Tomasz Nowak

Niniejszy tekst poświęcony został pieśniom z Podkarpacie, których teksty dotyczą lasu, zwierząt i ptaków. W polskiej etnomuzykologii repertuar ten nie doczekał się monograficznych ujęć, tym większa istnieje więc potrzeba jego omawiania i prób interpretacji.
Podjęta tematyka warunkuje przede wszystkim dobór repertuaru, ale też omawiane kategorie repertuaru, wewnętrzny układ tekstu (podział na Las i ludzie oraz Zwierzęta i ptaki), podjęcie zagadnienia znaczeń w dawnej wiejskiej kulturze lasu, poszczególnych roślin, zwierząt, ptaków i pochodnych im przedmiotów (np. liści). Powstała w ten sposób przestrzeń tematyczna i znaczeniowa zakreśla interesujące pole dla interpretacji stosowanych w omawianym repertuarze elementów muzycznych (Cechy muzyczne), których dobór często nie jest przypadkowy lecz wynika z uwarunkowań historycznych, funkcjonalnych i znaczeniowych.

The present text is dedicated to songs from the Podkarpacie region, whose lyrics pertain to the forest, animals, and birds. In Polish ethnomusicology, this repertoire has not yet received monographic treatments, thus increasing the need for its discussion and attempts at interpretation.
The chosen topic primarily determines the selection of the repertoire, but also the discussed categories of the repertoire, the internal structure of the text (divided into Forest and People and Animals and Birds), and the exploration of meanings in the traditional rural culture of the forest, individual plants, animals, birds, and related objects (e.g., leaves). This thematic and semantic space thus created delineates an interesting field for the interpretation of the musical elements used in the discussed repertoire (Musical Features), the selection of which is often not accidental but results from historical, functional, and semantic conditions.

Although the canon of Polish national dances was formed during the eighteenth century, when politics in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was dominated by the nobility and the ideologies of Sarmatism, the nineteenth century brought the greatest number of impulses resulting in changes in the forms and ideology of dances included in the canon. These changes were not only a response to further military and political defeats, but were also influenced by a brand of romanticism informed by several main elements: the nation’s struggle for liberation; the cult of the family as a bastion of national culture, in which women played a prominent role as model wives and mothers; interest in folk culture, which attracted the upper social strata to folk dances, and the assertion – not grounded in sources – of the folk origins of noble dances. Another issue is the absorption and amalgamation of influences from foreign dance culture into the national culture. Finally, I would like to point out that Polish composers writing music that referred to national dance idioms did not simply respect the basic musical features of those idioms, but referred to the whole complex of ideology, movement and music.

Jakkolwiek kanon polskich tańców narodowych został uformowany w XVIII wieku – epoce politycznej dominacji w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej szlachty i ideologii sarmatyzmu – to jednak wiek XIX przyniósł najwięcej impulsów skutkujących przemianami składu, formy jak i samej ideologii tańców wchodzących do kanonu. Przemiany te dokonywały się nie tylko w reakcji na kolejne klęski militarne i polityczne, ale także pod wpływem swoiście pojmowanego romantyzmu, w którym na pierwszy plan wysunięta została walka narodowowyzwoleńcza, następnie kult rodziny jako bastionu obrony kultury narodowej z wiodącą rolą kobiety jako wzorowej żony i matki, w końcu zainteresowanie ludowością, które pchnęło wyższe warstwy społeczne do sięgnięcia po tańce ludowe, ale również stworzenie nieznajdującego oparcia w źródłach twierdzenia o ludowym pochodzeniu tańców szlacheckich. Osobnym zagadnieniem jest też absorpcja i zespolenie się wpływów obcej kultury tanecznej z kulturą narodową. Ostatecznie w moim referacie pragnę zwrócić uwagę na fakt, że polscy kompozytorzy tworzący muzykę odwołującą się do narodowych idiomów tanecznych nie poprzestawali jedynie na respektowaniu podstawowych cech muzycznych, ale odwoływali się do kompleksu ideologiczno-ruchowo-muzycznego.

This article is devoted to the issue of revitalisation and revival of traditional musical instruments in Poland in the context of music competitions. Research on revival activities in Poland is rare, as is research on the phenomenon of traditional music competitions. Meanwhile, over the last nine decades, traditional music competitions have become the main environment for the public presentation of traditional music and stimulating the revival and revitalisation of individual musical phenomena. In this area, I have been conducting my own participant observations and archival research for over two decades. I understand the revival phenomenon itself and the activities that constitute it after Caroline Bithell and Juniper Hill (2013). The distinction between the terms revitalisation and revival is based on that made by Ingrid Åkesson (2006) and Ulrich Morgenstern (2019). In the text I discuss the issue of revitalisation of the Podhale bagpipes and the revival of the hurdy-gurdy. I also show that the phenomenon of the revival of musical tradition is accompanied by processes of depreciation of the role, importance or presence of other instruments, such as the accordion or clarinet. I also show the important role of the activism of leading figures among both researchers and lovers of traditional music, as well as musicians and instrument builders.

