n=184) e TDAH com história de
externalizador.
Abstract:
Objective: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant
disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) are frequently co-occurring disorders in
children and adolescents. However, their clinical status among adults is disputed.
This study analyzes how the clinical presentation of persistent ADHD might be
were based on the DSM-IV criteria and all subjects were evaluated using the K-
SADS-E for ADHD and ODD, MINI for CD/ASPD, SCID-I for other comorbidities,
Inventory (TCI) for personality. We compared patients with ADHD (n= 458) with
history of ODD (without CD) (n=184) and ADHD + history of CD (with or without
ODD) (n=96).
Results: Patients with ADHD presented a worse profile than controls in several
variables, including a higher frequency of all comorbidities. Within the ADHD group,
a history of CD (and to a lower extent ODD) is associated with a more severe and
externalizing profile.
1. Introdução
adolescência (Costello et al. 2003; Egger and Angold, 2006; Odgers et al., 2007),
(Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1984). Esta dicotomia foi observada e confirmada por
infância como para os da vida adulta (Krueger et al., 1998, 2006; Lahey et al.,
2007; Farmer et al., 2009). Outros estudos, com gêmeos, mostraram que os
adolescência, até chegar à idade adulta (Kim-Cohen et al., 2003). De acordo com
cruzando este limite temporal no sentido da vida adulta (ex. TDAH e TOD; TOD e
TC; TC e TUSP; TC e TPAS) (Burke et al., 2005). Estes dados apontam para a
11
específicos (APA, 1994). Outra possível razão seria a falta de integração entre a
vida demonstra que o transtorno de início mais precoce é o TDAH (Burke et al.,
serão foco dessa dissertação, o TOD (Egger & Angold, 2006) e o TC. Estes
nosso grupo, foi verificado que pacientes com TDAH e tabagismo apresentavam
que ele concentra boa parte dos mais importantes transtornos psiquiátricos na
violência.
2. Revisão da literatura
et al, 2004; Grevet et al., 2006; Farmer et al., 2009). Uma série de estudos
uma análise fatorial que revelou a presença de dois fatores. Estes fatores deram
com um, dois ou quatro fatores latentes, para as duas faixas de idade. O modelo
dados.
fins desta dissertação, por incluir o TDAH nos transtornos que foram agrupados
Por fim, uma metanálise (Krueger et al., 2006) que englobou cinco grandes
distimia.
clínica do estudo Developmental Trends que mostrou que a maioria das crianças
com TC apresentavam TOD antes deste. Assim como quase todos os indivíduos
estudo com amostra comunitária Great Smoking Mountain (Rowe et al., 2002), em
que 60% dos meninos com TOD não apresentaram evolução para TC, assim
como a maioria dos que apresentavam TC não evoluíram para ASPD. Este
transtornos, a partir de outros transtornos menos graves, não sejam lidos como
evolução até os transtornos mais graves (Rowe et al., 2010). Ainda, assim,
precoce e que a maioria dos indivíduos com ASPD evoluíram a partir de sintomas
estudos não incluam uma avaliação do TDAH, quando esta foi realizada, este
prediz TOD, que por sua vez, prediz TC (ver Figura 2).
(Rowe et al., 2010). Burke et al. (2010) mostraram que pode haver uma diferença
de passagem de TOD para TC. Nock et al. (2007) também apontaram o TDAH
Vale lembrar que alguns estudos (Burke et al.; 2005; van Lier et al. 2007)
valor preditivo do ADHD com relação ao TC. O estudo de van Lier mostrou que
somente no caso das meninas observa-se valor preditivo direto do TDAH com
relação ao TC, apesar do TOD também apresentar o mesmo valor. No caso dos
meninos, o TDAH não prediz TC sem que antes estes apresentem sintomas de
Prevalências relativas
al., 2005; Kessler et al., 2006) e 5,3% em crianças de várias regiões do mundo
população (caso não forem excluídos os casos com diagnóstico de TC) é 9,2%
para meninas e 11,2% em meninos (Nock et al., 2007). Setenta por cento dos
17
meninas entre 12 e 14 anos, e entre 3,1% e 13% para meninos nesta mesma
álcool, drogas e nicotina, está bastante documentada (Grevet et al., 2006; Odgers
comportamental (Sousa et al., 2010) sendo a depressão, nesse caso, mais uma
comportamental
significativo tanto para o TDAH (Faraone and Mick, 2010), como também para
2009).
