Wayne Parker
University of Waterloo, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Faculty Member
Soluble microbial products (SMP) classified as utilization-associated products (UAP) and biomass-associated products (BAP) are the predominant foulants determining fouling in tertiary filtration. However, the exact mechanisms of BAP and... more
Soluble microbial products (SMP) classified as utilization-associated products (UAP) and biomass-associated products (BAP) are the predominant foulants determining fouling in tertiary filtration. However, the exact mechanisms of BAP and UAP generation when treating real wastewaters under cold temperatures remain unrevealed. This paper presents the first study linking biological processes and SMP formation when treating real wastewaters through a combination of bioprocess modelling and advanced SMP characterization. Further, the impact of low operating temperatures on SMP production which has received relatively little attention was studied in detail. The use of liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection (LC-OCD) revealed a significant increase in protein and polysaccharide concentrations in the treated effluents as temperature decreased with a more sensitive impact on polysaccharides. The generation of SMP from biomass decay (BAP) and substrate utilization (UAP) was derived from the LC-OCD data on the basis of protein and polysaccharide mass balances. UAP and BAP yields were estimated as the ratios of the observed generation rates to the rates of substrate utilization and endogenous decay respectively, which both declined as temperature increased. A strong correlation was observed between temperature and BAP/UAP yields whereas the generation of BAP was more temperature sensitive than UAP. Such process modelling can be employed to assist with the optimization of the design and operation of membrane processes when treating wastewaters under challenging conditions like low temperature.
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The recognition of microplastics (MPs) in environmental samples via FT-IR is challenging due to a plethora of factors can lead to significant variances in measured spectra. Conventional library search approaches compare the observed... more
The recognition of microplastics (MPs) in environmental samples via FT-IR is challenging due to a plethora of factors can lead to significant variances in measured spectra. Conventional library search approaches compare the observed spectrum with spectra in reference libraries, which will lead to errors due the variance in spectra. Motivated to tackle this challenge, this study explores the feasibility of leveraging deep learning for automatic MP recognition via FT-IR spectroscopy. More specifically, a deep convolution neural network (CNN) architecture, referred to here as PlasticNet, is introduced for the purpose of automatic MP recognition. PlasticNet was trained on a large corpus of FT-IR spectra of different plastic types in order to learn discriminative spectral features characterizing each plastic type. Experimental results showed that PlasticNet was capable of recognizing between MPs in an effective way and at a faster speed compared with libary search.
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ABSTRACT The efficacy of three different wastewater treatment configurations, conventional activated sludge (CAS), nitrifying activated sludge (NAS) and biological nutrient removal (BNR) for removal of selected micropollutants from... more
ABSTRACT The efficacy of three different wastewater treatment configurations, conventional activated sludge (CAS), nitrifying activated sludge (NAS) and biological nutrient removal (BNR) for removal of selected micropollutants from authentic wastewater was investigated. The processes were also characterized based on their proficiency to reduce the estrogenic activity of the influent wastewater using the invitro recombinant yeast assay. The removal efficiency of trimethoprim improved with the complexity of the three treatment process configurations. Ibuprofen, androstendione, sulfamethoxazole, nonylphenol, estrone and bisphenol-A had moderate to high removals (>65%) while carbamazepine and Meprobamate remained recalcitrant in the three treatment process configurations. The removal of Gemfibrozil was better in the NAS than in BNR and CAS treatment configurations. The yeast estrogen screen assay analyses showed an improvement in estrogenicity removal in the BNR and NAS treatment configurations as compared to the CAS treatment configuration. Comparing the estrogenic responses from the three treatment configurations, the removal efficiencies followed the order of BNR¼ NAS>CAS and all were greater than 81%.