Traditional music does not currently operate in its original context. It is cultivated in a completely new environment by new institutions (ensembles, cultural centres, societies, foundations) and social agents (such as: singers, musicians, organizers of cultural activities, jurors, enthusiasts of traditional music, political patrons). This new context transformed the musical shape of individual phenomena as well. The media serving as intermediaries (i.e. transcripts, songbooks, records, cassettes, CDs, radio, internet) contributed to this process. The changes have also been caused by the operation of ensembles themselves and by the form of festivals, particularly competitions. The author believes that in view of this situation, it is necessary to change the research paradigm and shift the emphasis from studying the repertoire to studying institutions, festivals, forms of expression and media. It is also impor¬tant to analyse musical phenomena popularization in other regions, displacements and appropriations. Redefining the field in this manner may significantly contribute to the revival and broadening of field studies in Poland.

Muzyka tradycyjna nie funkcjonuje współcześnie w jej oryginalnym kontekście. Jest kultywowana w zupełnie nowym otoczeniu poprzez nowe instytucje (zespoły, ośrodki kultury, stowarzyszenia, fundacje), sytuacje (prezentacje estradowe, konkursy, przeglądy, festiwale, rejestracje) i aktorów społecznych (jak: śpiewaczki, muzycy, animatorzy, jurorzy, miłośnicy muzyki tradycyjnej, polityczni mecenasi). Ten nowy kontekst wywołuje również zmiany w samym kształcie muzycznym poszczególnych zjawisk. Przyczyniły się do tego pośredniczące obecnie w przekazie media (transkrypcje, śpiewniki, płyty, kasety, płyty CD, radio, internet). Zmiany powoduje również funkcjonowanie samych zespołów, ale także forma festiwali, a szczególnie konkursów. W tej sytuacji, w opinii autora, konieczne są zmiana paradygmatu badawczego i przesunięcie akcentu z badań nad repertuarem na badania poświęcone instytucjom, festiwalom, formom przekazu i mediom. Ważne są też badania nad upowszechnieniem zjawisk muzycznych w innych regionach, przemieszczaniami i zawłaszczaniami. Takie przedefiniowanie terenu może stanowić ważny czynnik ożywienia i pogłębienia badań terenowych w Polsce.

Taniec w przeciwieństwie do innych dziedzin sztuki bardzo długo nie miał swoich wyspecjalizowanych przedstawicieli w środowisku akademickim. Spowodowało to, że na przestrzeni ostatnich dwóch wieków badaniami nad tańcem tradycyjnym zajmowali się często przedstawiciele innych dyscyplin: literaturoznawcy, muzycy, nauczyciele, etnografowie, etnomuzykolodzy i in. Autor w tekście próbuje określić jak kształtowały się zainteresowania badawcze tańcem w Polsce w ciągu ostatnich dwustu lat, przedstawiciele jakich dyscyplin zajmowali się nimi w różnych okresach, a szczególnie jakie miejsce w tych badaniach zajmowali muzycy i etnomuzykolodzy. Autor stara się omówić również jak udział przedstawicieli różnych dziedzin wpływał na charakter i tematykę badań. Istotne miejsce w tekście zajmuje fragment próbujący odpowiedzieć na pytanie o to, kto zajmuje się badaniami etnomuzykologicznymi współcześnie, jakie dominują obecnie obszary tematyczne oraz jak się one mają względem tradycji badawczej. Na koniec autor stara się wskazać obszary przedmiotowe etnochoreologii pokrywające się z etnomuzykologią, próbując określić co szczególnie predestynuje specjalistów w dziedzinie muzyki tradycyjnej do zajęcia się badaniami nad tańcem tradycyjnym.

On the one hand, in Polish ethnomusicology, phonography is perceived as a perfect means for documenting traditional music and its performances; on the other hand, it is criticised for popularising foreign patterns and causing undesirable changes in traditional musical cultures. Both points of view are dominated by the perspective of a researcher. This article approaches phonography from the vantage point of traditional musical culture participants in Poland based on opinions collected as part of field studies dedicated to other issues. The era of recording the real sounds was preceded by the stage of coding the intended sounds derived from foreign patterns, which undoubtedly made contemporary researchers ill-disposed to this type of devices. Five decades ago, Jadwiga Sobieska adopted such an approach to radio and radiophonisation, gramophone records and soundcards (audio recordings on postcards), and reel-to-reel tapes and compact cassettes. As a result, this discussion also focuses on these three media (carrier) types. While aware that this review does not exhaust the topic, the author proposes a perspective that is closer to the studied participants of culture, recognising other values and research problems that could serve as the starting point for further and more advanced research to ensure a more complete coverage of the analysed aspects of reality.

W polskiej etnomuzykologii fonografię z jednej strony postrzega się jako najdoskonalszy środek dokumentacji muzyki tradycyjnej i jej realizacji przez konkretnych wykonawców, z drugiej zaś obwinia się o rozpowszechnianie obcych wzorców i wywołanie niepożądanych zmian w tradycyjnych kulturach muzycznych. W obydwu punktach widzenia dominuje perspektywa badacza. Przedstawiony tekst stanowi próbę spojrzenia na przejawy fonografii z perspektywy uczestników tradycyjnej kultury muzycznej z terenu Polski na podstawie opinii zebranych przy okazji badań terenowych poświęconych innym problemom. Autor zwraca uwagę, że epokę zapisywania realnie zaistniałych dźwięków poprzedził etap kodowania zamierzonych dźwięków, zaczerpniętych z całkowicie obcych wzorców, co niewątpliwie negatywnie usposobiło badaczy do tego typu środków. Ponad pół wieku temu Jadwiga Sobieska podobnie traktowała radio i radiofonizację, płyty gramofonowe i pocztówki dźwiękowe oraz szpule i kasety magnetofonowe. Dlatego dyskurs niniejszego tekstu został sprowadzony do tych trzech mediów. Wyznaczają one również strukturę tekstu. Autor ma świadomość, że dokonany przegląd nie wyczerpuje tematu. Celem tekstu jest przyjęcie perspektywy bliższej badanym uczestnikom kultury i dostrzeżenie również innych wartości lub sytuacji problemowych, które mogą stanowić punkt wyjścia do dalszych, bardziej zaawansowanych badań, pełniej obejmujących analizowaną rzeczywistość.