ser observados desde antes da pré-escola (Egger and Angold, 2006; Loeber et al.,
et al., 2008).
de sintomas de TOD prediz a piora dos comportamentos dos pais, na relação com
evitam comportamentos disciplinadores com receio das reações dos filhos) piorou
preditivo para piora da supervisão, mas não foram antecipados por nenhum
afetiva permitem a busca por fatores biológicos no TOD (Loeber et al. 2009).
Ainda que não possam ser considerados como causas do TC, uma série de
pelos pais (Burke et al., 2008). Loeber et al. (2009) definem ainda um conjunto
mais grave de traços psicopáticos para o qual os fatores etiológicos apontam para
inconsistente.
20
3 – Justificativa
evidências têm mostrado que o fenômeno se repete nos adultos. Tendo em vista
comorbidades.
21
4 – Objetivos
relaciona com a saúde mental de adultos com TDAH, e como esses achados se
5. Metodologia
5.2. Amostra
anos de idade (Karam et al, 2008). No caso do grupo controle, para a inclusão no
6. Considerações éticas
hospital (Anexo A e B). O projeto para a coleta do grupo controle foi aprovado
como adendo ao projeto citado acima, pelo comitê de ética do mesmo hospital.
e D).
25
7. Artigo
Eduardo S. Vitola, M.D.; Eugenio H. Grevet, M.D., Ph.D.; Carlos A.I. Salgado,
M.D.; Katiane L. Silva, M.Sc.; Rafael G. Karam, M.D.; Marcelo M. Victor, M.D.;
Nina R. Mota , M.Sc.; Verônica Contini, M.Sc.; Felipe A. Picon, M.D.; Paula O. G.
Drs. Vitola, Grevet, Salgado, Silva, Karam, Victor, Picon, da Silva, Giordani,
Belmonte-de-Abreu, Bau: ADHD Outpatient Program – Adult Division, Hospital de
Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Drs. Belmonte-de-Abreu, Rohde: Department of Psychiatry, Faculdade de
Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Dr. Rohde: National Institute of Developmental Psychiatry for Children and
Adolescents, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Dr. Bau, Roth, Contini: Department of Genetics, Instituto de Biociências,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Corresponding author:
Acknowledgments
Sousa and Luciana Nerung helped in the data collection of ADHD patients.
Dr. Rohde was on the speakers’ bureau and/or acted as consultant for Eli-Lilly,
Janssen-Cilag, Novartis and Shire in the last three years (less than U$ 10,000 per
year and reflecting less than 5% of his gross income per year). He also received
travel awards (air tickets + hotel) for taking part of two child psychiatric meetings
from Novartis and Janssen-Cilag. The ADHD and Juvenile Bipolar Disorder
research support from the following pharmaceutical companies in the last three
Abstract
disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) are frequently co-occurring disorders in
children and adolescents. However, their clinical status among adults is disputed.
This study analyzes how the clinical presentation of persistent ADHD might be
Methods: Patients with ADHD (n= 458) were ascertained in an ADHD outpatient
clinic. Diagnoses were based on the DSM-IV criteria and all subjects were
evaluated using the K-SADS-E for ADHD and ODD, MINI for CD/ASPD, SCID-I for
and Character Inventory (TCI) for personality. We first compared patients with a
control group evaluated with the same protocol (n=121). For those variables with
history of CD or ODD (n=178); ADHD + history of ODD (without CD) (n=184) and
Results: Patients with ADHD presented a worse profile than controls in several
variables, including a higher frequency of all comorbidities. Within the ADHD group,
a history of CD (and to a lower extent ODD) is associated with a more severe and
externalizing profile.