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A transient study was conducted at pilot scale to assess the impact of Fe dosage on the dynamics of biological and membrane performance of an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) treating authentic municipal wastewater. A transient model... more
A transient study was conducted at pilot scale to assess the impact of Fe dosage on the dynamics of biological and membrane performance of an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) treating authentic municipal wastewater. A transient model of the AnMBR system was employed to assist with interpretation of the observed responses in the mixed liquor under different FeCl3 dosages. A high dosage (43 mg FeCl3/LSewage) resulted in a significant accumulation of fixed suspended solids and volatile suspended solids (VSS) and reduction of colloidal COD in the mixed liquor. The elevated dosages appeared to reduce the biodegradability of VSS that was present in the raw wastewater. Intermediate dosages of FeCl3 (21–12 mg/L) had less effect on these responses and did not appear to affect VSS biodegradation. Membrane performance was significantly affected by FeCl3 dosage as indicated by reversible resistance (RR) and physically irreversible resistance (IR). RR was closely related to the colloidal CO...
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Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate vertebrate growth, development, and metabolism. Despite their importance, there is a need for effective detection of TH-disruption by endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The frog olfactory system... more
Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate vertebrate growth, development, and metabolism. Despite their importance, there is a need for effective detection of TH-disruption by endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The frog olfactory system substantially remodels during TH-dependent metamorphosis and the objective of the present study is to examine olfactory system gene expression for TH biomarkers that can evaluate the biological effects of complex mixtures such as municipal wastewater. We first examine classic TH-response gene transcripts using reverse transcription-quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) in the olfactory epithelium (OE) and olfactory bulb (OB) of premetamorphic Rana (Lithobates) catesbeiana tadpoles after 48 h exposure to biologically-relevant concentrations of the THs, 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T) and L-thyroxine (T), or 17-beta estradiol (E); a hormone that can crosstalk with THs. As the OE was particularly sensitive to THs, further RNA-seq analysis...
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Decades of studies on endocrine disruption have suggested the need to manage the release of key estrogens from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). However, the proposed thresholds are below the detection limits of most routine... more
Decades of studies on endocrine disruption have suggested the need to manage the release of key estrogens from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). However, the proposed thresholds are below the detection limits of most routine chemical analysis, thereby restricting the ability of watershed managers to assess the environmental exposure appropriately. In this study, we demonstrated the utility of a mechanistic model to address the data gaps on estrogen exposure. Concentrations of the prominent estrogenic contaminants in wastewaters (estrone, estradiol, and ethinylestradiol) were simulated in the Grand River in southern Ontario (Canada) for nine years, including a period when major WWTP upgrades occurred. The predicted concentrations expressed as total estrogenicity (E2 equivalent concentrations) were contrasted to a key estrogenic response (i.e., intersex) in rainbow darter (Etheostoma caeruleum), a wild sentinel fish species. A predicted total estrogenicity in the river of ...
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Olfaction is critical for survival, facilitating predator avoidance and food location. The nature of the olfactory system changes during amphibian metamorphosis as the aquatic herbivorous tadpole transitions to a terrestrial, carnivorous... more
Olfaction is critical for survival, facilitating predator avoidance and food location. The nature of the olfactory system changes during amphibian metamorphosis as the aquatic herbivorous tadpole transitions to a terrestrial, carnivorous frog. Metamorphosis is principally dependent on the action of thyroid hormones (THs), l-thyroxine (T4) and 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3), yet little is known about their influence on olfaction during this phase of postembryonic development. We exposed Taylor Kollros stage I-XIII Rana (Lithobates) catesbeiana tadpoles to physiological concentrations of T4, T3, or 17-beta-estradiol (E2) for 48h and evaluated a predator cue avoidance response. The avoidance response in T3-exposed tadpoles was abolished while T4- or E2-exposed tadpoles were unaffected compared to control tadpoles. qPCR analyses on classic TH-response gene transcripts (thra, thrb, and thibz) in the olfactory epithelium demonstrated that, while both THs produced molecular responses, T3...
