Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Stefan Münger / Nancy Rahn / Patrick Wyssmann (Hrsg.) „Trinkt von dem Wein, den ich mischte!” “Drink of the wine which I have mingled!” Festschrift für Silvia Schroer zum 65. Geburtstag PEETERS 303 „TRINKT VON DEM WEIN, DEN ICH MISCHTE!” “DRINK OF THE WINE WHICH I HAVE MINGLED!” ORBIS BIBLICUS ET ORIENTALIS Begründet von Othmar Keel Herausgegeben von Susanne Bickel, Catherine Mittermayer, Mirko Novák, Thomas C. Römer und Christoph Uehlinger im Auftrag der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Orientalische Altertumswissenschaft und der Stiftung Bibel+Orient in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Ägyptologischen Seminar der Universität Basel, dem Institut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, Abteilung Vorderasiatische Archäologie, der Universität Bern, dem Departement für Biblische Studien der Universität Freiburg Schweiz, dem Institut romand des sciences bibliques der Universität Lausanne, und dem Religionswissenschaftlichen Seminar der Universität Zürich Herausgeber*in / Volume editors Stefan Münger (*1967), PhD, is an Associate Professor for the Archaeology of Ancient Israel and Neighboring Cultures at the Institute of Jewish Studies, University of Bern. His scholarly pursuits center on the archaeology of the Southern Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages, the glyptic art of the Ancient Near East, and Digital Archaeology. Nancy Rahn (*1989), Dr. theol., ist PostDoc-Mitarbeiterin am Institut für Altes Testament der Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Bern. Ihre Forschung befasst sich mit historischer Emotionenforschung, Psalmen- und Psalterexegese sowie Anthropologie und Theologie des Alten Testaments. Patrick Wyssmann (*1977), Dr. theol., ist Dozent am Institut für Altes Testament an der Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Bern. Zu seinen Forschungsschwerpunkten zählen die Religionsgeschichte, Ikonographie und Numismatik der Südlevante von der Perserzeit bis in die Spätantike. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 303 „Trinkt von dem Wein, den ich mischte!” “Drink of the wine which I have mingled!” Festschrift für Silvia Schroer zum 65. Geburtstag herausgegeben von Stefan Münger, Nancy Rahn und Patrick Wyssmann Peeters Leuven - Paris - Bristol, CT 2023 Die Reihe Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis veröffentlicht Monographien, thematische Sammelbände und Tagungsbände im Bereich der orientalischen Altertumswissenschaften: Bibelwissenschaften (Hebräische Bibel und Septuaginta), Ägyptologie, Altorientalistik, Vorderasiatische Archäologie, Ikonographie und Religionsgeschichte. Herausgeberkreis und Partnerinstitutionen bürgen für ihre akademische Qualität und interdisziplinäre Anlage. Manuskripte können einem Mitglied des Herausgeberkreises unterbreitet werden. Ihre Prüfung obliegt dem Herausgeberkreis, der weitere, unabhängige Gutachten einholen kann. Verbreitung, Subskriptionen und Leserschaft sind weltweit; neue Bände werden, wenn immer möglich, open access (Gold oder Green) veröffentlicht. Ältere Bände sind auf dem digitalen Repository der Universität Zürich archiviert (www.zora.uzh.ch). Kontakt: Christoph.Uehlinger@uzh.ch Frontispiz / Cover illustration: Krater aus Tell Dothan, Frühe Eisenzeit (ca. 12.–11. Jh. v.u.Z.); Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Inventarnummer IAA P-675176; Zeichnung von Ingrid Berney (SSSL Project). Die Schweizerische Akademie für Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften unterstützt die open access Publikation des vorliegenden Werks. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-90-429-5263-8 eISBN 978-90-429-5264-5 D/2023/0602/66 © 2023, Peeters, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval devices or systems, without the prior written permission from the publisher, except the quotation of brief passages for review purposes. INHALT / CONTENTS Vorwort ................................................................................................... XI Veronika Bachmann Wenn Bäume reden. Eine Neubewertung der Frage nach der kritischen Position der Jotamfabel (Ri 9,8–15) ................................. 1 Michaela Bauks À table. Überlegungen zur Kommensalität von Frauen in der Hebräischen Bibel ............................................................................. 18 Ulrike Bechmann Das Bildprogramm eines ungewöhnlichen Taufsteins ...................... 34 Nadia Ben-Marzouk, Bruno Biermann, Renate Fahrni, Ben Greet, Felix Höflmayer, Noa Ranzer, Katharina Streit, and Stefan Münger “On vultures’ wings…”: A Recent Find from Tel Lachish (Israel) Displaying a Vulture, a Caprid, a Snake and a Twig ........................ 50 Sophia Bietenhard „Was war, als alles begann?“ Religionsdidaktische Erwägungen zu den Ursprungsüberlieferungen als Lerngegenstand ...................... 70 René Bloch Dying in Egypt: Philo’s Cosmopolitan Joseph .................................. 