... Journal of Archaeological Science In Press, Accepted Manuscript - Note to users. ... Accordin... more ... Journal of Archaeological Science In Press, Accepted Manuscript - Note to users. ... According toChinese historical literature, there once existed a state named Jun, with its capital city Yangxue located in the present-day Yun County during the Spring and Autumn.
International Journal of Conservation Science, 2019
Raman spectroscopy over the last two decades has shown its power and great potential in advancing... more Raman spectroscopy over the last two decades has shown its power and great potential in advancing our knowledge about the use of materials in the human past. Raman applications on paper-based materials are relatively few, however, compared to the countless case studies on other base materials. In this short review, I summarize post-2000 Raman applications on Chinese paper-based materials, in the hope of keeping non-Chinese scientists updated-which subjects have been investigated by Raman spectroscopy and to address what questions, how Raman applications shed light on the manufacture of pre-1949 Chinese paper-based materials, and what interesting topics arise from these Raman applications. I close my review by proposing a few topics worthy of exploration and investigation in future Raman applications. Introduction Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing phases, and it is ideal for studying art and archaeology materials in two aspects: in situ and non-destructive. While applied to art and archaeological artifacts, Raman spectroscopy helps researchers: recognize the materials from which an artifact is made [1, 2]; confirm degradation by-products developed upon the studied artifact [3, 4]; understand the degradation process [5, 6]; or evaluate conservation materials and the state of preservation [7, 8]. Case studies and review papers on Raman spectroscopy are too many to list. Some early or novel applications of Raman spectroscopy in art, archaeology and heritage science are well summarized in R.J.H. Clark [9, 10], H.G. Edwards [11] and P. Vandenabeele et al [12, 13]. Raman spectroscopy-whether used alone or combined with other analytical approaches-sheds light on material use in the human past. Some aspects of human behavioral patterns can be understood through comparisons of Raman applications, for example, since when and in which locations did people begin to procure a particular kind of material? How they applied it to the making of artifacts, and to serve what purpose? Why they used it in a particular way? Countless Raman applications were-and still are-carried out to make a contribution to that end. The studied subjects show great diversity in materiality, culture and technology while crossing a wide range of scales in time and space. In a global context, China has a short history of Raman applications to art and archaeology materials as well as a narrow range of subjects upon which Raman spectroscopy is applied. Raman investigations of ancient artifacts were rare in pre 2000 [14-16] but increased dramatically post 2000 (and this tendency continues until today). Overall, Raman analysis in Chinese case studies strongly focuses on coloring materials (pigment, ink and dye).
Archaeolinguistics, a field which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of... more Archaeolinguistics, a field which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of information on human prehistory, has much to offer to deepen our understanding of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Northeast Asia. So far, integrated comparative analyses of words and tools for textile production are completely lacking for the Northeast Asian Neolithic and Bronze Age. To remedy this situation, here we integrate linguistic and archaeological evidence of textile production, with the aim of shedding light on ancient population movements in Northeast China, the Russian Far East, Korea and Japan. We show that the transition to more sophisticated textile technology in these regions can be associated not only with the adoption of millet agriculture but also with the spread of the languages of the so-called 'Transeurasian' family. In this way, our research provides indirect support for the Language/Farming Dispersal Hypothesis, which posits that language expansion from the Neolithic onwards was often associated with agricultural colonization. Media summary: Archaeolinguistics, which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of information on human prehistory, has much to offer to deepen our understanding of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Northeast Asia. Here we integrate the language and archaeology of textile production as a marker of agricultural dispersal and population migration in Northeast China, the Russian Far East, Korea and Japan. We show that the transition to more sophisticated textile technology in these regions can be associated with the adoption of millet agriculture and the spread of the so-called 'Transeurasian' language family. In this way, our research provides indirect support for the Language/Farming Dispersal Hypothesis, which posits that language expansion from the Neolithic onwards was often associated with agricultural colonization.
The coating technique, supposedly invented by Chinese papermakers no later than the 3rd century A... more The coating technique, supposedly invented by Chinese papermakers no later than the 3rd century AD, greatly improved paper sheets' qualities of color, texture, writability, and printability. Alongside the dispersal of papermak-ing and surface-treatment techniques beyond China, coated papers were manufactured and used in many other regions of the world. Understanding the manufacture of coated papers, therefore, is crucial for perceiving how surface treatments were developed to meet the need for paper with enhanced properties. However, the characterization of coating and coating pigments on ancient Chinese papers has long remained an unsolved issue, and previous studies on this topic have often produced inconclusive results. To explore a non-invasive methodology that can more reliably characterize coated papers and the coating pigment on them, this article presents the results of a pilot study that applied micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and Raman spectroscopy to samples of three Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD) papers and two handmade papers manufactured in China in the 1990s. Micro-CT revealed the coating layer(s) on Lajian (waxed coated paper) and Lengjinjian (gold-dusted paper) of the Qing Dynasty and characterized the modern raw xuan and bamboo papers as uncoated. Raman spectroscopy, together with handheld X-ray fluorescence analysis, identified the mineral-based pigment in the coating layer, suggesting the use of lead white or kaolin as the coating pigment. Additionally, Raman analysis confirmed the use of other mineral pigments (red lead and cinnabar), beeswax, and organic dyes (gamboge, kermesic acid, and possibly purpurin) in the manufacture of Lajian and Lengjinjian papers. The combination of micro-CT and Raman spectroscopy, it is therefore suggested, is a practical, more reliable approach for non-invasive investigation of coating and coating pigments on ancient Chinese paper specimens.