Horseback processions are an historical phenomenon still alive today in many parts of Europe. In western Slavic lands (Poland, Czech Republic, Lusatia) they are all inseparably connected with the period of Easter, and one of the crucial elements of the processions is song. Behaviour observed in Slavic horseback processions can be directly related to the establishing of the world by delimiting boundaries and ordering and sacralising space. Taking place as they do in specific conditions undoubtedly exemplify a rite of passage. In this rite, the costume and pious symbols serve to take the participants away from the world of the profane and bring them to the realm of the sacred, while the ‘carrying on horseback’, besides its utilitarian use during chases, serves to maintain them in an ‘intermediate state, between earth and heaven’, for them to ‘transcend themselves’ and undertake a ‘mystical journey’. Processions cultivated among the Upper Lusatians and the available sources allow one t...

This article is devoted to the changes in the musical practice of Rzeszowiak (south-eastern Poland) bands, analysed from the perspective of Marcia Herndon’s concept of the potential of change. The basic concepts are process, potential, and an internal dynamic equilibrium. The factors determining this equilibrium are cognition, time/motion, patterned sound and context/performance. The research material consists of interviews conducted by associates of the Museum of Folk Culture in Kolbuszowa in 2014-2016 in the Rzeszów region.

The article discusses the myth of Polishness in the context of dances which gained the social status of ‘national’ ones, i.e. those incorporated into the canon of national culture. I shall start by establishing the terminology and chronology related to the phenomenon of ‘national dance’, and sum up Mieczysław Tomaszewski’s comments on the ways of expressing nationality in music, including dance, and the various aspects of this phenomenon. Methodologically speaking, the present paper is based on the concept of myth as presented by Joseph Campbell, Leszek Kołakowski and Maria Janion, as well as on the findings of Jan Berting, Christiane Villain-Gandossi, Maria Janion and Jan Stęszewski concerning the phenomenon of stereotypes, which are crucial to defining a myth. The main body of my text has been dedicated to the conditions in which the myth of Polish dance was born, its form and relation to the ideology of Sarmatism then current among the Polish nobility, and to its subsequent trans...

The following dances are most commonly considered nowadays as national dances (or emblems of Polish national culture): the polonaise, the mazur, the krakowiak, the oberek and the kujawiak. These dances form the cultural canon as defined by Andrzej Szpociński (i.e. a constantly revised part of tradition which carries significance outside the domain of dance and is obligatory for all the community members). In Polish musicological studies it has been emphasised that the phenomenon of stereotypisation of native folklore has played a major role in the formation and emergence of emblematic national phenomena. However, some of the phenomena and processes that have taken place during the formation and revision of the national canon cannot be reduced to the idea of creating a stereotype. The author of this paper draws on Maria Janion’s treatment of the categories of myth and phantasm, which can be much more useful for the interpretation especially of borderline or clearly alien phenomena th...

The mainstream fields of Polish dance research were defined in 1818–1847 by Józef Elsner, Kazimierz Brodziński, Łukasz Gołębiowski and Karol Czerniawski, who broadly characterized some elements of the dances considered as national (the polonaise, mazur, krakowiak and kozak). Oskar Kolberg knew very well the works of all these authors and referred to them many times. However, he was unique in his extensive documentation of dance melodies, information about their geographic origin, and local terminology. He also characterized the dances with regard to their sequence in the traditional context and described the dance technique in an instructive manner. Oskar Kolberg’s documentation for quite a long time remained outside the scope of mainstream research and publications about dance in Poland. In the 1930s Polish representatives of the newly defined field of ethnochoreology were the first to include examples from Kolberg in their works on the ritual dances, regional dances and characteri...

Sorbs, currently the smallest Slavic nation, despite the very early disappearance of their elites1 have continuously been present in the annals of music since the 16th century. The first documents confirming the activity of Lusatian cantors and pipe organ players date back to 1551, and in 1571 the hymn book of Albin Moller (1542–1618) was published, which included the first translations of a selection of psalms, introits and other religious hymns into the Lower Sorbian language (Moller 1574; Rawp 1978: 39). This period (1567, 1573, 1584) also marks the appearance of the first publications of Catholic hymn books of the Bautzen deaconate that bear the mark of the local culture (Rawp 1978: 39). The first half of the 17th century is the time of the artistic activity of the first known Lusatian composers and editors: Bartholomäus Brojnik (Bräunig, 2nd half of 16th cent. – 1st half of 17th cent.; Rawp 1978: 40), Abraham Škoda (Schadäus, 1556–1626), the publisher of Promptuarii musici (161...