85 Izak Cornelius Von “In Israel gab es Bilder” zu “IPIAO”: Reflections on the “Art” of the Southern Levant in the Pre-Hellenistic Period ........................ 94 Irmtraud Fischer Vom Recht der Bilder in der Rezeptionsgeschichte, als Exegese gesehen zu werden ............................................................................. 109 Christian Frevel … schön gestaltet wie Säulen am Bau eines Palastes? Gynaikomorphe Architekturelemente in der Kleinkunst der südlichen Levante und die Deutung von Ps 144,12 ........................................... 124 VI INHALT / CONTENTS Yosef Garfinkel and Tal Ilan Maacah Daughter of King Talmai of Geshur in the Negev Region ... 153 Charlotte Haußmann und Esther Kobel Zwischen Herd und Hetzkampagnen. Große Frauen in der theologischen Wissenschaft sichtbar machen .......................................... 170 Katharina Heyden „Stell dir vor, es ist Krieg…“ Überlegungen zur Ambivalenz religiöser Kriegssemantik in Text und Bild anhand der „Psychomachie“ im Berner Prudentius (BBB 264) ...................................................... 182 Renate Jost G*tt. Diversität im Buch Exodus und ihre Bedeutung für Feministische Theologie und Gender Studies .................................................. 209 Sara Kipfer „Und sie sollen sich beeilen und über uns die Klage anstimmen …“ (Jer 9,17). Klageriten im Wandel von der Eisenzeit zur persischhellenistischen Zeit ............................................................................ 229 Johannes Klein Kann das Böse gut sein? Eine Lektüre von Jona 4 ............................ 262 Silas Klein Cardoso Liminal Device\s ............................................................................... 270 Ido Koch Deities, Ostriches, and Asterisms in the Desert Sky of the Southern Levant ................................................................................................ 287 Eythan Levy Quantitative Thoughts on Provenanced Hebrew Seals ...................... 305 Christl M. Maier Klagen Frauen anders? Totenklage und Gender im Jeremiabuch ..... 317 Moisés Mayordomo Bei Martha und Maria zu Gast. Überlegungen zu Lk 10,38–42 ........ 332 INHALT / CONTENTS VII Thomas Naumann Blutrecht oder Betrug? Zum Rechtsfall der Frau von Tekoa (2Sam 14) .......................................................................................... 346 Martti Nissinen Male Desire in Akkadian and Hebrew Love Poetry .......................... 362 Ina Praetorius Let’s Send Homo Oeconomicus to a Postpatriarchal Liturgy ............ 381 Nancy Rahn Bilder verändern. Ein Aspekt von Bilddiskursen bei Bertolt Brecht und in biblischen Texten ................................................................... 392 Valérie Rhein Das Bezeugen ist im Judentum Männersache. Biblische und rabbinische Quellen zum Ausschluss der Frau vom Zeuginnenstatus .......... 402 Ulrike Sals Geschlechterverhältnisse in der Urgeschichte ................................... 414 Susanne Scholz Reading the Bible “Subjunctively”: On the State of Feminist (Barbarian) Exegesis in the Biotechnofeudal Era .............................. 434 Peter-Ben Smit Prefigurating God’s World: Prefigurative Politics and the Early Jesus Movement ................................................................................ 451 Angela Standhartinger Die klagenden Töchter von Jerusalem. Die Rezeption eines Motivs im Lukasevangelium ......................................................................... 467 Thomas Staubli 7KH,FRQRJUDSKLF3URJUDPRIWKH2XWHU&LWDGHO*DWHRI6DP‫ގ‬DO (Zincirli Höyük): A Masterpiece of Levantine Iconic Artistry ......... 480 Claudia E. Suter The Woman at the Window on Levantine Ivory Carvings: An Update of Extant Sets, Their Variation and Possible Production Modes ....... 517 VIII INHALT / CONTENTS Luzia Sutter Rehmann Jesus und die Wüstentiere (Mk 1,13) ................................................ 539 Christoph Uehlinger, Ariel Winderbaum, DQG<H‫ۊ‬LHO=HOLQJHU A Seventh-Century BCE Cylinder Seal from Jerusalem Depicting Worship of the Moon God’s Cult Emblem ....................................... 552 Marie-Theres Wacker Dr. Käte Marcus (1892–1979) aus Münster. Deutsch-jüdische Nationalökonomin, Journalistin, Frauenrechtlerin und Psychotherapeutin ......................................................................................... 591 Andreas Wagner Die Rede von der Stabilitas dei im Alten Testament. Eine Präzisierung ................................................................................................... 606 Verzeichnis der Autor*innen / List of Contributors ................................ 629 Khirbet Qeiyafa, 11/07/2012 (courtesy of Yosef Garfinkel) VORWORT Zum 65. Geburtstag und damit gleichzeitig zur Emeritierung wollen die Herausgeber*in und alle Freund*innen, Schüler*innen, Weggefährt*innen und Kolleg*innen, die sich in diesem Band versammelt haben, Prof. Dr. Silvia Schroer herzlich gratulieren. Unter dem Titel „Trinkt von dem Wein, den ich mischte!