Northern China harbored the world's earliest complex societies based on millet farming, in two ma... more Northern China harbored the world's earliest complex societies based on millet farming, in two major centers in the Yellow (YR) and West Liao (WLR) River basins. Until now, their genetic histories have remained largely unknown. Here we present 55 ancient genomes dating to 7500-1700 BP from the YR, WLR, and Amur River (AR) regions. Contrary to the genetic stability in the AR, the YR and WLR genetic profiles substantially changed over time. The YR populations show a monotonic increase over time in their genetic affinity with present-day southern Chinese and Southeast Asians. In the WLR, intensification of farming in the Late Neolithic is correlated with increased YR affinity while the inclusion of a pastoral economy in the Bronze Age was correlated with increased AR affinity. Our results suggest a link between changes in subsistence strategy and human migration, and fuel the debate about archaeolinguistic signatures of past human migration.
Broomcorn and foxtail millets were being cultivated in the West Liao River basin in Northeast Chi... more Broomcorn and foxtail millets were being cultivated in the West Liao River basin in Northeast China by at least the sixth millennium BCE. However, when and how millet agriculture spread from there to the north and east remains poorly understood. Here, we trace the dispersal of millet agriculture from Northeast China to the Russian Far East and weigh demic against cultural diffusion as mechanisms for that dispersal. We compare two routes for the spread of millet into the Russian Far East discussed in previous research-an inland route across Manchuria, and a coastal/inland route initially following the Liaodong Peninsula and Yalu River-using an archaeological dataset including millet remains, pottery, stone tools, spindle whorls, jade and figurines. We then integrate the archaeological evidence with linguistic and genetic findings in an approach we term 'triangulation'. We conclude that an expansion of agricultural societies in Northeast China during the Middle to Late Hongshan (4000e3000 BCE) coincided with the arrival of millet cultivation in eastern Heilongjiang and the Primorye province of the Russian Far East. Our findings support the inland, Manchuria route for the dispersal of millet to the Primorye and suggest that, as well as long-distance cultural exchange, demic diffusion was also involved. Our results are broadly compatible with the farming/language dispersal hypothesis and consistent with a link between the spread of millet farming and proto-Tungusic, the language ancestral to the contemporary Tungusic languages, in late Neolithic Northeast Asia.
This paper proposed phytoliths as promising for identifying and distinguishing sources of fibre i... more This paper proposed phytoliths as promising for identifying and distinguishing sources of fibre in Chinese handmade papers. For an initial methodological exploration, two types of Raw Xuan (unprocessed Xuan paper) and the two plant materials used in making them—namely rice straw and bark from blue sandalwood (Pteroceltis tatarinowii Maxim.)—were collected. The dry ashing method was used to extract phytoliths from Raw Xuan and its plant materials.
The results can be summarized as follows. First, phytoliths characteristic of rice (Oryza sativa) were abundant in both rice straw and Raw Xuan. By looking for rice phytoliths, it is possible to tell whether or not rice straw fibre is used in a particular paper. Second, hair cell phytoliths were observed in considerable quantities in blue sandalwood bark, but absent in the examined papers. Heat experiments showed that phytoliths in blue sandalwood were resistant to long-term heat and they would unlikely be eliminated when exposed to the heat in papermaking (with heat source barely above 200°C). It is hypothesised that they dissolved while cooked in an alkaline pH (limewater). Further studies are necessary to understand whether phytoliths in blue sandalwood—while cooked in limewater—undergo morphological changes and, if yes, how.
Fiber identification results of 493 ancient (Han to Qing dynasties) Chinese handmade papers, publ... more Fiber identification results of 493 ancient (Han to Qing dynasties) Chinese handmade papers, published between 1966 and 2016, were collected for statistical analysis to address three research questions: Does fiber identification support a temporal change in the use of fiber sources in ancient Chinese papermaking? How did the proportions of different fiber sources and the diversity of fiber sources vary from one period to another? Is there a statistical difference between the proportions of different types of fiber sources? The findings show a very clear temporal change in fiber sources (in terms of both types and quantities) and suggest that the diversity of fiber sources increased dramatically for the first time during the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties and even to a greater degree in the following Ming and Qing dynasties. Proportions of different fiber sources within the same period and proportions of a certain type of fiber source through all periods were estimated at three different (80%; 95%; 99%) confidence levels. The former sheds light on fiber identification of dated ancient Chinese handmade papers, while the latter helps estimate rough dates at certain confidence levels for ancient papers for which the fiber use is clearly understood.