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This study investigated the impacts of high pressure thermal hydrolysis (HPTH) pretreatment on the distribution of chemical oxygen demand (COD) species in waste activated sludge (WAS). In the first phase of the project, WAS from a... more
This study investigated the impacts of high pressure thermal hydrolysis (HPTH) pretreatment on the distribution of chemical oxygen demand (COD) species in waste activated sludge (WAS). In the first phase of the project, WAS from a synthetically-fed biological reactor (BR) was fed to an aerobic digester (AD). In the second phase, WAS from the BR was pretreated by HPTH at 150 °C and 3 bars for 30 min prior to being fed to the AD. A range of physical, biochemical and biological properties were regularly measured in each process stream in both phases. The COD of the BR WAS consisted of storage products (XSTO), active heterotrophs (XH) and endogenous decay products (XE). Pretreatment did not increase the extent to which the BR WAS was aerobically digested and hence it was concluded that the unbiodegradable COD fraction, i.e. XE, was unchanged by pretreatment. However, pretreatment did increase the rate of degradation as it converted 36% of XH to readily biodegradable COD (SB) and the remaining XH to slowly biodegradable COD (XB). Furthermore, XSTO was fully converted to SB by pretreatment. Although pretreatment did not change the VSS concentration in the downstream aerobic digester, it did decrease the ISS concentration by 46 ± 11%. This reduced the total mass of solids produced by the digester by 21 ± 8%. A COD-based HPTH pretreatment model was developed and calibrated. When this model was integrated into BioWin 3.1(®), it was able to accurately simulate both the steady state performance of the overall system employed in this study as well as dynamic respirometry results.
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ABSTRACT Bench scale experimentation was completed to assess the potential of using a short residence time pre-treatment reactor upstream of aerobic digestion to enhance the destruction of pathogens. The impact of aeration, temperature,... more
ABSTRACT Bench scale experimentation was completed to assess the potential of using a short residence time pre-treatment reactor upstream of aerobic digestion to enhance the destruction of pathogens. The impact of aeration, temperature, hydraulic residence time, solids concentration, feeding frequency and mechanical shearing on the pre-treatment process was investigated. Subsequent testing evaluated the operation of selected pretreatment conditions in a staged configuration with a conventional aerobic digester. Either highly aerobic or highly reducing conditions were observed to be most effective in reducing the concentrations of E. coli. and Salmonella spp. in the pre-treatment reactor. When operated in series with the aerobic digesters, the more highly reducing conditions in pre-treatment were found to enhance die-off of the organisms in the subsequent aerobic digestion.
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An interdisciplinary design approach is a collaborative effort involving team members from different engineering disciplines to solve a problem. An opportunity for interdisciplinary education exists in the fourth year capstone design... more
An interdisciplinary design approach is a collaborative effort involving team members from different engineering disciplines to solve a problem. An opportunity for interdisciplinary education exists in the fourth year capstone design project. Interdisciplinary capstone courses are offered at other Canadian universities but, at the University of Waterloo (UW) the co-operative undergraduate engineering program poses a logistical barrier to students interacting with students in other disciplines for capstone design projects. Currently, students can form their own interdisciplinary team but differences in course structure, project deliverables, and design terminology and method between engineering disciplines is challenging for students and instructors. An investigation into the feasibility of a new interdisciplinary capstone design course at UW is undertaken. A possible home for the interdisciplinary capstone course could be under the Chair of Design Engineering. Overall, receptivity a...
In this study, the estrogenicity of two major wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents located in the central reaches of the Grand River watershed in southern Ontario was estimated using population demographics, excretion rates, and... more
In this study, the estrogenicity of two major wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents located in the central reaches of the Grand River watershed in southern Ontario was estimated using population demographics, excretion rates, and treatment plant-specific removals. Due to the lack of data on estrogen concentrations from direct measurements at WWTPs, the treatment efficiencies through the plants were estimated using the information obtained from an effects-directed analysis. The results show that this approach could effectively estimate the estrogenicity of WWTP effluents, both before and after major infrastructure upgrades were made at the Kitchener WWTP. The model was then applied to several possible future scenarios including population growth and river low flow conditions. The scenario analyses showed that post-upgrade operation of the Kitchener WWTP will not release highly estrogenic effluent under the 2041 projected population increase (36%) or summer low flows. Similarly,...
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The Business Employment Transferable Skills (BETS) program was a pilot project established for unemployed first year Waterloo Engineering students to train them in entrepreneurial skills and provide them with experience in start-up... more
The Business Employment Transferable Skills (BETS) program was a pilot project established for unemployed first year Waterloo Engineering students to train them in entrepreneurial skills and provide them with experience in start-up companies. Twenty students participated in the BETS program and they were “hired” in a similar competitive manner used for regular co-op jobs. The students were from 8 different engineering programs and had completed 8 months of academic study prior to entering the program. Students initially completed 80 hours of training to build workplace skills required to succeed in an entrepreneurial work place. Employers submitted a one-page form, describing a proposed project and the BETS coordinator “matched” them with teams of two students for 3 week work placements. Each student completed a total of 4 placements over a 12 week period. A total of 29 start-ups, with limited financial resources to staff projects, in local technology incubators participated. Most w...