“ // “Drink of the wine which I have mingled!” soll dem großen Forschungsbeitrag, den Silvia Schroer in den letzten Jahrzehnten geleistet hat, ein kleines Denk-ma(h)l gesetzt werden. In Prov 9,5 lädt Frau Weisheit, nachdem sie zuvor schon in ihr Haus geladen hat, zu dem von ihr vorbereiteten Mahl und spricht die Aufforderung aus, die als Titel über diese Festschrift gesetzt ist. Silvia Schroers Projekte, die sich in zahlreichen Aufsätzen, Monographien, Sammelbänden, aber auch in Interviews, Bibelarbeiten, Gemeindeabenden und auf vielen weiteren Kommunikationswegen niederschlugen, waren immer wieder Einladungen zum Verweilen, zum Lernen, zum Nachdenken, zum Weisewerden, zum Genießen. So divers die hier geschenkten Aufsätze sind, ausnahmslos alle sind angeregt von Forschungsbereichen der Jubilarin: von dem, was ihr in ihrer Forschung wichtig war und ist, von feministischen Themen, von Bilddiskursen, von rezeptionsgeschichtlichen Fragestellungen, von ikonographisch bedeutsamen Fundstücken, von Literatur, Politik, Anthropologie und Theologie. Die Vielfalt der Beitragenden und ihrer Themen spiegelt die Vielfalt von Silvia Schroers Interessen und Wirkungsfeldern. Diese Vielfalt auf statische Bandabschnitte zu verteilen, wollte uns nicht gelingen und schien uns auch nicht angebracht: Die Beiträge sind deshalb nach Autor*innennamen alphabetisch geordnet und ergeben so eher ein alphabetisches Akrostichon (unvollständig, wie es zuweilen auch in biblischen Texten vorkommt), das Fülle, Vollkommenheit und Verbindung symbolisiert. Wir bedanken uns bei allen, die zum Gelingen dieses Bandes beigetragen haben: den Autor*innen für die vielen erfreulichen Kontakte und ihre Kooperation, dem Peeters Verlag und der Reihe Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, dafür stellvertretend Christoph Uehlinger, Marcia Bodenmann und Bert Verrept, die sich um zügige Verarbeitung bemüht haben, sowie Frau stud. theol. Melanie Ammeter für die Unterstützung bei Korrektur- und Formatierungsarbeiten. Bern, im Oktober 2023 Stefan Münger, Nancy Rahn und Patrick Wyssmann LIMINAL DEVICE\S * Silas KLEIN CARDOSO 1. INTRODUCTION From the mid-1980s on, the study of ancient Levantine religion\s became more sensitive to images, spaces, senses, and textures. Reacting to disembodied approaches based on hypothetical sources (‘abordagem fontes e fés’ 1), new practices focusing on empirical sources revolutionized the field. 2 From within, the change is explained by a range of intellectual processes, including the reranking of sources (GRABBE 1997; KNAUF 1991; ZEVIT 2001), the systematic integration of material and visual data (DEVER 1995; HARDMEIER 2001; TOORN 1997; UEHLINGER 2001), and historiographic attitudes attentive to contemporary critical theories (e.g. ACKERMAN 2022; MEYERS 2013; OLYAN 2012; SCHROER 2016; UEHLINGER 2021). From the outside, the change aligns with broader semiotic (i.e., “linguistic” plus “visual/pictoric,” see SACHS-HOMBACH 2013: 97) and material turns in humanities and socio-epistemic processes, such as the “unchurching” of the study of religion in Europe (MEYER 2012: 5–6; UEHLINGER 2015b) and the (still shy) acceptance of non-Western epistemologies. Asynchronous, the rerouting has had far-reaching consequences. Following neighboring disciplines, the field seems to be timidly changing its name from “history of ancient Israelite religion” to “history of (southern) Levantine religion\s.” 3 As a result of the collision with other fields, the research horizon changed. The spatial-temporal delimitation aims today the whole Levant from * It is an honor to dedicate this study to Silvia Schroer, whose work had a decisive impact on the interpretation of ancient visual regimes, helping to liberate artifacts from biblicist agendas. Behind the scenes, she has worked to alter oppressive academic structures from her (then unprecedented for a woman) habilitation in the theological faculty of Fribourg/CH to her professorship of Old Testament and vice-rectorate for (e)quality in Bern. After being influenced by her texts during my studies in Brazil, working under her supervision at the “Stamp Seals from the Southern Levant” research project has been a privilege. This study was partly financed by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES, Brasil; Finance Code 001) under the Grande Prêmio Capes de Tese fellowship. 1 Portuguese for “sources and faiths approach.” I echo the expression pots and peoples as these approaches associated a hypothetical source to a given time, place, and complex of beliefs. 2 The search for an “explicit archaeological approach” was a tendency in the late 1980s (HOLLADAY JR 1987; see also AVIGAD 1987; DEVER 1987). 