Dyed papers were once widely produced and used during the Xixia (Western Xia) period (1038—1227 A... more Dyed papers were once widely produced and used during the Xixia (Western Xia) period (1038—1227 AD), and quite a few have survived to the present day. There has been, however, barely any technical investigation into dyed paper specimens to understand their fiber and dye use. This paper presents an analytical study on two dyed paper specimens (one in navy blue and the other in ocher red) excavated at Khara-Khoto (the Black Water city), which applied Raman spectroscopy and Herzberg staining method to characterize and identify the dyes and fibers. The results, for the first time, make it clear that the blue and red colors were dyed by indigo and purpurin (with some trace of alizarin), respectively, which were supposed to be extracted from plants from indigo bearing or Rubia (such as madder) plants. The Herzberg test and morphological features of fibers suggested that the paper dyed red was made probably from hemp or ramie while the blue-dyed paper from bast fibers from inner barks of trees. Finally, the author, based on his previous experience with analytical studies on ancient Chinese papers, offered a few suggestions for better understanding the possible filling and sizing treatments applied on papers produced and used in the Western Xia period.
Analysis of a large sample of household artifact assemblages from residential zones dating to the... more Analysis of a large sample of household artifact assemblages from residential zones dating to the Hongshan period (4500–3000 BCE) in northeastern China complements regional-scale settlement study and excavation of house structures, platforms, and tombs. Prestige differentiation between household units is recognizable but modest. Productive differentiation is also present, indicating a very small degree of economic interdependence between households involving the utilitarian goods of daily life. Exchange did transcend both local and regional-scale communities, but movement of goods seldom exceeded a few kilometers. Standards of living were similar across households, with no sign of wealth differentiation. Confirming what has previously been suggested about the role of belief systems in Hongshan social integration, the strongest differentiation detectable in the household evidence involved religious roles and ritual activities. The elaboration of ceremonial architecture and funerary ritual of the Hongshan core zone is thus seen not to correspond to larger regional-scale communities, greater projection of political power, a more specialized economy, larger-scale exchange of goods, or accumulation of wealth. These commonly imagined aspects of early complex society were strikingly underdeveloped in Hongshan society, given its complex ceremonial architecture, elaborate burial treatment of presumed ritual specialists, and famous jade carvings.
A sample of 403 Late Horizon (~1400–1530 AD) metal artifacts from Copiapó in the Atacama Desert o... more A sample of 403 Late Horizon (~1400–1530 AD) metal artifacts from Copiapó in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, consisting of at least 14 artifactual categories, were examined by a Niton pXRF analyzer for compositional information. The results revealed patterned use of different alloys in the Copiapó region, including a very strong, region-wide reliance on bronze alloys, with tin being a primary or secondary alloying element. The wide use of a non-local metal (tin) in the Copiapó region is interpreted as the result of the Inca Empire’s political control over indigenous economic productive activities, despite the long distance to the empire’s core area. However, arsenical bronzes featured local artifact typologies in a relatively large quantity during the same period, suggesting that the Incas’ preference for bronzes alloyed with tin should have influenced but not fully changed the indigenous metallurgic traditions. This shows that the Inca state had powerful but not absolute control over metal resources in the Atacama Desert.
This article presents a technical investigation into a set of four artist- and date-unknown paint... more This article presents a technical investigation into a set of four artist- and date-unknown paintings of Chinese Taoist priests, which aimed to reveal their fiber source, painting technique, starch-based adhesive, and pigment use for the purpose of future conservation treatment. By using an integrated approach (Herzberg staining, cross-sectioning, starch grain analysis, X-ray fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction), it turned out clear that (1) bamboo was the primary (if not the only) fiber source; (2) multiple layers were utilized in combination with simply outlining and filling, while paintings were in preparation; (3) wheat flour, a starch-based adhesive, was used to hold together the painting paper and the paper supports underneath; and (4) vermilion, emerald green, synthetic ultramarine blue, orpiment, lead white, and carbon black were used to produce the six main colors on the paintings. The discoveries of emerald green and synthetized ultramarine blue placed the earliest possible manufacturing dates of these paintings around the 1830s.
... Journal of Archaeological Science In Press, Accepted Manuscript - Note to users. ... Accordin... more ... Journal of Archaeological Science In Press, Accepted Manuscript - Note to users. ... According toChinese historical literature, there once existed a state named Jun, with its capital city Yangxue located in the present-day Yun County during the Spring and Autumn.