The Faculty of Engineering at the University of Waterloo is preparing to employ outcomes-based assessments to inform program improvement as required by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) and the Ontario Council of... more
The Faculty of Engineering at the University of Waterloo is preparing to employ outcomes-based assessments to inform program improvement as required by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) and the Ontario Council of Academic Vice Presidents (OCAV). Engineering at Waterloo requires all students to complete five 4-month work terms to graduate; a model of Co-operative education that involves a sequence of alternating work and academic terms. Upon completion of each work term employers complete a Student Performance Evaluation (SPE) that provides students with feedback on their work term and is employed to assign a grade to the student for the term. This presentation will describe an innovative use of historical SPE information to initiate a process that will lead to their use for outcomesassessment for program enhancement.
Capstone projects offer an excellent oppor- tunity to assess the attributes of engineering students in their final year of studies. For the purposes of accredi- tation and outcomes assessment, capstone projects can be used to establish... more
Capstone projects offer an excellent oppor- tunity to assess the attributes of engineering students in their final year of studies. For the purposes of accredi- tation and outcomes assessment, capstone projects can be used to establish that engineering students have ob- tained a suitable level of mastery of the skills necessary to be successful in their field of study. At the University of Waterloo, a committee was formed by the Faculty of Engineering to investigate, develop, and implement a common set of rubrics for the purpose of consistently assessing graduate attributes across all engineering disciplines. Faculty members from every engineering discipline were appointed to the committee. Using the collective experience of the committee members, a set of rubrics for outcomes assessment was established. This paper examines the design of the six rubrics that the committee deemed to be equally applicable to all engineering disciplines. These rubrics assess the CEAB graduate attribute...
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Under the US Clean Air Act Amendments, fugitive emissions of volatile organic contaminants (VOCs) from waste-water-treatment facilities have been identified as a potentially significant source of air pollution. Models incorporating... more
Under the US Clean Air Act Amendments, fugitive emissions of volatile organic contaminants (VOCs) from waste-water-treatment facilities have been identified as a potentially significant source of air pollution. Models incorporating liquid-gas mass-transfer and biofilm mass-transfer resistances were developed for trickling filters (TF) and rotating biological contractors (RBC). Biodegradation and volatilization coefficients were estimated from the previously described pilot-scale studies. The
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The use of dechlorinating chemicals for removal of chlorine from spent membrane cleaning solutions was investigated. Addition of calcium thiosulfate resulted in a decrease in pH at low dosages of calcium thiosulfate, but when higher... more
The use of dechlorinating chemicals for removal of chlorine from spent membrane cleaning solutions was investigated. Addition of calcium thiosulfate resulted in a decrease in pH at low dosages of calcium thiosulfate, but when higher dosages were used, the pH was not affected. Other dechlorinating agents (sodium bisulfite, sodium sulfite, and ascorbic acid) generated smaller pH declines than calcium thiosulfate. The declines in pH were observed after the dechlorination reaction was effectively complete and pH did not appear to influence the rate of dechlorination. The rate of dechlorination in spent cleaning solution was slower than that observed in clean water. Dechlorination with calcium thiosulfate resulted in the lowest half-life and reaction time. At lower doses (less than 565 mg/L), it was not possible to discriminate between the different dechlorinating agents. The times required for dechlorination were more sensitive to increases in dechlorination chemical dose at lower doses.