The oberek and the kujawiak are two dances now considered as part of the Polish national dance canon. What they have in common is: triple time, mazurka rhythms, whirling motion and the improvised character of the movement composition. Elements of mazurka rhythms can be found in 16th-century music sources, but they were fully formed only in the 17th century, while the oberek and the kujawiak emerged as separate genres between 1750 and 1830. These two genres were combined into one whole and, toward the end of this period, began to be performed in salons, first as music for listening, and in the 1840s also as dance. From the 2nd half of the 19th century, we have descriptions of this dance by Kolberg (in crudo), Karol mestenhauser, and Arkadiusz Kleczewski (the key elements and the dance figures). Comprehensive descriptions of the salon forms only come from the 1930s (those by Józef Waxman, Jan Ostrowski-Naumoff, Czesław Kwiatkowski and Zofia Kwaśnicowa), when those dances became a major component of music education and stage spectacles.

Описания танцев в коллекции Оскара Кольберга
В коллекции Оскара Кольберга кроме материалов, относящихся к разным разделам народоведения, находятся также описания танцев и танцевальных забав. Эти материалы имеют разное происхождение – были собраны во время библиотечных запросов, переданы учёному корреспондентами-сотрудниками, а также были собраны самим Кольбергом во время полевых исследований. Его полевые собрания имеют особенное значение. После 1965 года Кольберг не ограничивал свой выбор только до описания „национальных” танцев (характеристических), но и представил ряд танцев и деревенских забав, распространённых в Польше, Литве, Украине. Описанные танцы часто имеют методический характер, так как Кольберг с особой прницательностью учёл детали положений танцоров, объятий, характер движений, направления, включил также описания микрорегиональных вариантов танцев. Представленные детали позволяют на современную реконструкцию этих танцев и определение направления изменений танцевального репертура, что в меньшей степени было возможно на основании описаний других XIX-вечных авторов. Описанный Оскаром Кольбергом феномен танцевальных сюит во многих регионах является также важным открытием польского учёного.

Dokumentacja tańca w zbiorach Oskara Kolberga

Zbiory Oskara Kolberga wśród materiałów dotyczących wielu różnych działów ludoznawstwa zawierają także opisy tańców i zabaw tanecznych. Materiały te mają mieszane pochodzenie – zostały zebrane podczas kwerend bibliotecznych, przesłane przez korespondentów-współpracowników Oskara Kolberga, ale również zebrane przez samego autora podczas jego badań terenowych. Jak się wydaje, te ostatnie mają szczególny charakter. Przede wszystkim Oskar Kolberg po 1865 roku nie ograniczył się tylko do tańców uznanych za „narodowe” (charakterystyczne) lecz opisał także wiele tańców i zabaw wiejskich tak w Polsce, jak i na Litwie czy Ukrainie. Ponadto opisy Kolberga często wyodrębnia instruktażowy charakter i wyjątkowa wnikliwość, uwzględniająca szczegóły ujęć i objęć, charakter ruchu, jego kierunki, a także subregionalne warianty. Umożliwia to w o wiele większym stopniu niż w przypadku innych opisów polskich autorów z XIX wieku dokonanie rekonstrukcji tych tańców współcześnie i próbę określenia kierunków przemian tego repertuaru w oparciu o późniejsze materiały. Oskar Kolberg odkrył także, że w wielu regionach występuje zjawisko suit tanecznych, które zostało również przez niego opisane.

The article discusses tha usage kulkul drums (slit drums) wich have been used for centuries on the Island of Bali. The history of these instruments is sparsely documented, yet both their presence in almost all the spheres of social life and in comparative material from neighbouring regions suggest that the use of the kulkul could have had place before the Hindu influenses. The contemporary instruments are of a type suspended vertically, beaten from the outside, and made of wood (Michelia champaka, Michelia alba, Artocarpus heterophyllus) or of bamboo. The details of construction and the sounds made depend on the function of a particular drum and on the context of its use. The inhabitants of Bali distinguish particular types of these instruments according to their locality, namely: kulkul pura, kulkul puri, kulkul banjar (desa, subak), kulkul seka, kulkul umah, kulkul kubu. Some of the motifs played on these instruments are known on the whole island: kulkul num pit (num pang), kulkul kelayu sekar, kulkul nganten (mati), kulkul ngayah (gotong-royong), kulkul bulus. The relationship between the instruments and the motifs performed have been compiled in the form of a scheme which was interpreted in the context of the contemporary culture of Bali with the reference to the symbols and ideas deeply rooted in the religious ceremonies (a cosmic mountain, an opened gate) and the social customs (a dichotomy jero-jaba).

Musical contacts between the Polish and Jewish communities and the image of Jewish culture in the popular current of Polish music during the nineteenth century. Enduring contacts between Polish and Jewish communities on Polish soil began to take shape around the turn of the thirteenth century, initiating a period of many centuries of mutual cultural and musical influence. Extant sources, although few and far between (normative documents, chronicles, journalistic accounts, commentaries from observers and scholars, iconography, sheet music, recorded music and films), enable us to follow the development of the mutual musical relations between the two national groups over time. Yet this article concentrates primarily on the state of those relations during the nineteenth century, limited to the current of popular culture. Taking the works of Oskar Kolberg as an example, we will discuss the repertoire of the Jewish community at that time, as perceived and received by the Polish community. This will be followed by a presentation of Jewish music groups that played for Poles as well, and also of particularly popular Jewish musicians who were singled out by journalists at that time. The article also presents the way in which Jews and their musical culture were depicted by Polish journalists and portrayed in the musical expression of representatives of rural and urban communities. The article shows that the image of Jews and their musical culture shown by different strata of Polish society during the nineteenth century varied a great deal. The virtuosity of Jewish musicians aroused interest and admiration among the Polish intelligentsia and acquired a mythologised personification in the literary figure of Jankiel. Lower social strata, when taking up Jewish strands in their musical expression, were often reacting to conflicts of interest experienced in their contacts with Jews representing a pre-capitalist economy. Jews in ritual and everyday situations constituted important ritual symbols bringing in wealth, and their very presence in theatrical forms was perceived partly as evidence of the veracity of biblical events. References to Jewish culture in the musical expression of the Polish community were confined to the most common stereotypes, which attests to the superficiality of the contacts between the two communities. Against that background, the actual idiom of Jewish music was far better understood, imitated and copied.