3 The analog relabeling of “biblical archaeology” for “archaeology of the Levant,” e.g., tries to overcome the idea of Israel’s distinctiveness and is tied to a search for a more academic/secular approach (STEINER and KILLEBREW 2014: 1–2). Still, the very constitution of the discipline is tied to colonialist assumptions (see DAVIS 2014; GREENBERG and HAMILAKIS 2022; KLETTER 2006). LIMINAL DEVICE\S 271 the Neolithic to (at least) the Hellenistic periods as expressed in different media (KEEL and UEHLINGER 2010; SCHROER 2005–2018; TILLY and ZWICKEL 2015). Disciplinarily, this entails that the phenomena studied are neither restricted to theology/biblical studies nor exclusively attached to the so-called “biblical world,” which justifies its framing into religious studies/history of religion\s. The current challenge is the creation of a suitable framework (FREVEL 2021: §4; UEHLINGER 2021: 165–166) since the empiricism of the practice has not prevented (not only) Western (mis)conceptions from framing investigations. In other words, modern paradigms still come imprinted into reconstructions or, as UEHLINGER (2015a: 16) put it, “scholarly reconstructions of ancient Levantine religion(s) during the Iron age II were and continue to be children of their own time and context.” This can occur, for instance, in the form of generalizing dichotomies (STAVRAKOPOULOU 2010; UEHLINGER 2015a), ethnological reasoning (PORZIA 2018), immateriality (MANDELL and SMOAK 2019), or “progressivism” (SCHAPER 2015). To these issues, one might add other problematic aspects, such as the disproportionate emphasis on the origins of yhwh (e.g., FLEMING 2021; FLYNN 2020; LEWIS 2020; MILLER II 2021; RÖMER 2015), 4 the logocentrism (BONFIGLIO 2017: 444), and colonial/imperialist assumptions that distort the “Other,” allowing allochronization (GREENBERG and HAMILAKIS 2022: 75– 108; PFOH 2022). A reasonable conclusion is that the field still struggles with its conceptual dependence on biblical texts, undue emphasis on the Judeo-Christian tradition, and modern constitution/rationality (LATOUR 1993; QUIJANO 1992). In this regard, while the last five years have seen proposals of comparative (PORZIA 2018; SCHMITT 2020), cognitive (MAIDEN 2020), and material frameworks (MANDELL and SMOAK 2019), they remain asymmetric. Symmetry, here, “simply means not to impose a priori some spurious asymmetry among human intentional action and a material world of causal relations” (LATOUR 2005: 76). In other words, while these frameworks offer sophisticated tools and concepts for analyzing the past, they often disregard the analysis of the present. If a sociology of knowledge of the fields of biblical studies and southern Levantine archaeology lurks for a while (PFOH 2020), it has not been systematically carried out (but see KLEIN CARDOSO 2022; 2023a; 2023b). In this regard, it would be a Sisyphean effort trying to change the practice without looking at its epistemic structures (see SOUSA SANTOS 2017). The task at hand thus requires addressing other conceptual aspects of concern, from the thorny debate on the in/existence of ‘religion’ in the past and present (see, e.g., FITZGERALD 1997; MCCUTCHEON 2018; ROUBEKAS 2018) to ethnocentrisms hidden in the logocentric and mono4 The emphasis might be a symptom of the use of a self-evident concept of “religion” or a remnant of the evolutionary logic of the “world religions” paradigm (STROUMSA 2021: 246). On the other hand, the fixation on Urgeschichten is a wider issue in biblical/religious studies (TOBOLOWSKY 2023). 272 SILAS KLEIN CARDOSO modal constitution and practice of the discipline (DERRIDA 1976: 1–26; KRESS and VAN LEEUWEN 2001). The latter can be held responsible for the problematic but influential practice of detaching codes from “material bearers” (sic). In response to these challenges, my short contribution, after discussing how scholars ascribe religiousness to artifacts in the field, argues for a communicological symmetric framework for the history of southern Levantine religion\s that is programmatically sketched with the concept of liminal device\s. 2. WHAT MAKES AN ARTIFACT ‘RELIGIOUS’? The question of how scholars ascribe religiousness to artifacts is central to the task of devising a historical-religious framework. Conceptually, the focus on religious objects might unravel modern assumptions embedded in interpretations. For instance, RÜPKE (2019) argued that such a focus defies Durkheimian notions of religion as a collective enterprise. The ‘fetish’ offers another example. The concept was “so problematic to modern Westerners because it violated distinctions between human-made fabrications and God, between subjects and objects, between spirit and matter, between construction and reality” (MEYER 2012: 21; see MATORY 2018). 5 If the term betrays its Eurocentrism, being originally given by Portuguese-Catholic and Dutch-Protestant navigators to Africans’ deemed inferior objects, MORGAN (2021: 36–37) made the point that the Protestant material god, the Bible, was equally puzzling to nineteenth-century Polynesians. Methodologically, the question unravels many interpretive challenges. The attribution of religiosity to an artifact from antiquity is the final stage of a complex hermeneutic process. Two stages precede it. The first, objectification, consists in the categorization of the excavated “thing” 6 according to the excavator’s observational itinerary. This process defines what will be preserved or discarded, presupposing, from a closed and self-referential system of archaeological notions—a “grammar”—what is an artifact (BUCCELLATI 2017: 28–31). The process thus entails that “cycles of artifactuality” are not only contingent to the effects of the time on objects, but, also, to conceptual frameworks (CHAZAN 2019: 5–8). The second stage, typologization, consists of the inclusion of this artifact to the textual inventory of the archaeological record.7 At this stage, the textualization of the artifact displaces it in favor of the referent to which it supposedly 5 Despite highlighting the importance of approaches such as the one labeled ‘material religion’, APPIAH (2022) recently pointed out its exclusion of pre-colonial notions of materiality, anthropocentric epistemology, and the inherent contrast made between African and European ideas. 