International Journal of Conservation Science, 2019
Raman spectroscopy over the last two decades has shown its power and great potential in advancing... more Raman spectroscopy over the last two decades has shown its power and great potential in advancing our knowledge about the use of materials in the human past. Raman applications on paper-based materials are relatively few, however, compared to the countless case studies on other base materials. In this short review, I summarize post-2000 Raman applications on Chinese paper-based materials, in the hope of keeping non-Chinese scientists updated-which subjects have been investigated by Raman spectroscopy and to address what questions, how Raman applications shed light on the manufacture of pre-1949 Chinese paper-based materials, and what interesting topics arise from these Raman applications. I close my review by proposing a few topics worthy of exploration and investigation in future Raman applications. Introduction Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing phases, and it is ideal for studying art and archaeology materials in two aspects: in situ and non-destructive. While applied to art and archaeological artifacts, Raman spectroscopy helps researchers: recognize the materials from which an artifact is made [1, 2]; confirm degradation by-products developed upon the studied artifact [3, 4]; understand the degradation process [5, 6]; or evaluate conservation materials and the state of preservation [7, 8]. Case studies and review papers on Raman spectroscopy are too many to list. Some early or novel applications of Raman spectroscopy in art, archaeology and heritage science are well summarized in R.J.H. Clark [9, 10], H.G. Edwards [11] and P. Vandenabeele et al [12, 13]. Raman spectroscopy-whether used alone or combined with other analytical approaches-sheds light on material use in the human past. Some aspects of human behavioral patterns can be understood through comparisons of Raman applications, for example, since when and in which locations did people begin to procure a particular kind of material? How they applied it to the making of artifacts, and to serve what purpose? Why they used it in a particular way? Countless Raman applications were-and still are-carried out to make a contribution to that end. The studied subjects show great diversity in materiality, culture and technology while crossing a wide range of scales in time and space. In a global context, China has a short history of Raman applications to art and archaeology materials as well as a narrow range of subjects upon which Raman spectroscopy is applied. Raman investigations of ancient artifacts were rare in pre 2000 [14-16] but increased dramatically post 2000 (and this tendency continues until today). Overall, Raman analysis in Chinese case studies strongly focuses on coloring materials (pigment, ink and dye).
Archaeolinguistics, a field which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of... more Archaeolinguistics, a field which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of information on human prehistory, has much to offer to deepen our understanding of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Northeast Asia. So far, integrated comparative analyses of words and tools for textile production are completely lacking for the Northeast Asian Neolithic and Bronze Age. To remedy this situation, here we integrate linguistic and archaeological evidence of textile production, with the aim of shedding light on ancient population movements in Northeast China, the Russian Far East, Korea and Japan. We show that the transition to more sophisticated textile technology in these regions can be associated not only with the adoption of millet agriculture but also with the spread of the languages of the so-called 'Transeurasian' family. In this way, our research provides indirect support for the Language/Farming Dispersal Hypothesis, which posits that language expansion from the Neolithic onwards was often associated with agricultural colonization. Media summary: Archaeolinguistics, which combines language reconstruction and archaeology as a source of information on human prehistory, has much to offer to deepen our understanding of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Northeast Asia. Here we integrate the language and archaeology of textile production as a marker of agricultural dispersal and population migration in Northeast China, the Russian Far East, Korea and Japan. We show that the transition to more sophisticated textile technology in these regions can be associated with the adoption of millet agriculture and the spread of the so-called 'Transeurasian' language family. In this way, our research provides indirect support for the Language/Farming Dispersal Hypothesis, which posits that language expansion from the Neolithic onwards was often associated with agricultural colonization.
The coating technique, supposedly invented by Chinese papermakers no later than the 3rd century A... more The coating technique, supposedly invented by Chinese papermakers no later than the 3rd century AD, greatly improved paper sheets' qualities of color, texture, writability, and printability. Alongside the dispersal of papermak-ing and surface-treatment techniques beyond China, coated papers were manufactured and used in many other regions of the world. Understanding the manufacture of coated papers, therefore, is crucial for perceiving how surface treatments were developed to meet the need for paper with enhanced properties. However, the characterization of coating and coating pigments on ancient Chinese papers has long remained an unsolved issue, and previous studies on this topic have often produced inconclusive results. To explore a non-invasive methodology that can more reliably characterize coated papers and the coating pigment on them, this article presents the results of a pilot study that applied micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and Raman spectroscopy to samples of three Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD) papers and two handmade papers manufactured in China in the 1990s. Micro-CT revealed the coating layer(s) on Lajian (waxed coated paper) and Lengjinjian (gold-dusted paper) of the Qing Dynasty and characterized the modern raw xuan and bamboo papers as uncoated. Raman spectroscopy, together with handheld X-ray fluorescence analysis, identified the mineral-based pigment in the coating layer, suggesting the use of lead white or kaolin as the coating pigment. Additionally, Raman analysis confirmed the use of other mineral pigments (red lead and cinnabar), beeswax, and organic dyes (gamboge, kermesic acid, and possibly purpurin) in the manufacture of Lajian and Lengjinjian papers. The combination of micro-CT and Raman spectroscopy, it is therefore suggested, is a practical, more reliable approach for non-invasive investigation of coating and coating pigments on ancient Chinese paper specimens.