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This study investigated the impact of Solid Retention Time (SRT) (40 to 100 days) and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) (2.5 to 8.5 hours) on the treatment of municipal wastewater in pilot and bench scale AnMBRs. The results revealed good... more
This study investigated the impact of Solid Retention Time (SRT) (40 to 100 days) and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) (2.5 to 8.5 hours) on the treatment of municipal wastewater in pilot and bench scale AnMBRs. The results revealed good permeate quality with respect to concentrations of COD (<40 mg/L) and BOD5 (<10 mg/L) was achieved under all conditions. Over the range of values tested SRT and HRTdid not significantly influence COD and BOD5 removal efficiencies. Extended SRTs resulted in reduced sludge production and enhanced methane production. Oversaturation of dissolved methane in permeate appears to have been responsible for a consistent lack of COD mass balance closure in all tests. After calibration of biokinetic coefficients, PetWin 4 (EnviroSim Canada) was found to effectively simulate the concentrations of particulate COD, readily biodegradable COD and acetic acid over a range of SRTs and HRTs. The calibrated saturation coefficients for hydrolysis and aceticlastic methanogenesis processes were comparable to those reported in literature. The saturation coefficient of fermentation was significantly lower than those reported in literature. The simulated methane mass flows were consistently higher than the measured values which was consistent with the lack of COD mass balance closure and was attributed to reduction of sulfate and oversaturation of the permeate with respect to Henry's Law.
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Résumé/Abstract A field-scale tracer test was conducted to evaluate in-situ ventilation rates in a major collector sewer. The sewer under study was∼ 11 km long and ranged from 0.61 to 2.1 m in diameter. For the purposes of the tracer... more
Résumé/Abstract A field-scale tracer test was conducted to evaluate in-situ ventilation rates in a major collector sewer. The sewer under study was∼ 11 km long and ranged from 0.61 to 2.1 m in diameter. For the purposes of the tracer testing, the collector was divided into ...
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Despite the importance of detachment to biofilm processes, detachment phenomena are not well understood. In this study, researchers investigated biofilm detachment from free-floating biofilm carriers that were established in an... more
Despite the importance of detachment to biofilm processes, detachment phenomena are not well understood. In this study, researchers investigated biofilm detachment from free-floating biofilm carriers that were established in an integrated, fixed-film activated sludge (IFAS) installation in Mississauga, Ontario. A method for assessing detachment from biofilm carrier systems was devised, evaluated, and refined during this study. In the absence of substrate, superficial air velocity significantly affected the 24-hour detachment rates of total suspended solids from the carriers. Short-term growth conditions did not appear to significantly affect the rate of detachment of solids and nitrifiers. The measured solids-detachment rates were found to be described by a second order function of biofilm attached growth total solids with a detachment coefficient of 0.006 +/- 0.0008 (g/m x d)(-1).
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The impact of solids residence time (SRT) on phosphate adsorption to hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) floc when striving for ultra-low P concentrations was characterized and an equilibrium model that describes the adsorption of P onto HFO floc... more
The impact of solids residence time (SRT) on phosphate adsorption to hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) floc when striving for ultra-low P concentrations was characterized and an equilibrium model that describes the adsorption of P onto HFO floc of different ages was developed. The results showed that fresh HFO had a higher adsorption capacity in comparison to aged (2.8, 7.4, 10.8 and 22.8 days) HFO and contributed substantially to P removal at steady state. P adsorption onto HFO solids was determined to be best described by the Freundlich isotherm. P desorption from HFO solids was negligible supporting the hypothesis that chemisorption is the mechanism of P adsorption on HFO solids. A model that included the contribution of different classes of HFO solids (i.e. High, Low or Old, containing high concentration, low concentration or no active surface sites, respectively) to adsorption onto HFO from a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system was found to adequately describe P adsorption onto HFO ...
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The long term impact of SRT (100-40 days) and recovery cleaning on membrane performance of an AnMBR treating authentic municipal wastewater in a large pilot plant was assessed. Successful operation of the pilot plant at a flux of 17 LMH... more
The long term impact of SRT (100-40 days) and recovery cleaning on membrane performance of an AnMBR treating authentic municipal wastewater in a large pilot plant was assessed. Successful operation of the pilot plant at a flux of 17 LMH was maintained for a period of 536 days during which the longest period of operation without recovery cleaning or membrane replacement was 178 days. Lower SRT (40 days) reduced the fouling propensity of the mixed liquor in terms of TSS concentration and the dewaterability indicators including colloidal COD (cCOD) concentration and capillary suction time (CST). Critical fluxes ranged from 21 to 23 LMH to 25-27 LMH for SRTs of 70 and 40 days respectively and this was consistent with the reduced concentrations of TSS and improved dewaterability under the latter conditions. Recovery cleaning was found to result in substantial reduction of resistance as indicated by both pilot plant operation and clean water flux tests. The long-term fouling rate was observed to be higher with cleaned membranes as compared to virgin membranes. The lower membrane fouling with virgin membranes suggested that accumulation of foulants, which were resistant to cleaning, caused the higher fouling rates for the cleaned membranes.