more severe and externalizing profile. Past CD and ODD entail a significant
validity of these entities in adulthood mental health. These findings suggest a link
Introduction
disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) constitute a group of frequently co-
dimension derives from a factor analysis of items of the Child Behavioral Checklist
(Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1984). Several studies reinforced the validity of this
distinction in children and adults (Kendler et al., 1997, 2003; Krueger et al., 1998,
1999, 2007; Young et al., 2000; Hicks et al., 2004). A possible mechanism for the
concept (Tarter et al., 2003; Iacono et al., 2008; Young et al. 2009). Young et al.
genetically influenced deficit in the ability to inhibit impulses to act in ways that
not only to ADHD, CD and ODD, but also to substance use disorders and
Several longitudinal studies in the last decade revealed that ADHD, ODD
supporting the utility and validity of these diagnoses (Biederman, 2008; Young et
al., 2009; Kim-Cohen et al., 2003; Burke et al., 2005; Copeland et al., 2009; Rowe
with these findings (Nock et al., 2007). However, the place of this group of
disorders in adult psychiatry nosology is still under dispute. ADHD and especially
ODD and CD lack adult age-specific diagnostic criteria in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) (APA, 1994). The
fact that similar sets of symptoms of CD and antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
30
are classified respectively as Axis I and Axis II has been much criticized, with the
proposition that ASPD should be placed in Axis I in the DSM-5 (Krueger et al.,
clinical referred studies that compare the characteristics of ADHD, CD and ODD.
To our knowledge, this comparison was performed in only one sample of children
(Biederman et al., 1996) and one sample of adults (Harpold et al., 2007). This
disorders and the fact that ADHD tends to precede ODD, and ODD to CD (Burke
et al., 2005). Harpold et al. (2007) verified in adults with ADHD that comorbid CD
and ODD were specifically associated with several negative aspects. These
adult patients with ADHD and controls. We aim to understand how a childhood
and adolescent history of CD and ODD impact on the global mental health of
adults suffering from ADHD, and verify how these findings fit in the behavioral
disinhibition framework.
Method
Subjects
ADHD Sample
being at least 18 years old and fulfilling diagnostic criteria for DSM-IV ADHD both
for eligibility, 11% did not have ADHD and 9% fulfilled exclusion criteria. The
project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital, and all patients
Control sample
The control group comprises 121 adult blood donors recruited in the same
hospital where patients were ascertained. They are similar to cases in relation to
socioeconomic and education levels, gender and ethnicity. The exclusion criteria
for the control group were the same as for patients in addition to the fulfillment of
lifetime DSM-IV ADHD diagnosis. All subjects signed a specific informed consent
Diagnostic Process
application of all instruments of the research protocol. ADHD and ODD diagnoses
were based on DSM-IV criteria using the respective sections of the Portuguese
assesses current episodes and the severest episode in the past (lifetime) of DSM-
addition, the criterion for onset of symptoms was adjusted to age 12 or earlier
operational advantages and diagnostic reliability (Applegate et al., 1997; Barkley &
Biederman, 1997; Rohde et al., 2000; Karam et al, 2009; Kieling et al, 2010). The
evaluation of CD and ASPD were performed with the Brazilian Portuguese version
step in the section of M.I.N.I. for the diagnosis of ASPD. The diagnosis of CD is
interview system (First et al., 1998). The severity of ADHD symptoms was
(SNAP-IV) (Swanson, 1992). This instrument includes items from DSM-IV criteria
for ADHD and ODD. It is based on a 0 to 3 rating scale: Not at All=0, Just a
Little=1, Quite a Bit=2, and Very Much=3. SNAP-IV scores are computed by
the dimension. We applied the version validated to Portuguese (Mattos et al., 2006)
with a few adaptations to the adult age. Barkley’s current and childhood symptoms
scales (self-report forms) address the impairment due to current and past ADHD
symptoms listed in the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria (Barkley & Murphy, 1998). The
subset of the scale used in our study asks patients to report how often their
version 9, validated to Portuguese (Fuentes et al., 1999). The TCI employs a list of
240 sentences to be read and rated as true/false. Each sentence is part of 1 out of
associated with dimensions and subtypes of ADHD in adults (Salgado et al., 2009).