Stałe kontakty społeczności polskiej i żydowskiej na ziemiach polskich zaczęły się kształtować na przełomie XII i XIII wieku, otwierając wielowiekowy okres wzajemnych wpływów kulturowych i muzycznych. Zachowane przekazy źródłowe, jakkolwiek nieliczne i rozproszone (dokumenty normatywne, relacje kronikarskich i dziennikarskie, komentarze obserwatorów i badaczy, ikonografia, zapisy nutowe, dźwiękowe i filmowe) pozwoliły na zarysowanie dziejów kształtowania się wzajemnych relacji muzycznych obydwu grup narodowościowych. Artykuł koncentruje się jednak przede wszystkim na stanie tych relacji w wieku XIX, ograniczonych do nurtu kultury popularnej. Na przykładzie prac Oskara Kolberga ukazany został ówczesny repertuar społeczności żydowskiej, postrzegany i przyjmowany przez społeczność polską. Następnie przedstawione zostały muzyczne zespoły żydowskie grające także dla Polaków oraz specjalnie wyróżnione przez ówczesnych publicystów postacie szczególnie popularnych muzyków żydowskich. Artykuł prezentuje też sposób ukazywania Żydów i ich kultury muzycznej przez polskich publicystów i w ekspresji muzycznej przedstawicieli społeczności chłopskich i miejskich.
Artykuł wykazał, że wizerunek Żyda i jego kultury muzycznej ukazywany przez poszczególne warstwy społeczności polskiej w XIX wieku był bardzo zróżnicowany. Wirtuozeria muzyków żydowskich budziła zainteresowanie i podziw polskiej inteligencji oraz zyskała swą zmitologizowaną personifikację w literackiej postaci Jankiela. Niższe warstwy społeczne, podejmując wątki żydowskie we własnej ekspresji muzycznej, często odreagowywały konflikty interesów doświadczane w kontaktach z Żydami reprezentującymi gospodarkę przedkapitalistyczną. Żydzi w sytuacjach obrzędowych i zwyczajowych stanowili ważne symbole obrzędowe sprowadzające dostatek, a sama ich obecność w formach teatralnych postrzegana była także jako dowód na prawdziwość wydarzeń biblijnych. Obecne w ekspresji muzycznej społeczności polskiej odwołania do kultury żydowskiej były ograniczone do najpowszechniejszych stereotypów, co świadczy o powierzchowności kontaktów między obydwiema społecznościami. Na tym tle sam idiom muzyki żydowskiej znacznie lepiej był rozumiany, naśladowany i kopiowany.

Karol Szymanowski’s visits to Zakopane became an opportunity to meet research-ers studying Podhale’s music folklore and, through them, folk musicians. Szy-manowski’s relations with the latter—contrary to the standards represented by a majority of scholars from the German musicological school of the day—were close, even direct, which had an impact on his perception and experiencing of the music. Szymanowski’s meditative nature made him turn towards the views of representatives of Hungarian music folklore studies rather than represent-atives of comparative musicology. In Szymanowski’s Zakopane period we can find many elements characteris-ing the work of folklorists in the second half of the twentieth century, that is af-ter the anthropological breakthrough in ethnomusicology.

Piotr Dahlig w jednym ze swoich artykułów wchodzące w aktywność zawodową począwszy od końca XX wieku pokolenie młodych etnomuzykologów określił jako „piątą generację” polskich badaczy. Jest to grupa bardzo liczna, co zawdzięczamy silnemu wzrostowi zainteresowania tematyką etnomuzykologiczną wśród studentów muzykologii na przestrzeni ostatniego dwudziestolecia. Artykuł, wykorzystując wypowiedzi absolwentów muzykologii specjalizujących się w etnomuzykologii, analizuje powody podjęcia tej specjalizacji i postawy badawcze. Rozpatrując tematykę prac dyplomowych autor zastanawia się nad głównymi kierunkami zainteresowań młodego pokolenia etnomuzykologów. Te ustalenia zestawione są z aktualnie obowiązującymi programami nauczania w zakresie etnomuzykologii oraz sytuacją zawodową środowiska zawodowych badaczy. W konkluzji autor próbuje wskazać główne kierunki zagrożeń i szans dla rozwoju dyscypliny w Polsce w przyszłości.

In the concept of the aesthetic formation of knowledge and its as soon as possible and success-oriented application, insights and profits without the reference to the arguments developed around 1900. The main investigation also includes the period between the entry into force and the presentation in its current version. Their function as part of the literary portrayal and narrative technique. 1 Studies and Investigations The main investigation also includes the period between the entry into force and the presentation in its current version. Their function as part of the literary portrayal and narrative technique.

