How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 233 Barbara Winckler Seriality, Journal-Specific Communication and Archival Practices in Two Late 19th- and Early 20th-Century Arabic Periodicals How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices As part of a larger research project, this paper looks at the emerging Arabic periodical press in the long 19th century as ‹new media› that gave rise to a new debate culture. This project draws on recent trends in the study of periodicals from a cultural studies perspective.1 In the last few years, we are witnessing an increasing interest in research dealing with periodicals.2 One of the crucial aspects of this approach is that periodicals are not dealt with «merely as containers of discrete bits of information» but rather as «autonomous objects of study».3 The periodical is considered as a «specific medium» that «builds its own set of cultural, political, and epistemological horizons», as «a generic concept that encompasses elements of seriality and intellectual community, or sociability (sociabilité intellectuelle)».4 My paper looks at the form and the institution of the journal in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in this light. 1 2 3 4 My research project analyses early Arabic periodicals with a particular focus on textual strategies and medial practices used by editors, writers and readers of various selected journals. This is done through a close reading of a broad range of text types in terms of different aspects: from biographical writing and serialised fiction to series of articles as part of a debate within a single journal or between different journals to texts in which speeches and events are ‘translated’ into print. The research project is funded by Volkswagen Foundation (Dilthey Fellowship). Besides the DFG Research Unit 2288 «Journalliteratur», which organised the conference out of which the present volume arose, I will mention only three recent initiatives: The European Society for Periodical Research (founded in 2009) and its Journal of European Periodical Studies (2016–), The Journal of Modern Periodical Studies (2010–) and, in Germany, the «Arbeitskreis Kulturwissenschaftliche Zeitschriftenforschung» (Working Group: The Cultural Study of Periodicals; founded in 2017 and co-hosted by the Zentrum für Literatur- und Kulturforschung (ZfL), Berlin, and the Institute of Advanced Study in the Humanities (KWI), Essen). Sean Latham / Robert Scholes: The Rise of Periodical Studies. In: PMLA 121.2 (2006), pp. 517–531, here pp. 517f. However, Patrick Collier states that even in Modern Periodical Studies «periodicals have emerged as objects of study but not, it would seem, as autonomous», arguing that most studies posit «an (often vaguely defined or entirely implicit) ‹object of knowledge› lurking behind the periodical—a broader ‹so what?› to which the study of the periodical purports to give us insight.» Patrick Collier: What is Modern Periodical Studies? In: Journal of Modern Periodical Studies 6.1 (2015), pp. 92–111, here p. 100. Working Group: The Cultural Study of Periodicals (URL: https://www.zfl-berlin.org/project/cultural-study-of-periodicals.html) (date of last access: 21 August 2019). 234 Barbara Winckler One of the particularities of the journal is its mixed form, which is characterised by both difference and continuity: Firstly, the journal typically consists of heterogeneous contributions; secondly, although each journal issue differs from both the previous and following issues, readers nevertheless expect a certain continuity throughout the issues of the same journal, or at least over a series of issues, regarding, for instance, its thematic and ideological orientation, the features and the circle of authors who contribute to the journal on a regular basis. Moreover, the journal can be considered both an ‹open› and a ‹closed› form: On the one hand, the texts published in a journal are typically self-contained; on the other hand, the journal is aimed at continuation, which becomes manifest when a text is published in sequels or when a number of individual texts form a sequence.5 Reading a journal thus involves various kinds of periodic interruption and coherence. To include temporal and material aspects of periodical publishing facilitates insights into the processes of production and (contemporary) reception, including author-reader interaction, as well as cultural, social and economic context. Not a lot of research has been done so far on Arabic journals as an ‹object of knowledge› and a medium in their own right. Unlike most existing studies, which