6 For the distinction between “thing” and “object,” see BROWN (2001). 7 I.e., the referential dimension of the archaeological method (see BUCCELLATI 2017: 124– 126). LIMINAL DEVICE\S 273 points to (KÜCHLER and CARROLL 2021: 4). In other words, the object becomes part of a “class of artifacts,” becoming subjected to micro-relations of power inherent to academic writing. Here, aspects such as authorial and institutional authority, linguistic genre, and modes of argumentation influence interpretive outcomes and shape what is considered an “artifact” (see LUCAS 2019). Despite the attribution of religiosity can only occur after these stages, for operating on “artifacts” (i.e., objectified things) within “artifact classes” (i.e., typologized objects), these steps are usually not addressed by the specialized literature on the topic (see, e.g., GILMOUR 1995: 13–17; RIEGER 2020: 54–56). The history of ancient southern Levantine religion\s, in view of the hermeneutic difficulties of the task, 8 typically applies one within six strategies to ascribe religiosity to artifacts. These are described below: 9 2.1. Religious by design 1) Lack of function: ¬f(a) ֜ r(a) ĺNo practical function IMPLIES that an artifact is religious. Used as a caricature of the endeavor, this functionalist strategy uses ‘religion’ as a final interpretive resort, entailing the distinction between ‘sacred/non-utilitarian’ and ‘profane/utilitarian’. 2) Iconography linked to “g\God/des/ses/s”: i(a) ֜ r(a) ĺ7KHSUHVHQFHRIDQ image of the divine IMPLIES a religious artifact. This strategy understands that the depiction of supernatural beings in an object is a sign that the artifact held a religious function and/or meaning. 2.2. Religious by comparison 3) “Religious” typology: (s(a,b) ‫( ר‬໿ i | a ‫ א‬Ri)) ֜ r(b) ĺIf two objects are similar (a and b) and one (a) belongs to a group of religious artifacts (Ri) IMPLIES the second artifact (b) is religious. 8 E.g., concerning interartistic comparison, even with ancient texts describing rites of sacralization (e.g. BERLEJUNG 2021: 3–4), the evidence is hardly unambiguous, given the inherent polysemy of codes. Considering the archaeological method, even when objects are found in situ, the attribution of function is hardly unquestionable, given changes of function during the lifetime of objects. 9 I thank Eythan Levy for translating the arguments to propositional and first-order logic language. Please, consider the following Boolean notations to read the formulas: f(a) : “artifact a has a practical function” r(a) : “artifact a is religious” c(a) : “artifact a was found in a religious context” d(a) : “artifact a contains a divine image” s(a,b) : “artifacts a and b are ‘similar’” t(a,b) : “artifacts a and b were found together” R1, R2, … (Ri in general) : “a predefined set of artifacts known to be religious” 274 SILAS KLEIN CARDOSO Some artifact classes are construed as religious a priory, either because of their research history or for their assumed lack of function. 4) Similarity with “religious” object: s(a,b) ‫ ר‬r(a) ֜ r(b) ĺIf two objects (a and b) are similar and one of them (a) is religious IMPLIES the other (b) is also religious. In a mix of stylistic and typological intuitions, objects that do not conform to established classes might have religiousness ascribed for similarity. 2.3. Religious by context 5) Relationship with other objects: t(a,b) ‫ ר‬r(a) ֜ r(b) ĺ If two objects (a and b) were found together and one of them (a) is religious IMPLIES that the other (b) is also religious. The concentration of religious artifacts can also be used to ascribe religiousness to artifacts or for identifying “architecturally undistinguished” cultic places (HOLLADAY JR 1987: 282, n. 1). 6) Relationship with “religious/cultic” context: c(a) ֜ r(a) ĺReligious context IMPLIES that an artifact is religious. The deemed religious context of an object might also be used to ascribe religiousness, following ethnographic comparisons and deposition patterns that aid artifacts’ biographies. 