Northern China harbored the world's earliest complex societies based on millet farming, in two ma... more Northern China harbored the world's earliest complex societies based on millet farming, in two major centers in the Yellow (YR) and West Liao (WLR) River basins. Until now, their genetic histories have remained largely unknown. Here we present 55 ancient genomes dating to 7500-1700 BP from the YR, WLR, and Amur River (AR) regions. Contrary to the genetic stability in the AR, the YR and WLR genetic profiles substantially changed over time. The YR populations show a monotonic increase over time in their genetic affinity with present-day southern Chinese and Southeast Asians. In the WLR, intensification of farming in the Late Neolithic is correlated with increased YR affinity while the inclusion of a pastoral economy in the Bronze Age was correlated with increased AR affinity. Our results suggest a link between changes in subsistence strategy and human migration, and fuel the debate about archaeolinguistic signatures of past human migration.
Broomcorn and foxtail millets were being cultivated in the West Liao River basin in Northeast Chi... more Broomcorn and foxtail millets were being cultivated in the West Liao River basin in Northeast China by at least the sixth millennium BCE. However, when and how millet agriculture spread from there to the north and east remains poorly understood. Here, we trace the dispersal of millet agriculture from Northeast China to the Russian Far East and weigh demic against cultural diffusion as mechanisms for that dispersal. We compare two routes for the spread of millet into the Russian Far East discussed in previous research-an inland route across Manchuria, and a coastal/inland route initially following the Liaodong Peninsula and Yalu River-using an archaeological dataset including millet remains, pottery, stone tools, spindle whorls, jade and figurines. We then integrate the archaeological evidence with linguistic and genetic findings in an approach we term 'triangulation'. We conclude that an expansion of agricultural societies in Northeast China during the Middle to Late Hongshan (4000e3000 BCE) coincided with the arrival of millet cultivation in eastern Heilongjiang and the Primorye province of the Russian Far East. Our findings support the inland, Manchuria route for the dispersal of millet to the Primorye and suggest that, as well as long-distance cultural exchange, demic diffusion was also involved. Our results are broadly compatible with the farming/language dispersal hypothesis and consistent with a link between the spread of millet farming and proto-Tungusic, the language ancestral to the contemporary Tungusic languages, in late Neolithic Northeast Asia.
This paper proposed phytoliths as promising for identifying and distinguishing sources of fibre i... more This paper proposed phytoliths as promising for identifying and distinguishing sources of fibre in Chinese handmade papers. For an initial methodological exploration, two types of Raw Xuan (unprocessed Xuan paper) and the two plant materials used in making them—namely rice straw and bark from blue sandalwood (Pteroceltis tatarinowii Maxim.)—were collected. The dry ashing method was used to extract phytoliths from Raw Xuan and its plant materials.
The results can be summarized as follows. First, phytoliths characteristic of rice (Oryza sativa) were abundant in both rice straw and Raw Xuan. By looking for rice phytoliths, it is possible to tell whether or not rice straw fibre is used in a particular paper. Second, hair cell phytoliths were observed in considerable quantities in blue sandalwood bark, but absent in the examined papers. Heat experiments showed that phytoliths in blue sandalwood were resistant to long-term heat and they would unlikely be eliminated when exposed to the heat in papermaking (with heat source barely above 200°C). It is hypothesised that they dissolved while cooked in an alkaline pH (limewater). Further studies are necessary to understand whether phytoliths in blue sandalwood—while cooked in limewater—undergo morphological changes and, if yes, how.
Fiber identification results of 493 ancient (Han to Qing dynasties) Chinese handmade papers, publ... more Fiber identification results of 493 ancient (Han to Qing dynasties) Chinese handmade papers, published between 1966 and 2016, were collected for statistical analysis to address three research questions: Does fiber identification support a temporal change in the use of fiber sources in ancient Chinese papermaking? How did the proportions of different fiber sources and the diversity of fiber sources vary from one period to another? Is there a statistical difference between the proportions of different types of fiber sources? The findings show a very clear temporal change in fiber sources (in terms of both types and quantities) and suggest that the diversity of fiber sources increased dramatically for the first time during the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties and even to a greater degree in the following Ming and Qing dynasties. Proportions of different fiber sources within the same period and proportions of a certain type of fiber source through all periods were estimated at three different (80%; 95%; 99%) confidence levels. The former sheds light on fiber identification of dated ancient Chinese handmade papers, while the latter helps estimate rough dates at certain confidence levels for ancient papers for which the fiber use is clearly understood.