focus on one specific journal,6 my project examines various text types from different journals based on their contribution to a debate culture. To this end, the term ‹debate› is used in a broader sense, i.e. as a specific type of communication that aims at convincing the other, is based on reciprocity, and assumes a minimum amount of cognitive content. The term is thus not limited to debates that are explicitly presented as such, but covers all forms of intellectual or artistic expression through which writers openly or subtly take up a position that can be perceived as part of a debate. Although the present volume focuses on «Reading Journals», there is not sufficient evidence for a history of Arabic journal reading, due to the scarcity of studies and the lack of sources. Consequently, this paper investigates how certain selected practices involved in writing and publishing a journal potentially affect reading practices. It will thus discuss textual strategies and medial practices that are related to mainly three aspects: Firstly, questions of seriality or sequentiality that typically involve both discontinuous reading and coherence-forming practices; secondly, forms of communication specific to journals, particularly author-reader interaction and cross-referencing; and, thirdly, archiving practices that have an impact on how journals were read beyond the weekly or monthly publishing 5 6 These aspects have already been discussed in earlier stages of periodical research. See, among others, Margaret Beetham: Open and Closed: The Periodical as a Publishing Genre. In: Victorian Periodicals Review 22 (1989), pp. 96–100. See, for example, Dagmar Glaß: Der Muqtat.af und seine Öffentlichkeit: Aufklärung, Räsonnement und Meinungsstreit in der frühen arabischen Zeitschriftenkommunikation. 2 vols. Würzburg 2004 and Dounia Badini: La revue Shi‘r/Poésie et la modernité poétique arabe. Beyrouth (1957–1970). Arles 2009. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 235 mode and that can tell us if a specific journal was meant to be more than an ephemeral publication. This will be done by way of a reading of selected texts from two journals of the Nahda period, which will serve as examples: al-Hilāl [The Crescent], one of the most important journals of the time, which was founded by Jurjī Zaydān in Cairo in 1892; and al-Marʾa al-Jadīda [The New Woman], a Beirut-based women’s magazine from the 1920s, which was edited by Jūliyā T.uʿma Dimashqiyya. 1. The Emergence of the Arabic Periodical Press in the Nahda Period The Nahda, commonly translated into English as ‹Arab Renaissance› or, more literally, ‹Arab Awakening›, is the term used for the movement of social and cultural reforms promoted by both individuals and the state in the late Ottoman period, i.e. in the ‹long 19th century›. As a result of both internal and external factors, not least an increasing Western influence, far-reaching social, economic and educational transformations occurred in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire—mainly Egypt and Greater Syria (roughly today’s Syria, Lebanon and Palestine), as well as Tunisia. The Nahda is commonly considered the starting point of ‹Arab modernity›, with printing technology, the periodical press in particular, being one of the driving forces of the transformation processes of the time. While book printing technology already existed in the Arab Middle East in the 18th century, albeit limited in its employment, in Christian monasteries, for example, it was not until the 19th century that print technology was conclusively introduced on a wider scale. In the 1820s, the periodical press started off as government publications, which soon developed into official newspapers. Around mid-century, privately owned newspapers and journals appeared on the scene, with Cairo and Beirut as main centres.7 In her comprehensive study on the journal al-Muqtat.af, Dagmar Glaß makes an important point that is particularly relevant to the focus of the present volume: She emphasises the impact of the journal in particular—as compared to both the newspaper and the printed book—while ascribing it not only to the journal’s content and style, but also to its periodicity: For no other publishing medium promised…the continued connection to contemporary intellectual life outside of the religious cultus.…The majalla [Arabic for ‹journal›], too, showed itself—like its European model—to be universal, informative, instructive, and entertaining, as a mixture of scholarly notes, a morally-minded weekly, a magazine, a literary journal, and a political newspaper, but, importantly, in 7 For a comprehensive history of the Arab Press, see Ami Ayalon: The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History. New York/Oxford 1995. 