2.4. Discussion While the strategies obviously imply a concept of ‘religion’, the question is which religion is implied? This question will be answer in the following lines by the problematization of the three assumptions that shape these strategies. The first assumption is that certain artifacts are inherently religious (No. 1–2). Such an assumption is built upon the influential but debatable rigid distinction between “sacred” and “profane.” However, is it true that southern Levantine societies made such differentiations? The southern Levant is better characterized as one of those contexts where the line between sacred and profane is difficult to draw (HALBERTSMA and ROUTLEDGE 2021: 2), as the very existence of strategy No. 5 and the entailed difficulty to discover a ‘blueprint’ of Iron Age cultic places shows (e.g. ALBERTZ and SCHMITT 2012; FAUST 2019; KOCH 2020; MAZAR 2015). In this regard, the lack of a suitable critical concept is not a simple detail, since the current academic “language misses the unbounded and open-ended quality of the social, of human activities” (STOWERS 2011: 35). 10 10 To be sure, STOWERS (2011: 35) argues against the idea of “religious systems” that assume “some sort of essence that ties the practice [of animal sacrifice] intrinsically to an idea or symbol LIMINAL DEVICE\S 275 This is also the case of the second distinction between utilitarian/nonutilitarian. 11 While pervasive in academia, the reasoning implied is probably more attached to our post-industrial minds and the corollary idea of religion as superstructure, 12 than to a critical assessment of ancient sources. However, ‘household religion’ studies have shown that what we call ‘religion’ affected many different spheres of life (STOWERS 2011). Moreover, the distinction undervalues the place of aesthetics in past societies while ethnocentrically assumes that things can bear no agency for contemporary (i.e., “developed” or “modern”) people. The idea that “profane” (non-utilitarian?) objects do not display “divine” iconography (No. 2), in turn, fails to consider the diverse ways in which codes act upon objects and the multifaceted roles g\God/dess/ess/s could acquire in Antiquity. First, it is not clear what becomes religious with a religious depiction. Think of a cosmetic lid with a goddess depiction. What becomes religious with the depiction? The box, its content, the producer/craftsperson, the consumer/ user, or all? Furthermore, the use of ancient “things” as by-products or conduits to understanding conceptual frameworks about deities presupposes a textual approach to material artifacts (MANDELL and SMOAK 2019: 2) and is founded on the evolutionary paradigm of “world religions” (STROUMSA 2021: 246). In sum, the idea that certain objects are inherently religious seems to imply the problematic cross-cultural anthropological concept of religion (ASAD 1993). The second assumption is that religious artifacts were similar in form and/or content to other religious artifacts (No. 3–4). A typical but not exclusive problem of these comparative strategies is the fixed determination of function and meaning of artifacts from the past. Artifact classes are formed from etic (i.e., non-emic) observations, disregarding the polysemy of artifacts in their design, reception, and use (see FOWLER 1985), and possible changes in their meaning and function. Furthermore, it is important to highlight that the logic of these labels is verbal 13 and produced for scientific writing, reasoning that rules out overlaps and inconsistencies. Thus, given carried out for the sake of scientific writing (CHAZAN 2019: 20) and within pre-established taxonomies (LUCAS through time and across cultural areas.” Still, his argument is useful against generalizing concepts of religion. 11 HOLLADAY JR (1987: 259), arguing for strategy No. 5, construes another problematic binomial between “religious” and “inscribed” artifacts, exposing his ethnocentrism. 12 In this historical context, even if we concede that a state, in its modern sense, existed, it is difficult to assume that ideological apparatuses existed for reproducing superstructures (see ALTHUSSER 2012). 13 They are (a) “objective,” non-dependent on predetermined points of view (FLUSSER 2017a: 114); (b) well-defined, organized in discrete units (MCLUHAN 2013); (c) transparent, meaningbased (ASSMANN 2003: 263); (d) logically contextualized (SCHIRRA and SACHS-HOMBACH 2007). 276 SILAS KLEIN CARDOSO 2019: 10), researchers operate under “confirmatory biases,” i.e., limiting themselves to the most likely existing hypotheses (PERREAULT 2019: 8–14). The third assumption is that context determines the religiosity of objects (No. 5–6). Such an assumption can lead to circular arguments: “the identification of cultic artefacts on the basis of their presence in cultic sites can lead to the identification of cultic sites on the basis of the presence of cultic artefacts” (GILMOUR 1995: 13–14). Moreover, if we consider that religiousness cannot be thought of as fixed or inherent to a particular object or object class as argued above, these strategies generate false tautologies. In this respect, as Herculean as such a task may look, it is essential to re-examine the artifacts and contexts that were first considered religious and are used for comparison. Likewise, it is essential to maintain consistency in analyses of the relationship between object and contexts to generate sound results. 