Polish national dances – an emblem of Polishness or a phenomenon from the frontier of Europe

According to Mieczysław Tomaszewski, dance is a medium through which nationality can be expressed. Today what is commonly regarded as national dances or unique emblems of Poland’s national culture is a set of the following dances: polonaise, mazurka, krakowiak, oberek and kujawiak. The set resembles a cultural canon as understood by Andrzej Szpociński (part of tradition that is subject to update, carrying non-dance contents, binding on all members of a community). The Polish musicological literature has pointed out that a crucial role in the creation or emergence of emblematic phenomena has been played by the stereotyping of familiar elements. However, many phenomena and processes occurring during the creation or updating of the canon cannot be regarded as stereotypical. Drawing on Maria Janion’s concept, the author points to the categories of myth and phantasm, which become much more useful tools in interpretation, especially with regard to frontier or even foreign phenomena, which appeared in the Polish dance canon many times, playing a very important role.

The following dances are most commonly considered nowadays as national dances (or emblems of Polish national culture): the polonaise, the mazur, the krakowiak, the oberek and the kujawiak. These dances form the cultural canon as defined by Andrzej Szpociński (i.e. a constantly revised part of tradition which carries significance outside the domain of dance and is obligatory for all the community members). In Polish musicological studies it has been emphasised that the phenomenon of stereotypisation of native folklore has played a major role in the formation and emergence of emblematic national phenomena. However, some of the phenomena and processes that have taken place during the formation and revision of the national canon cannot be reduced to the idea of creating a stereotype. The author of this paper draws on Maria Janion’s treatment of the categories of myth and phantasm, which can be much more useful for the interpretation especially of borderline or clearly alien phenomena that have frequently found their way into the Polish national dance canon and played a very important role in that canon. The author also discusses the changing functions of dances from the canon, which resulted from external circumstances determined by political events and social processes.

The mainstream interest of Polish dance researchers was set out in 1818-1847 by Józef Elsner, Kazimierz Brodziński, Łukasz Gołębiowski and Karol Czerniawski, who characterized broadly some elements of the dances considered as the national dances (polonaise, mazur, krakowiak and kozak). Oskar Kolberg knew very well the works of all these authors and related to them many times, however, he was unique even in broad documentation of dance melodies, information about their geographic origin, and local terminology. He also characterized the dance relating the passage of the contextual situation and described the dance technique in an instructive manner.
The documentation of Oskar Kolberg for quite a long time remained outside of the mainstream research and writings about dances in Poland. In the 1930s Polish representatives of the ethnochoreology were the first to include examples from Kolberg in their works on the rite dances, regional dances and characteristic dance behaviours and forms. Kolberg’s works increased in popularity after the 2nd World War. Today the materials left by Oskar Kolberg allows us to establish to a large extent the geographic reach and certain perspective on the changes of dance repertoire both in the choreographic technique and whole dance types, or a more detailed and critical perspective on the issue of folk naming of dance phenomena. It may also make for a pretext to perform a wider retrogressive or comparative studies – which may not be very fashionable today, but which have never been adequately done in Poland.

Документация музыкальной этнокультуры Беларуси Оскара Кольберга и научные достижения польских исследователей славянских музыкальных традиций в XIX веке
Деятельность Оскара Кольберга была основана на достижениях предыдущих поколений польских следователей, чьи исследования изначально была ориентирована на территории современной Литвы, Украины и Беларуси. Это не удивительно, что эти территории заинтересовался Кольберг. Однако, в отличие от своих предшественников, исследователь записывал мелодии песен и танцев в беспрецедентных масштабах с точки зрения количества. К сожалению коллекции белорусские Оскара Кольберга не были опубликованы до середины ХХ века. Том «Białoruś - Polesie» появился  в рамках редакции всех работ Кольберга в 1968 г. Сегодня  документирует заинтересованность польских исследователей этнокультурой Беларуси. Будучи первым таким большим собранием музыкальных записей песен и инструментальной музыки, собранной с территории Беларуси, транскрипции Кольберга позволяют диахронно посмотреть на традиционный музыкальный репертуар и его трансформацию. Эта монография Кольберга в современном польском обществе оказывает очень важное влияние на формирование представления о белорусской традиционной культуре.

Polish Folk Dances in the Light of Iconographical Sources of the Annexation Period - Possibilities and Restrictions

Until now dance iconography was used in the Polish ethnochoreological literature mainly for illustrating,  rarely for transcribing the static dance moments to kinetography Laban. The author of this article intends to show the possibilities, with give a broader exploitation – particularly in relation to 19th century sources – of methodological approaches like kinesthetic understanding and reconstruction of dance situations or also Laban movement analysis. As well he judges the broad use of iconological interpretation as necessary, which makes it possible to trace changes and not only to illustrate the dance situations, but also the convention, which demonstrates the relation between the artist towards the subject and the artistic tradition.