Dyed papers were once widely produced and used during the Xixia (Western Xia) period (1038—1227 A... more Dyed papers were once widely produced and used during the Xixia (Western Xia) period (1038—1227 AD), and quite a few have survived to the present day. There has been, however, barely any technical investigation into dyed paper specimens to understand their fiber and dye use. This paper presents an analytical study on two dyed paper specimens (one in navy blue and the other in ocher red) excavated at Khara-Khoto (the Black Water city), which applied Raman spectroscopy and Herzberg staining method to characterize and identify the dyes and fibers. The results, for the first time, make it clear that the blue and red colors were dyed by indigo and purpurin (with some trace of alizarin), respectively, which were supposed to be extracted from plants from indigo bearing or Rubia (such as madder) plants. The Herzberg test and morphological features of fibers suggested that the paper dyed red was made probably from hemp or ramie while the blue-dyed paper from bast fibers from inner barks of trees. Finally, the author, based on his previous experience with analytical studies on ancient Chinese papers, offered a few suggestions for better understanding the possible filling and sizing treatments applied on papers produced and used in the Western Xia period.
Analysis of a large sample of household artifact assemblages from residential zones dating to the... more Analysis of a large sample of household artifact assemblages from residential zones dating to the Hongshan period (4500–3000 BCE) in northeastern China complements regional-scale settlement study and excavation of house structures, platforms, and tombs. Prestige differentiation between household units is recognizable but modest. Productive differentiation is also present, indicating a very small degree of economic interdependence between households involving the utilitarian goods of daily life. Exchange did transcend both local and regional-scale communities, but movement of goods seldom exceeded a few kilometers. Standards of living were similar across households, with no sign of wealth differentiation. Confirming what has previously been suggested about the role of belief systems in Hongshan social integration, the strongest differentiation detectable in the household evidence involved religious roles and ritual activities. The elaboration of ceremonial architecture and funerary ritual of the Hongshan core zone is thus seen not to correspond to larger regional-scale communities, greater projection of political power, a more specialized economy, larger-scale exchange of goods, or accumulation of wealth. These commonly imagined aspects of early complex society were strikingly underdeveloped in Hongshan society, given its complex ceremonial architecture, elaborate burial treatment of presumed ritual specialists, and famous jade carvings.
A sample of 403 Late Horizon (~1400–1530 AD) metal artifacts from Copiapó in the Atacama Desert o... more A sample of 403 Late Horizon (~1400–1530 AD) metal artifacts from Copiapó in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, consisting of at least 14 artifactual categories, were examined by a Niton pXRF analyzer for compositional information. The results revealed patterned use of different alloys in the Copiapó region, including a very strong, region-wide reliance on bronze alloys, with tin being a primary or secondary alloying element. The wide use of a non-local metal (tin) in the Copiapó region is interpreted as the result of the Inca Empire’s political control over indigenous economic productive activities, despite the long distance to the empire’s core area. However, arsenical bronzes featured local artifact typologies in a relatively large quantity during the same period, suggesting that the Incas’ preference for bronzes alloyed with tin should have influenced but not fully changed the indigenous metallurgic traditions. This shows that the Inca state had powerful but not absolute control over metal resources in the Atacama Desert.
This article presents a technical investigation into a set of four artist- and date-unknown paint... more This article presents a technical investigation into a set of four artist- and date-unknown paintings of Chinese Taoist priests, which aimed to reveal their fiber source, painting technique, starch-based adhesive, and pigment use for the purpose of future conservation treatment. By using an integrated approach (Herzberg staining, cross-sectioning, starch grain analysis, X-ray fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction), it turned out clear that (1) bamboo was the primary (if not the only) fiber source; (2) multiple layers were utilized in combination with simply outlining and filling, while paintings were in preparation; (3) wheat flour, a starch-based adhesive, was used to hold together the painting paper and the paper supports underneath; and (4) vermilion, emerald green, synthetic ultramarine blue, orpiment, lead white, and carbon black were used to produce the six main colors on the paintings. The discoveries of emerald green and synthetized ultramarine blue placed the earliest possible manufacturing dates of these paintings around the 1830s.