3. LIMINAL DEVICE\S As the discussion above shows, despite their potential to unravel biases, the very interpretation of religious objects might be, in itself, biased. That is the reason for my proposal of a communicological symmetric framework, which I programmatically sketch in the following pages. The term “communicological” is used for its grounding in communication theory, i.e., in the study of how information is stored, processed, and transmitted (FLUSSER 2009: 35). Accordingly, the framework focuses on media storing, processing, and transmitting historicalreligious information. The symmetry of the approach lies in its HTXDOO\ rigorous assessment of the two main media/sources for historical-religious information, (1) artifacts classified as “religious” and (2) religion scholars. 14 The approach is thus synthesized by the formula liminal device\s. As typographically set, two modules of analysis are envisaged; these are apparent in the plural (liminal devices) and singular (liminal device) forms. Below, each module’s different objects of analysis, sets of questions, and objectives are clarified. 3.1. Liminal devices (pl.) The first focus is on religious media. 15 While the conceptualization of religious artifacts as media was already suggested in the field to expand the discussion of 14 Symmetry, causality, impartiality, and reflexivity are the tenets of the so-called “strong programme in the sociology of knowledge” (BLOOR 1976: 2–5) that rejected the asymmetrical approach that explained successes by ‘scientificity’ and failures by social factors. LATOUR (1993) reinterpreted the concept to focus on the agency of humans and non-humans. 15 Religious studies experienced a ‘media turn’ (ENGELKE 2010) and, recently, saw burgeoning the characterization of religion as mediation (MEYER 2020). This development was triggered by a LIMINAL DEVICE\S 277 ancient communicative systems beyond writing (FREVEL 2005: 11), 16 many still use a reductive or instrumental concept of media, instead of properly engaging with the concept in its full potential. In other words, media is often reduced to analogies (e.g., mass-media ؆ ancient media) or synonymies (e.g., media = genre), or is used to refurbish old discussions (e.g., orality vs. textuality). This axis thus reconceptualizes and redescribes religious media. Therefore, in the plural form, liminal devices refer to religious media, i.e., things present in religious practices or that embodied ‘religious power’, assuming a central role in the communication with non-empirical realities or nonevident beings/forces (KLEIN CARDOSO 2020: 149–150). The term device, here, refers to objects that wait for human actions and/or stimulate thought-processes (FLUSSER 2000: 21; ZIELINSKI 2013: 112–114) and their liminality is to be found in how they bridge spheres of existence to convey information/meaning. In other words, these objects “communicate”—i.e., they connect heterogeneous worlds and erase otherness—by embodying the role of a third in-between communicative actor (a “messenger”, KRÄMER 2015: 75–86). The verb “to embody” is crucial, as objects (religious or not) can be seen as external memories for their ability to store/process/transmit in their shape, material, and use information/ meaning regarding uses, gestures, actions, and concepts (FLUSSER 2015: 53–54). The characterization tentatively combines functional, pragmatic, and mediatic notions of cultic artifacts. This assumes that through the description of their material properties, function, style, iconicity, semantic/social connectivity, and (social, economic, archaeological) contexts, information/meaning about their previous entanglements with humans can be retrieved, also impacting the understanding of their role in ancient religious rites. In other words, while object biographies investigate changes in meaning in the lifespan of objects (GOSDEN and MARSHALL 1999; JOY 2009), the approach here drafted is akin to an ‘archaeology of religious media,’ as it examines the conditions of existence of artifacts and question their habits of use through their properties and contexts. 17 Therefore, the judicious (‘thick’) redescription of artifacts would include the following background set of questions before ascribing it religiousness: What makes this artifact ‘liminal’? What media properties (i.e., transmission, storage, processing) were considered for the religious use of this artifact? To what extent did this device enable religious practices, beliefs, and ritualization? How was pictorial/iconic turn that put the media, the gaze’s historical construction, and images as foundations for knowledge at the center of scholarly efforts (SANTIAGO JR 2019: 408). 16 If the benefits of the conceptualization were not evident then (UEHLINGER 2005), they proved their worth recently (SCHAPER 2019; UEHLINGER 2021: 158–159). 