The article describes the topic of music's place and functioning in the funeral ceremonies on the Bali Island, for which materials gathered during June and July 2006 in the Denpasar and Gyanyar (Singapadu village) districts served. Balinese funeral ceremonies have been shown as one type of activities included in the concept of universal world order fulfilled by Pitra Yadnya and Butha Yadnya ceremonies in which - on the other hand - music plays the key role. The music leads the dead person's soul through various phases of the post-mortal journey during the ngaben (cremation) and memukar (soul purification) rituals. A signal played on a kulkul - a log slit drum starts funeral ceremonies, at the same time commencing officially cuntaka - the period of unchastity. In the particular stages of funeral ceremony gamelan music is indispensable - it introduces the ceremony's participants to a proper mood (rame), strengthens pedanda's calls, scares evil spirits away, gives people power and energy to fulfill the ritual duties and signals the symbolic and magical activities. The usage of wealthy symbolism of gamelan instruments themselves is also of high significence. The kidung singing, mantra and the ganta bell sound - which direct the soul and purify both the space and the ceremony participants - all complete the sound space during the ceremony. The motives of music connected with the funeral ceremony occur in modern Balinese compositions and construct a perfect illustration of the modern role and significance od music elements originating from the funeral ceremonies.

The article deals with the presence of traditional music in the culture of the Polish People’s Republic, created by leftist ideologists after World War II. Drawing on an analysis of music journalism from the period, the author argues that traditional music as such did not occupy a privileged position but, rather, was a means of legitimising the new authorities and a convenient starting point for creating a new cultural phenomenon that was to become popular new music saturated with new ideological content. On the other hand, used to initiate the transformation process, traditional music as a result of planned activities was going to disappear. The author points out that ideologists of the time understood the term “folk music” not in terms of 19th-century folklore, but, rather, in functional terms, closer to the term “popular music”. In turn, their attitude to traditional rural music was definitely critical, for they regarded is as a regressive, primitive, vulgar-emotional phenomenon, polluted by the influence of higher social strata.
In the author’s view, the ideologists of the day did not succeed in creating a new musical culture and nor did they completely suppress traditional music. It was, however, undoubtedly weakened. In its place came new phenomena or other forces, formed a little earlier and continuing to this day. They are singing ensembles that have eradicated popular music, stylised folk ensembles, festivals and contests of traditional music, or regional music labels. For this reason, according to the author, this formulation of many of today’s cultural phenomena is worth analysing in greater detail and requires further research.

The article discusses the problem of transmiting tradition in the process of training of young fiddlers in the Podhale region. On teh basis on interviews with fiddler-teachers, and his won participation in practical lessons, the author concludes that a relatively coherent method of teaching fiddlers has evolved and become prevalent in this region based on seven premises.

The article is devoted to the sources of Czesław Niemen's musical imagination. The author compares the artist's works with the culture of Polish community of the north-east part of Kresy using his own experiences from a few years' research and traces left by the musician.

Tekst podejmuje zagadnienie polskich tańców narodowych jako kanonu kultury z uwzględnieniem jego wyznaczników, genezy, kluczowych momentów i kierunków jego przemian. Problematyka tańców narodowych obecna w Europie od ponad trzech stuleci stanowi przedmiot rozważań polskich badaczy historii i propedeutyki tańca od początku XIX wieku, a muzykologów – od końca tamtego stulecia. Już Stanisław Głowacki umieścił taniec w kontekście kanonu kultury, a Mieczysław Tomaszewski zaliczył go do mediów, poprzez które wyrażać się może narodowość. Na potrzeby niniejszego artykułu zastosowano wypracowaną przez Andrzeja Szpocińskiego koncepcję kanonu kulturowego, rozumianego jako podlegająca aktualizacji część tradycji, stanowiącej nośnik treści pozatanecznych i obowiązującej wszystkich członków wspólnoty.
W tekście omówiono przede wszystkim proces kształtowania się kanonu kulturowego oraz pierwszych gatunków tańców narodowych (polonez, mazur i kozak). Następnie zwrócono uwagę na przemianę z przełomu XVIII i XIX w., w której wyniku wyeliminowany został z kanonu kozak, a zastąpił go krakowiak. W dalszej części omówiono włączenie do kanonu kujawiaka i oberka oraz nieudane próby wypromowania w ramach kanonu tańca góralskiego. Wskazano przy tym znaczenie funkcji tańców narodowych, których zmiany wywoływały z reguły także modyfikacje kanonu (znaczenie wykonywania poloneza w epoce absolutyzmów, tańców narodowych w epoce preromantyzmu i romantyzmu, przemiany gatunków tanecznych na początku XX wieku oraz przeniesienie tańców narodowych do dziedziny edukacji i do prezentacji scenicznych). Pomocniczo wykorzystano terminy: stereotyp, mit, fantazmat.

The article addresses the determinants of intergenerational transmission of musical tradition with regard to instrumental skills. By way of exemplification the author uses the results of his own field research conducted among Podhale violinists more than 20 years ago. The starting point is a literature overview which in particular takes into account the 1979 book entitled "Muzykanty" by Franciszek Kotula, which was preceded by an article by Józef Burszta, both of which serve to point to the basic psychological determinants of the education process within the context of the former Małopolska countryside. The author highlights the basic music determinants governing the master-pupil transmission process in order to more extensively adress the socio-cultural determinants of this educational process that took place in Podhale two decades ago. He links his research results to his other study conducted in other regions in Poland, as well as in Lithuania and Indonesia.