236 Barbara Winckler the form of a periodical, which appeared more or less on a regular basis and therefore, unlike books, inherently had a ‹continuing effect›.8 This may explain why the protagonists of the social and cultural reforms of the time considered the press to be both a symbol and a means of civilization, progress, and social reform. As a result of the development of print technology, in addition to economic, educational and other changes in the course of the 19th century, a new kind of public sphere emerged that included a broader cross-section of Arab society—socially, confessionally, and not least geographically. Some of the journals were distributed not only across the Arab world (particularly in Egypt and Greater Syria, and in more remote places, such as Fez in Morocco and Aden in Yemen), but also reached Europe, both North and South America, Russia, and even Malaysia and Australia. One of the journal’s most important characteristics is its dialogic character, with its potential to figure as a forum for discussion. Whereas newspapers were primarily concerned with the dissemination of news and information, a new and lively debate culture developed along with the emergence of privately published cultural-scientific journals that made their breakthrough in the last third of the nineteenth century. The journals’ editors introduced question–answer features and explicitly encouraged their readers to submit their own contributions, in order to stimulate the exchange of knowledge and opinions. Moreover, the periodical press allowed for communication across large distances—in particular, between people who never met personally. It also facilitated networking and the building of communities, such as a circle of readers and writers who were (socially and intellectually) close to each other. Most of the journals had an encyclopaedic character, covering a wide range of different genres and topics. One of the main aims of these journals was to popularise knowledge. This included both historical knowledge and the most recent information, such as local, regional and global news, current cultural production, scientific-technical inventions, as well as advice on issues of everyday life. Compared to other written media, the periodical press reached a broader and a different audience, which could also include illiterate people, since periodicals were often read aloud in public places. It also mobilised new actors by opening space even for segments of the population that had not previously contributed to public debates. In particular, an increasing number of women started publishing—often, although not exclusively, in women’s journals.9 These changes are also felt in changing 8 9 Glaß (s. footnote 6). Vol. I, p. 8. (Emphases are mine. Translations are mine, unless otherwise stated). In the German original, the quotation reads as follows: «Denn kein anderes publizistisches Mittel als sie [die Zeitschrift der Nahda] versprach…den fortgesetzten Anschluß an zeitgenössisches Geistesleben außerhalb des religiösen Kultus.…Auch die mağalla präsentierte sich—wie ihr europäisches Vorbild— universell, informativ, belehrend und unterhaltend, als eine Mischung aus gelehrter Mitteilung, moralischer Wochenschrift, Magazin, Literaturjournal und politischer Zeitung, aber eben als ein Periodikum, das mehr oder weniger regelmäßig wiederkehrte und deshalb anders als das Buch die Möglichkeit der ‹fortgesetzten Wirkung› hatte.» For a detailed study of the history of the women’s press in Egypt, see Beth Baron: The Women’s Awakening in Egypt: Culture, Society, and the Press. New Haven/London 1994. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 237 linguistic usage, since writing for a broader public and dealing with new topics required, on the one hand, a more simple and pragmatic style and, on the other, an extended lexis, which was realised through either neologisms or borrowings from other, mostly Western, languages. Nevertheless, without denying the popularising effect of the periodical press and its emphasis on encouraging the audience to participate in debates relevant to the time, it is important not to overemphasise the outreach of this endeavour. In fact, the editors and most of the contributors belonged to the new educated (mostly male) elite.10 2. A History Book in Periodical Form? Biographical Essays in al-Hilāl (Cairo, 1892–) In the following, I focus on biographical essays published in al-Hilāl, in