Paper was a great invention by the ancient Chinese people. More than two thousand-year history of... more Paper was a great invention by the ancient Chinese people. More than two thousand-year history of papermaking has left us rich papers and paper-based materials of significant cultural and scientific values. Research on ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials has long focused on interpreting historical records, in the hope of reconstructing ancient papermaking techniques. The general picture of ancient Chinese papermaking techniques was obtained in this manner. In the 1960s, analytical techniques started to be applied (more often) in the studies of ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials, which resulted in new understandings of raw materials and papermaking techniques. Methods emplyed included destructive or micro-destructive analytical approaches such as fiber staining, microscopic observation, and surface compositional analysis. This promoted temporary academic enthusiasm in ancient paper research. Since the 1980-1990s, however, ancient Chinese paper research in China has become largely stagnant due to two most obvious reasons: lack of width and depth in research; lack of methdological innovation and creativity.
The topics in this dissertation were brought forward in this background. This dissertation introduces a few non-destructive or micro-destructive analytical techniques (particularly the phytolith analysis, starch grain analysis, and Raman spectroscopy), which has received little or no attenttion in the studies of ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials. With each (or a combination of several different) analytical approach(es), this dissertation aims to explore new possibilities for non-destructive identification of raw materials, fillers or coating pigments, sizing, and pigments and dyes used on ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials. In this dissertation, a wide array of analytical methods—including the extraction and identification of phytoliths and starch grains, Raman spectroscopy, micro-X ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis, and attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy—was applied on documents in Tang and Song Dynasties, dyed papers in Western Xia Dynasty, paper currencies in Ming and Qing Dynasties, and painted portraits of unknown dates. The types of fibers and starch-based binding agents, fillers (or coating pigments), pigments and dyes were determined for these papers and paper-based materials. This dissertation demonstrats that Raman spectroscopy and starch grain analysis are more accurate and convenient than traditional analytical techniques in identifying and characterizing pigments and dyes, fillers/coating pigments, and starch-based binding agents, suggesting a great potential in ancient paper research. Further research (including more experiments on different fiber sources and papers) is needed to evaluate the potential of phytolith analysis in identifying fiber sources of ancient papers, even though phytoliths unique to rice have been successfully extracted and identified in both rice straw and papers. The dissertation concludes by a summary of gain and reflections, followed by cautions for difficulties and uncertaintites and thoughts and expectations for future research.
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Papers by Tao Li
The results can be summarized as follows. First, phytoliths characteristic of rice (Oryza sativa) were abundant in both rice straw and Raw Xuan. By looking for rice phytoliths, it is possible to tell whether or not rice straw fibre is used in a particular paper. Second, hair cell phytoliths were observed in considerable quantities in blue sandalwood bark, but absent in the examined papers. Heat experiments showed that phytoliths in blue sandalwood were resistant to long-term heat and they would unlikely be eliminated when exposed to the heat in papermaking (with heat source barely above 200°C). It is hypothesised that they dissolved while cooked in an alkaline pH (limewater). Further studies are necessary to understand whether phytoliths in blue sandalwood—while cooked in limewater—undergo morphological changes and, if yes, how.
Hongshan period (4500–3000 BCE) in northeastern China complements regional-scale settlement study
and excavation of house structures, platforms, and tombs. Prestige differentiation between household
units is recognizable but modest. Productive differentiation is also present, indicating a very small degree
of economic interdependence between households involving the utilitarian goods of daily life. Exchange
did transcend both local and regional-scale communities, but movement of goods seldom exceeded a few
kilometers. Standards of living were similar across households, with no sign of wealth differentiation.
Confirming what has previously been suggested about the role of belief systems in Hongshan social integration,
the strongest differentiation detectable in the household evidence involved religious roles and
ritual activities. The elaboration of ceremonial architecture and funerary ritual of the Hongshan core zone
is thus seen not to correspond to larger regional-scale communities, greater projection of political power,
a more specialized economy, larger-scale exchange of goods, or accumulation of wealth. These commonly
imagined aspects of early complex society were strikingly underdeveloped in Hongshan society, given its
complex ceremonial architecture, elaborate burial treatment of presumed ritual specialists, and famous
jade carvings.
The results can be summarized as follows. First, phytoliths characteristic of rice (Oryza sativa) were abundant in both rice straw and Raw Xuan. By looking for rice phytoliths, it is possible to tell whether or not rice straw fibre is used in a particular paper. Second, hair cell phytoliths were observed in considerable quantities in blue sandalwood bark, but absent in the examined papers. Heat experiments showed that phytoliths in blue sandalwood were resistant to long-term heat and they would unlikely be eliminated when exposed to the heat in papermaking (with heat source barely above 200°C). It is hypothesised that they dissolved while cooked in an alkaline pH (limewater). Further studies are necessary to understand whether phytoliths in blue sandalwood—while cooked in limewater—undergo morphological changes and, if yes, how.