17 The archaeology of media is inspired by Foucault’s genealogy allied to Kittler’s focus on technical media (PARIKKA 2012: 6), at the same time it follows the history of media as designed by MCLUHAN and anticipated by the Warburg Kreis (HUHTAMO and PARIKKA 2011). 278 SILAS KLEIN CARDOSO belief conceived through this artifact once its materiality is considered? What do the style and iconicity of this artifact hint at concerning its use and meaning? 3.2. Liminal device (sing.) The second focus is on knowledge media. It assumes that objects cannot be isolated from subjects in an investigation. On the one hand, this acknowledges the crisis and the simplifying nature of the subject/object distinction (MORIN and LE MOIGNE 2000: 57–60, 113; see VIVEIROS DE CASTRO 2004: 453) and, on the other hand, concurs that a postabyssal/posextractivist epistemology is only possible by blurring this faulty northern epistemic divide (SOUSA SANTOS 2018: 136–138). Accordingly, apparatuses of/for knowledge processing, storage, and transmission must be addressed with the same thoroughness. This is particularly relevant to the field of Levantine religion\s since, while the sharpening of tools for assessing the past is discussed to exhaustion, the tools for the present remain blunt. 18 This is probably a result of two assumptions stemming from a “zeropoint hubris” 19: (a) that knowledge is one and the same everywhere; and (b) that it is possible to be objective without considering present contexts. Therefore, the concept of liminal device, in the singular, refers to knowledge media or apparatuses, i.e., tools, agents, materials, and structures used in the modern study of ancient religion\s. The term device, in this sense, is taken from FLUSSER’s subjective history of modern ontology to describe the impalpable structure of the things that surround us (FLUSSER 2017b: 327)—it is thus related to FOUCAULT’s (1980: 194–197) concept of dispositif/apparatus—being useful to the metatheoretical and social-material understanding of the relationship between the research object and the subject researcher. Liminality, in this sense, is understood as the space in which object and subject meet in research, and where researchers meet around an object. In this regard, Bourdieu’s concept of scientific field is implied as “a structured field of forces, and also a field of struggles to conserve or transform this field of forces” (BOURDIEU 2004: 33). As a result, the knowledge of ancient religion\s is better visualized as an entangled network of multilayered and multilateral relations: researchers must have their position/ relations marked according to objects of study, research materials, methods, other researchers, disciplinary fields, institutional/economic relations. While existing analyses prioritize, on the one hand, macro-social, economic, and political contexts to analyze and situate researchers and their production and, 18 If self-reflexivity is sold as the best weapon in our quiver, it can backfire in fights for scientific capital (BOURDIEU 2004: 33–52) and for structural epistemic injustices (SOUSA SANTOS 2017). 19 I.e., “the imaginary according to which an observer of the social world can situate themselves on a neutral observation platform that, in turn, cannot be observed from any point” (CASTROGÓMEZ 2021: 8). LIMINAL DEVICE\S 279 on the other hand, biographic or psycho-social intuitions, the approach suggested here is closer to a sociology of knowledge. In this regard, a series of microcontextual questions are to be systematically applied in the redescription of research “tribes” in their social-material practices (see BECHER and TROWLER 2001; BECKER and CLARK 2001; CLARK 2006; MAFFESOLI 1996, 2016): What is the ideological orientation of researchers? What economic, social, religious, and societal interests are implicit in reconstructions? What is the rationale for the inclusion/exclusion of artifacts in religious-historical reconstructions? What socio-material research practices were used, and under which framework? What is the genealogy of methods employed, and what are the factors for their choice? What metaphors were used to represent knowledge? How, when, and where knowledge was socialized? What results were remembered and forgotten? 4. CONCLUSION While historians of ancient Levantine religion\s have rightly identified modern paradigms, prejudices, and biases imprinted into reconstructions, they have overlooked the weight and far-reaching consequences of their own knowledge apparatuses and their inherent asymmetries in proposing frameworks. As a result, the attribution of “religiosity” to artifacts is, in the history of Southern Levantine religion\s, prone to anachronistic projections based on an undertheorized concept of “religion.” Therefore, after highlighting how modern conceptions influence the ascription of religiousness to artifacts, I argued in this chapter for a twofold, symmetric communicological framework to systematically integrate past and present in studying ancient Levantine religion\s. This was programmatically suggested in the concept of liminal device\s. 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