order to examine the textual strategies and medial practices that were used by one of the most prominent figures of the Nahda to secure follow-on readings, i.e. in order to deal with the opportunities and challenges presented to readers by the form of the journal, which is both open and closed. Jurjī Zaydān (1861–1914), one of the many Syrian immigrants to Egypt who were active in the periodical press, was one of the most prolific writers of his time. He was the editor of and main contributor to the cultural journal al-Hilāl [The Crescent], one of the most widely read journals of the Nahda period, which was founded in Cairo in 1892 and continues to be published up to today. Zaydān, who saw himself primarily as an «educator of society», sought to assume this role mainly through publishing:11 He deliberately used various genres, modes, and publishing forms to disseminate the kind of knowledge he considered essential for ensuring society’s progress and development. In order to generate interest in history, in particular, and make historical events comprehensible not only to a small circle of scholars, but also to a broader public, he wrote not only scholarly historical works, but also more than twenty historical novels, most of which were first serialised in al-Hilāl and continue to be very popular even today.12 The pub10 For a comparative discussion of these and other aspects of ‹new media› from different time periods, see Barbara Winckler: ‹New Media› and the Transformation of the Public Sphere in the Nahda Period and Today: How the Advent of the Periodical Press and the Internet Have Affected the Arab/ic Literary Field—Analogies and Differences. In: Roger Allen et al. (Eds.): New Geographies: Texts and Contexts in Modern Arabic Literature. Madrid 2018, pp. 27–64. 11 Thomas Philipp: Jurji Zaidan and the Foundations of Arab Nationalism: A Study. Syracuse 2014, p. 85. As Philipp states, Zaydān «spent surprisingly little time as an actual teacher in a school.» Rather than pursuing a teaching career, he «saw his role as kātib ʿāmm, a public educator» or public scribe, thus devoting himself to writing and publishing. Ibid., pp. 85f. 12 History was certainly Zaydān’s main field of interest, but he also published books on a number of other topics, such as linguistic philosophy and Arabic language and literature. al-Hilāl, like other journals of the time, had an encyclopaedic character. For a concise overview of Zaydān’s life and work, see Walid Hamarneh: Jurjī Zaydān (1861–1914). In: Roger Allen (Ed.): Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850–1950. Wiesbaden 2010, pp. 382–392. For more comprehensive studies of his life and thought, see Thomas Philipp: Ğurğī Zaidān: His Life and Thought. Beirut 1979 and Anne-Laure Dupont: Ğurğī Zaydān (1861–1914): Écrivain réformiste et témoin de la Renaissance arabe. Damascus 2006. 238 Barbara Winckler lication of the journal al-Hilāl is, however, considered to be «the center of Zaydān’s life and intellectual energy».13 As is the case for other journals of the time, the individual issues of al-Hilāl do not start with an editorial.14 Instead, they open with the feature titled «Most Famous Events and Greatest Men» («Bāb ashhar al-h.awādith wa-aʿz.am al-rijāl»), which comprises biographical essays. The journal’s first page usually includes a picture of a historical or, in later years, a contemporary personality—typically the person portrayed in the following essay (see fig. 1). Biographical essays are thus the first contents readers are supposed to read. Biography is a genre with a long history in Arabic literature. Biographical writing occurs in various forms and lengths, embedded in a wide array of works, such as biographical dictionaries, annalistic histories, geographiFig. 1: First page of al-Hilāl’s second is- cal writings, travel books and literary works. sue: Biographical Essay «Sultan Sulaymān the Magnificent». In: al-Hilāl 1.2 (Oct. 1, 1892), p. 33. Its aim has always been more than just proCopy of the Campusbibliothek Freie Universität viding information on a deceased person’s Berlin (signature: EL 2506). life. Indeed, it is a genre that «demonstrably served both documentary and belletristic functions throughout its history».15 Moreover, in many cases, «biography is not just a record but also a debate», which is pursued «not in the form of a disputation but of storytelling».16 Biography has been crucial to Arabic learned culture, particularly to the concept of history and society. Along with the transformations that occurred in Arab societies, the form and the function of biographical writing have continuously changed. Biography can 13 Hamarneh (s. footnote 12), p. 384. 