Statistical analyses
compared in relation to all variables studied. The aim of this step is to identify
the number of comparisons, making the analysis more conservative. Only the
variables for which significant findings were obtained in the first step were included
order to limit the number of categories to compare. In addition, we did not consider
as lifetime ODD those patients that did not fulfill criteria for ODD in the childhood
Considering the possibility that the diagnosis of ASPD might entail the same
post-hoc comparisons in the SPSS software. All tests were 2-tailed and
Results
and 4)
head trauma, major depressive and anxiety disorders, harm avoidance, and
persistence.
Patients with a history of CD presented a worse profile than the other two
motor skills problems, and school (including year repetition), law and authority
35
problems. Compared to patients with ADHD alone, individuals with CD also had
higher rates of bipolar and substance use disorders, higher ADHD severity and
cooperativeness.
(without ODD or CD), and in relation to patients with ADHD + CD, in novelty
seeking, problems with authority figures, and school expulsion and/or suspension.
They do not differ from patients with CD but have a worse profile than patients with
upon request). With the exception of substance use disorders, findings did not
differ from those presented in Tables 3 and 4. When patients with ASPD were
Discussion
The results of this study suggest that the presence of a history of CD and
reinforcing their validity and justifying their routine evaluation in adult psychiatry.
disinhibited personality profile. ODD is also associated with ADHD severity and
impairment. These data fit into a behavioral disinhibition framework that ranges
and comorbid disorders (Young et al., 2000, 2009; Dinn et al., 2004).
36
The diagnoses of CD, ODD and ADHD are lead causes of referral to child
psychiatrists (Loeber et al., 2000). The presence of ODD and CD in children with
ADHD is associated with severe mental health and social problems (Murphy et al.,
patients, even in those with ADHD. Although lack of adequate training might
explain this issue, two alternative reasons deserve investigation. First, they might
not have adequate data about the relevance of assessing a childhood history of
these two conditions in their patients. So, our findings and those from other studies
(Harpold et al., 2007) are extremely important to familiarize adult psychiatrists with
a more developmental perspective. Second, they might think that the impairment
ASPD in adulthood. In other words, the history of ODD/CD during youth would
only impact on the adult life of their ADHD patients if the trajectory of the
only 32 out of 96 patients with a history of CD during youth in our sample had an
adult ASPD diagnosis. The analysis excluding these patients with ASPD showed
that, with the exception of substance use disorders, results did not differ. A history
among patients that do not fulfill criteria for ASPD. This information is even more
relevant if we consider the fact that adult ADHD in clinical samples is strongly
fed by a lack of nosologic clarity and recognized validity. In its turn, this scenario is
37
entities and diagnoses. The present findings converge with those of Harpold et al.
(2007) in the sense that the trajectory of CD and ODD during youth makes worse
the profile of ADHD among adults. These data support the view that ADHD
psychiatric profile of ODD and CD patients without ADHD may be different from
relationships. However, our findings have the strength of being closer to the
clinical practice than findings from population based longitudinal studies. Third, our
diagnosis of CD/ODD during childhood and adolescence was based in some but
not all DSM-IV symptoms and was gathered by retrospective self-report. Finally,
despite the fact that our sample size is one of the biggest ever reported in clinical
referred samples of ADHD, a larger sample size would have made secondary
analyses feasible. For example, the small number of women with lifetime conduct
These are very important issues that demand future studies with significantly
research, stressing the inclusion of these evaluations. Our findings are consistent
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TABLE 1. Developmental history and comorbidities in adult patients with ADHD and
controls
TABLE 2. Severity, impairment and TCI scores in adult patients with ADHD and
controls
TCI scores
Harm Avoidance 14.9 (7.0) 20.0 (6.9) <0.001
Novelty Seeking 18.7 (6.1) 24.3 (6.2) <0.001
Reward Dependency 15.3 (3.5) 15.2 (7.4) 0.94
Persistence 5.3 (1.6) 4.3 (1.9) <0.001
Self-directedness 34.1 (6.3) 22.1 (8.4) <0.001
Cooperativeness 34.2 (4.7) 30.0 (6.2) <0.001
Self-transcendence 15.0 (6.0) 16.8 (8.3) 0.09
TABLE 4. Severity, impairment and TCI scores in adult patients with ADHD
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50
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