In the ethnomusicologists’ activity a phenomenon of traditional music competitions becoming the main medium of researchers’ influence on the subject under study. Many ethnomusicologists saw there an opportunity to encourage musicians and singers to cultivate rare and archaic phenomena, while limiting the influx of new ones. But from the other hand the form of competition, requiring the presence of an “expert” and often with multi-stage structure, surrounded by coaches and consultants, engaged numerous ethnomusicologists, occupying their time and thought, while significantly changing relations between the researcher and the subject, and the perception of the study subject by ethnomusicologist. This in turn impacted scientific activity of ethnomusicologist and the consciousness of performers, as well as their repertoire. The Polish case is a good example to discuss this phenomenon, where it still lives on for many years, making it an attractive study subject.

The work National dance in the Polish cultural canon. Sources, genesis, transformations attempts to present the historical panorama of the canon of Polish national dances. The goal of this work is to define the sources and history of the canon, the transformations of its functions, its constituting elements and their forms. Another important aspect was to define the attitudes of the community towards national dances, manifested by their opinions and actions, as well as the impact of external factors on the canon. This is because the existence of „complex and changing interaction between ideology and form, which takes place in response to the changing social, economic and political factors of the organization of the dance world” is a fact. In effect, dance form may be perceived as “subject to various changes in time and space and as deceivingly shifting from one context to another” .
In this work the author uses the concept of cultural canon as defined by Andrzej Szpociński, especially in the part which is related to cultural canons of national groups. In order to define better the phenomena tackled by the study, the author uses the classification of images functioning in popular awareness by Maria Janion. Therefore, the images are classified as close to „myth”, close to “stereotype” and close to “phantasms” .
The point of departure for the whole work is the finding of a rule on which the canon was founded. Andrzej Szpociński assumed that such rule for the national community is familiarity, which ensures homogeneity of the dimension of own past regardless of chronological sequence of events . For this reason, the first chapter of the work includes a review of sources on dance – from the earliest ones to the period of the decline of Saxon rule in Poland – in order to present Polish phenomena that could be the sources of later national dances, as well as highlighting moments in which special attention was paid to dances considered familiar or Polish. The most important was the presentation of a situation where familiar (Polish) dances were included in a situation of a special social, especially political, significance. The form of polonez and mazur (both in terms of music and dance) is outlined as the first dances included in the national dances canon in the character of autostereotype of national character. Also social mechanisms impacting the improvement of the forms of national dances and their popularization are outlined. 
The second chapter of the work (years 1764 to 1815) shows the period of significant changes in the canon of national dances, caused – on one side – by the shift of interest of the upper classes towards the folk culture in the last decades of the 18th century, on the other hand – by the loss of sovereignty by the Polish Republic. Thus, kozak and krakowiak made it into the canon as a kind of phantasm, and their fates went two different way as a result of political changes. Kozak, as a stereotype of a national character of nationalities excluded from the community of the territories of the former Polish Republic, and even used to subdue the inhabitants of Poland to Russian domination, have gradually lost importance and was excluded from the canon of national dances. The resulting void was gradually filled by krakowiak, which in the meantime gained high recognition due to the myth of Tadeusz Kościuszko and his army. By the way, the canon also changed its role in relation to the Poland’s loss of former political standing. The dances belonging to the canon were complemented with symbolical character which at the same time bore the features of an autostereotype and were an expression of essentialist thinking. As a carrier of significant cultural meaning, the national dances became an important bulwark of defence of the national identity and a means of promoting cultural distinctiveness in the world.
This phenomenon increased in intensity during the next period – the early and middle Romanticism (1815-1867), which saw the first theoretical works (Kazimierz Brodziński, Karol Czerniawski) devoted to the ideas related to the dances comprising the national canon, as well as the first Polish instruction books (Jan and Ignacy Staczyński, Mieczysław Hłasko) describing these dances. At the same time the romantic turn towards folklore, also in the field of understanding the national community, caused the canon to be gradually complemented with oberek and kujawiak. A special role of folk culture during this period is visible also in one more tendency – searching for common-folk roots of also the dances which took shape in courts and manors, i.e. polonez and mazur.
The fourth chapter refers to the period between the end of the national mourning in the Russian-occupied territory and regaining of independence by Polish Galicia, to the relative liberalization in the Russian-occupied lands as a result of the Russian Revolution of 1905. This period is worthy of attention due to the peak development of the forms of national dances, which at the same time marks the beginning of a decline in popularity for the majority of genres of the national canon. A very significant role was played by the musical compositions of the period, including ballet works, pieces for “café-théâtres” and folk theatres, open air concerts and public dancehalls. Also the ethnographic activities were of immense importance, delivering information on the dances that could be tied to national dances, both for the needs of the Polish society of the time and for today’s researchers of dances. The discussion on all these issues as well as their mutual interconnections define the content and order of the whole chapter.
The fifth and final chapter discusses the transformation of function of the canon in the 20th century, with references to contemporary situation. Above all, the changes in functions were forced by the disappearance of national dances from tea dances and an increase in popularity of genres related to new forms and phenomena of partner dances. The chapter describes the development of these phenomena. Moreover, the initiative of inclusion of national dances in popular education, also considered significant, is described in detail on the example of the interwar period. Thirdly, the book covers the sources of the stage trend of the presentation of national dances (cabaret, folk theatre troupes, school bands, folk song and dance ensembles of the 1940s and 1950s) as well as the direction of transformations of dance forms under the pressure of the demand for spectacularity. An important place is occupied by the discussion on the shaping of contemporary image of national dances and the initiative of new ways of using national dances (ballroom forms, competitions).
The whole work concludes with a short review of the main ways of shaping and transforming of the national dance canon, and a description of their contemporary situation.