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ABSTRACT There has been a recent surge in interest into pretreatment of sludges, to reduce quantity and improve quality, but predicting the effects of these processes remains difficult. Research is presented which will allow for the... more
ABSTRACT There has been a recent surge in interest into pretreatment of sludges, to reduce quantity and improve quality, but predicting the effects of these processes remains difficult. Research is presented which will allow for the incorporation of ultrasonic pretreatment into a whole-plant model. Conventional and respirometric analyses were utilized to determine conversions of waste sludge generated from municipal wastewater, over a range of ultrasound doses. Inactivation of heterotrophs by ultrasound is demonstrated to be first order with respect to heterotrophs. Other conversion processes fit well with the same conversion dose constant, and convertible fractions are presented. The approach is shown to be valid over the typical range of SRT conditions.
The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds in the aquatic environment has become well established, and their presence is of potential concern because they are designed to produce biological response in the target receptor, may bear... more
The presence of pharmaceutically active compounds in the aquatic environment has become well established, and their presence is of potential concern because they are designed to produce biological response in the target receptor, may bear intrinsic toxicity (e.g. cytostatic agents, antibiotics) and they possess the potential to foster and maintain drug resistance. For both risk assessment and risk management purposes, it is important to identify the major sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Healthcare facilities may be major sources of the discharges of these compounds into municipal sewers. In this study, we investigated the contributions to the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents from two hospitals and two long-term care homes of nine compounds. Twenty-four hour composite samples were collected over 5 consecutive days from the effluents of these facilities. The WWTPs receiving sewage from these facilities were also sampled on the same days to facilitate mass bal...
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The long-term (90 days) impact of dosing FeCl3 on bioprocess performance and membrane performance in a pilot AnMBR fed with authentic sewage was evaluated. The addition of 26 mg/L of FeCl3 enhanced the performance of the AnMBR with... more
The long-term (90 days) impact of dosing FeCl3 on bioprocess performance and membrane performance in a pilot AnMBR fed with authentic sewage was evaluated. The addition of 26 mg/L of FeCl3 enhanced the performance of the AnMBR with respect to removal efficiencies of COD and BOD5, but did not have a significant influence on the removal efficiencies of TKN and TP and the methane yield. The membrane was operated at a constant flux of 17 LMH and its performance was significantly improved by dosing FeCl3. This was demonstrated by a reduction in the fouling that withstood scouring stresses to values lower than 5 kPa and negligible reversible fouling for the first 75 days. The superior membrane performance was consistent with the shift of particle size distribution to the particulate fraction and the reduced colloidal and soluble substances in the sludge, especially the soluble protein, carbohydrate, Ca and S. CLSM tests showed that the addition of FeCl3 resulted in a thicker foulant layer and the deposition of protein and carbohydrate on the membrane surface was significantly reduced. Therefore a more porous foulant layer was formed and this prevented the development of a strongly-attached cake layer and pore blocking. A recovery cleaning study indicated FeCl3 dosing enhanced the efficiency of the recovery cleaning protocol. The foulants formed with the Fe-dosed sludge had greater inorganic content, as 75% of the foulant resistance was removed by citric acid. The superior membrane performance during the operation combined with enhanced cleaning efficiency by FeCl3 dosing would significantly improve the sustainability of AnMBR in municipal wastewater treatment.
Research Interests: Water, Water Purification, Calcium, Confocal Microscopy, Multidisciplinary, and 14 moreCities, Iron, Sulfur, Sewage, Waste Water, Bioreactors, Reproducibility of Results, CARBOHYDRATES, Sodium Hydroxide, Citric Acid, Ferric Compounds, Biological Oxygen Demand Analysis, Chlorides, and Municipal Wastewater
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