14 Other journals start, for example, with an article dealing with a topic of current interest, usually, but not always, written by the journal’s editor. In most cases, only the very first issue of the journal or, sometimes, the first issue of the year starts with an «introduction» («muqaddima» or «fātih.a»), explaining the aims and foci of the journal or announcing changes implemented in the current or future issues. 15 Michael Cooperson: Classical Arabic Biography: A Literary-Historical Approach. In: Verena Klemm / Beatrice Gruendler (Eds.): Understanding Near Eastern Literatures: A Spectrum of Interdisciplinary Approaches. Wiesbaden 2000, pp. 177–185, here p. 177. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 239 thus be considered «a mirror in which are reflected some important aspects of the intellectual and cultural development»17 of a community. Accordingly, authors of the Nahda adapted biographical writing to the needs of their time. In several of the most widely read and long-lived journals of this period, biographical essays were an essential element.18 If most of the writings of the ‹pioneers of the Nahda› can be considered as educational, this is particularly true for the journals whose aim was to reach a much broader public through their style and content, as well as through their modes of production and distribution. By publishing biographical essays, editors pursued two main objectives: On the one hand, biographical writing was meant to contribute to the dissemination of knowledge about history, foreign countries, literature, arts, and sciences in an easily accessible and even entertaining way. On the other hand, biographical essays served as exempla, providing role models that were intended to lead the readers to the ‹right path› and encourage them to improve their own potential, in order to serve their societies or the progress of humanity as a whole.19 The biographical essays published in al-Hilāl are most apt to serve this twofold aim: the dissemination of historical knowledge and the presentation of role models. For this purpose, Zaydān presents the biographies of a wide range of personalities from all ages and different world regions. In the section that follows, the first two key aspects of this paper—seriality and journal-specific forms of communication—will be separately discussed with regard to biographical writing in al-Hilāl’s early years, while the third aspect, archiving practices, will be explored in relation to the journal as a whole. 16 Julia Bray: Literary Approaches to Medieval and Early Modern Arabic Biography. In: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland 203 (2010), pp. 237–253, here pp. 249f. 17 Wadād al-Qād.ī: Biographical Dictionaries: Inner Structure and Cultural Significance. In: George N. Atiyeh (Ed.): The Book in the Islamic World: The Written Word and Communication in the Middle East. New York 1995, pp. 93–122, here p. 94. 18 Most of the (albeit rare) studies dealing with biographical essays published in journals do not analyse their form and function, but rather discuss how specific persons are portrayed in the texts. Among the few more comprehensive studies, two articles by Dagmar Glaß provide an overview of men’s biographies published in al-Muqtat.af: Dagmar Glaß: Erziehung durch das fremde Beispiel: Arabische Biographien westlicher Forscher und Politiker. Journalistische Darstellung und Lesevorgang 1876–1926. In: asien afrika lateinamerika 25 (1997), pp. 311–339 and idem: «An Ounce of an Example is Better than a Pound of Instruction»: Biographies in Early Arabic Magazine Journalism. In: Christoph Herzog / Raoul Motika / Michael Ursinus (Eds.): Querelles priveés et contestations publiques: Le rôle de la presse dans la formation de l’opinion publique au Proche Orient. Istanbul 2002, pp. 11–23. Marilyn Booth’s works analyse a broad spectrum of women’s biographies published in various journals. See, for example, Marilyn Booth: May Her Likes Be Multiplied: Biography and Gender Politics in Egypt. Berkeley 2001. For a more detailed discussion of biographical essays published in al-Hilāl, see Barbara Winckler: Embarking upon a New Era through an Old Genre: Biographical Essays in Journals of the Nahdah Period – Ğurğī Zaydān and al-Hilāl’s Early Years as Example. In: Oriente Moderno 99.1–2 (2019), pp. 68–93. 