Hongshan period (4500–3000 BCE) in northeastern China complements regional-scale settlement study
and excavation of house structures, platforms, and tombs. Prestige differentiation between household
units is recognizable but modest. Productive differentiation is also present, indicating a very small degree
of economic interdependence between households involving the utilitarian goods of daily life. Exchange
did transcend both local and regional-scale communities, but movement of goods seldom exceeded a few
kilometers. Standards of living were similar across households, with no sign of wealth differentiation.
Confirming what has previously been suggested about the role of belief systems in Hongshan social integration,
the strongest differentiation detectable in the household evidence involved religious roles and
ritual activities. The elaboration of ceremonial architecture and funerary ritual of the Hongshan core zone
is thus seen not to correspond to larger regional-scale communities, greater projection of political power,
a more specialized economy, larger-scale exchange of goods, or accumulation of wealth. These commonly
imagined aspects of early complex society were strikingly underdeveloped in Hongshan society, given its
complex ceremonial architecture, elaborate burial treatment of presumed ritual specialists, and famous
jade carvings.
The topics in this dissertation were brought forward in this background. This dissertation introduces a few non-destructive or micro-destructive analytical techniques (particularly the phytolith analysis, starch grain analysis, and Raman spectroscopy), which has received little or no attenttion in the studies of ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials. With each (or a combination of several different) analytical approach(es), this dissertation aims to explore new possibilities for non-destructive identification of raw materials, fillers or coating pigments, sizing, and pigments and dyes used on ancient Chinese papers and paper-based materials. In this dissertation, a wide array of analytical methods—including the extraction and identification of phytoliths and starch grains, Raman spectroscopy, micro-X ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis, and attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy—was applied on documents in Tang and Song Dynasties, dyed papers in Western Xia Dynasty, paper currencies in Ming and Qing Dynasties, and painted portraits of unknown dates. The types of fibers and starch-based binding agents, fillers (or coating pigments), pigments and dyes were determined for these papers and paper-based materials. This dissertation demonstrats that Raman spectroscopy and starch grain analysis are more accurate and convenient than traditional analytical techniques in identifying and characterizing pigments and dyes, fillers/coating pigments, and starch-based binding agents, suggesting a great potential in ancient paper research. Further research (including more experiments on different fiber sources and papers) is needed to evaluate the potential of phytolith analysis in identifying fiber sources of ancient papers, even though phytoliths unique to rice have been successfully extracted and identified in both rice straw and papers. The dissertation concludes by a summary of gain and reflections, followed by cautions for difficulties and uncertaintites and thoughts and expectations for future research.
纸是中国古人的一项伟大发明。两千多年的造纸历史，给我们留下了宝贵、丰富的纸质文物财产。长期以来，我国的古纸研究以文献分析为主，通过解读文献中的相关文字，复原早期的造纸技术。从某种意义上讲，我国古代造纸技术的整体轮廓，就建立在上述文献学研究的基础上。自二十世纪六十年代起，国内古纸研究出现新的动向，物理和化学分析手段开始在古纸研究中逐渐普遍地应用。这些研究以古代纸张或纸制品为分析对象，主要围绕造纸原料鉴别以及纸张加工工艺两部分内容，所采用的分析手段主要是染色法、显微观察和表面元素分析，属于有损或微损分析的范畴。在最初的一段时期内，上述研究促进了人们对古代造纸技术的新认识，也激发了学术界对古纸研究的热情。不过，自二十世纪九十年代末起至今，国内的古纸研究基本处于停滞状态，鲜有大的进展。主要的原因一是在研究思路上缺乏创新，研究的面太过狭窄；二是在研究方法和研究手段上没有新的突破，导致研究的深度不够。
本博士论文即在以上研究背景下提出。论文中引入了几种新的无损或微损的化学分析方法(植硅体分析，淀粉粒分析，拉曼光谱)，旨在为解决古纸的原料鉴别、施胶工艺与施胶剂的判别、纸张填(涂)料以及颜(染)料的完全无损鉴别开拓新的研究思路。本博士论文利用植硅体分析、淀粉粒分析、拉曼光谱、微量粉末X射线衍射仪、X射线荧光光谱、扫描电子显微镜(配X射线能谱仪)、衰减全反射—傅立叶变换红外光谱等方法和手段，对我国唐宋时期文书、西夏染色纸张、明清纸币、人物画像等纸张材料的纤维种类、纸张填(涂)料、颜(染)料、植物淀粉胶进行综合性的鉴别分析。研究结果认为，在鉴别颜料以及填(涂)料和植物淀粉胶方面，拉曼光谱和淀粉粒分析比传统的分析方法更加准确、快捷，势必将在古纸研究中大有作为。利用水稻特有的植硅体形态，可鉴别纸张中的稻草纤维，值得作进一步的深入研究。在论文的最后，总结了古纸研究的收获和心得，指出分析中主要面对的困难和疑点，并提出对未来古纸研究的一些设想和期望。