Yanyin ZI

For centuries the continent of Africa has been characterised by negative images such as poverty, disease and conflicts. Today, however, the People’s Republic of China’s growing presence in Africa, particularly with regards to China–Africa business relations, brings new vitality to the continent. This new movement is not a windfall but rather obtained through the hard work of both African and Chinese people at various levels. Narrating on daily experiences of Chinese merchants and their vivid interactions with people in Botswana, this book decodes the frustrating while rewarding process through which China–Africa relations have been maturing on the grass-roots level. This book not only presents insights and suggestions to both Botswana and Chinese policy makers interested in understanding their constituents’ everyday interactions with each other, but also offers readers interested more broadly in contemporary Chinese experiences in Africa a fascinating glimpse into these cross-cultural encounters. This book is an original and pioneering study of issues that resonate in almost every African country which has responded to a growing Chinese presence. It argues that as the process of globalisation permeates the everyday lives of people, each individual is empowered to be an ‘ambassador’ in shaping international relations.

Chinese counterfeiting has dominated the global counterfeit market, earning a negative reputation even in African countries such as Botswana and South Africa. Often perceived as low quality (even when it is not) and cheap, Chinese merchandise has shaped Botswana’s economy through its role as a catalyst of globalisation and promoted local development. Data were gathered over 13 months (four research trips) between 2011 and 2015. Follow-up interviews were conducted via WeChat in 2018 and 2022. In a context that reveals the tension between local consumers starved of products and aggressive marketing by Chinese merchants, the unfolding of the counterfeit phenomenon in Botswana points towards broader questions about the dynamic interplay between local consumers and Chinese merchandise, and between local trading policies and Chinese investors. Therefore, by studying specific Chinese cases – which demonstrate the progression from selling low-quality goods, counterfeit goods and Chinese-branded goods to the manufacturing of ‘made in Botswana products’ – we can better reflect on the importance of local trading policies. Evidence has shown that local strategic policies can guide seemingly rampant foreign investment towards contributing to the local economy and local development.

Based on ethnographic research on Chinese migrants in Nigeria, Botswana, and Namibia from 2011 to 2015, this article has three lines of argumentation and contribution. First, it proposes a framing of migrant geographies from a humanistic comparative perspective in order to complement the political economy approaches in geographies of migration. Second, lying in the intersection of urban studies and migration studies, it illustrates the different positionalities of cities in three aspects of migrant geographiesmigrant space, network, and belongingechoing the multiscalar analysis of city-making in migration processes. Third, specifically in the context of Chinese migrant geographies, three African cities, Lagos, Gaborone, and Windhoek, are placed in three migrants' geographic worlds, not always according to their positions in multiscalar power structures, but partly through migrant experiences in which top-down power horizontally works.

Chinese companies have continued to increase foreign direct
investment (FDI) and engagement within Africa, perceived as a
last global frontier market, particularly in light of China’s Belt and
Road initiative. The literature highlights a number of human
resources management (HRM) risks, challenges and
misalignments, including values gaps between Chinese company
expats and local stakeholders, affecting achievement of the
objectives of FDI. Whilst Chinese (Confucianism) and African
(Ubuntu) cultural values may appear similar on the surface, there
are significant differences in their finer detail that cause HRM
challenges in practice. This ethnographic study examined a
Chinese manufacturer in post-apartheid South Africa, decoding
significant gaps in values towards key themes affecting HRM
relations between Chinese expats and local personnel, such as
styles of communication, community building, transparency, and
planning horizon. Addressing these values gaps was critical to
achieving positive HRM outcomes, and thus to the success of the
local organization and ultimately the achievement of FDI
objectives. Recommendations indicate how the organization and
individuals can further contribute towards bridging values gaps,
thereby building HRM relations and relationships.

Made in China goods have received widespread criticism in Africa for their poor
quality and negative effects on the local marketplace. They are termed fong kong
(Barrett, 2007) goods, and in Southern Africa including Botswana, are regarded as
cheap copies or fakes (Park, 2013a). In Botswana, fong kong is linked to Chinese
merchants, bringing a negative image to Chinese businesses and triggering
governmental restrictions on fong kong goods and Chinese businesses. However,
surprisingly, fong kong goods continue to be sold in the local market.

This paper discusses how fong kong goods affect local people’s lives. The research
data presented is based on a ten-month field research in major cities and rural towns
in Botswana. Data was collected using participant observation and conducting indepth
interviews with Chinese merchants, managers of South African chains, local customers and officials, and so on. After explaining details associated with the
supply chain, this article describes local people’s experiences of fong kong goods.
The findings show that, despite the negative image attributed to fong kong goods,
they have contributed to clothing the needy, initiated creativity and brought
convenience to members of local society. Adopting low-end globalisation as theory,
this article argues that despite wide criticism received and associated illegalities,
fong kong goods have helped poor and middle class individuals greatly to improve
their quality of life, thereby creating a more egalitarian society in Botswana.

Made in China goods are called fongkongs (Barrett, 2007) in Southern Africa
including Botswana. With a reputation for poor quality, they are generally regarded
as cheap copies or even fake goods (Park, 2013). The Botswana government has
attempted to regulate and control fongkongs, but they survive and continue to thrive.
This research adopts anthropologic perspective to present the views of the mass
media, government and local people in Botswana, uses push-pull theory to unravel
the complicated context of fongkongs in Botswana society. Through participant
observation, interview and document survey the researcher aims to present a balanced
view by exploring various voices and argues that despite the tightening of regulations,
fongkongs seem to stay in Botswana, insofar as they fulfill popular demands from
local customers. However, there is a potential risk to Chinese merchants that they
will be driven out if local merchants attain control of the supply chain.

This paper reports empirical research on Chinese owned retail shop (China shop) businesses in Botswana and their interactions with the local community. It examines the challenges that Chinese merchants face when conducting retail business in Botswana, and how they cope with such challenges. It also analyzes the social and economic impact of Chinese owned retail shops in the country. Data were mainly collected through participant observations, in-depth interviews and, to a lesser extent, through conversations with Chinese merchants and local people in the shops. The paper argues that due to a saturated market, language and culture barriers, Chinese merchants face various difficulties in keeping their businesses going. In terms of impact, generally speaking, Chinese retail shops contribute to local communities by alleviating poverty and increasing employment opportunities, as well as motivating local people to start businesses themselves.

This paper discusses the challenges faced by Chinese merchants when engaging in retail activities in Botswana. The theory of a middleman minority will be used as a theoretical perspective to assess both the challenges and the strategies employed to meet them. The paper argues that Chinese merchants’ self-imposed isolation (combined
with their sense of vulnerability as foreigners) is deeply rooted in their attitudes. This determines their circumstances and their responses to signs of hostility from the host society. On the other hand, the particular geographical location and economic situation of Botswana offers Chinese merchants opportunities to avoid competing among themselves and to manage their rejection by local society.