19 Cf. Glaß 1997 (s. footnote 18), pp. 324f. 240 Barbara Winckler 2.1 Seriality/Sequentiality: A Continually Growing Stock of Knowledge Seriality is one of the most obvious characteristics of the journal. Reading journals typically involves the experience of reading in a «temporally heteronomous» way, i.e. the reader is condemned to wait for the arrival of the next issue before they can continue reading.20 This is particularly true for longer texts that are divided into several instalments published in successive issues of a journal. Periodical publishing thus confronts authors, editors and readers with the challenges—but also with the potentialities—of discontinuous production and reception processes. Reading a journal thus oscillates, to adopt the key concepts used in the title of the conference out of which the present volume arose, between the poles of «interrupted reading» (»Lektüreabbruch«) and «follow-on readings» (»Anschlußlektüren«). Consequently, we find various ways of dealing with periodic interruption and coherence.21 Formally speaking, biographical essays in al-Hilāl are self-contained texts, except for a few longer essays, which are published in sequels. The question of how to deal with a text that is interrupted and continued in a subsequent issue is thus not the main concern.22 However, these texts are implicitly and explicitly presented as a sequence or series, and the readers are expected to read them as such. This effect is generated by various textual strategies: The most evident is the fact that the essays form a distinct feature. The «Most Famous Events and Greatest Men» feature is included in the very first issue and remains one of the main features of the journal. In the preamble to the first issue, which explains the aims, structure, and publishing modalities of the journal, readers are informed that they will find at least one historical-biographical essay in every issue of al-Hilāl.23 Moreover, Zaydān points out that the portrayed persons are carefully selected and grouped together: The very first biographical essay published in al-Hilāl starts with a programmatic paragraph that explains 20 Nicola Kaminski / Nora Ramtke / Carsten Zelle: Zeitschriftenliteratur/Fortsetzungsliteratur: Problemaufriß. In: Idem. (Eds.): Zeitschriftenliteratur/Fortsetzungsliteratur. Hannover 2014, pp. 7–39, here p. 25. The authors use this term («zeitlich heteronom») in contrast to the ‹temporally autonomous› reading of books («zeitlich selbstbestimmt»). 21 Despite the fact that large parts of Arabic literature of the 19th and well into the 20th century were (first) published in journals, research focusing on this specific form of publishing is almost non-existent, and ‹journal literature› does not exist as an established term in Arabic Studies. Even in the few studies dealing with serial publishing in Arabic—mainly fiction published as sequels in successive issues of a journal—the effect of this form of publishing on reading practices is only rarely discussed. One exception is Elizabeth Holt’s comparison of the reading of a novel’s instalment to the reading of a letter, since both typically involve waiting in anticipation: «To read a novel is, then, to wait in suspense.» The ‹technology of suspense›, often using cliffhangers, is well-known from traditional storytelling. Elizabeth M. Holt: Fictitious Capital: Silk, Cotton, and the Rise of the Arabic Novel. New York 2017, here pp. 30–39, quotations p. 31. 22 Even in these rare cases, we usually do not find the strategies typically used, for example, in serialised fiction, soap operas or traditional storytelling, such as cliffhangers or a summary of or reference to the content of previous instalments. 23 Cf. Fātih.at al-Hilāl. In: al-Hilāl 1.1 (Sept. 1, 1892), pp. 1f., here p. 1. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 241 the conception of this feature, declaring what kinds of historical figures Zaydān plans to portray: We initiate this feature of our journal with the history of the founder of the Ottoman Empire and the way this Empire was founded, may God support it, with the intention to proceed in the following with those who gained fame among its sultans in particular…as well as those who gained fame in other kingdoms of the earth, in present and former times, [be it] kings, commanders, savants, or philosophers….24 Indeed, in the first issues of al-Hilāl, the main focus is on Ottoman sultans and great rulers from other parts of the world, such as the Russian tsar Peter the Great (1672–1725) and the German emperor Wilhelm I (1797–1888), as well as great figures from Antiquity, such as Julius Caesar and Pompey, Hannibal, and Confucius (see fig. 2). In later years, however, we find an increasing number of more contemporary figures—a fact that mirrors a shift in Zaydān’s strategy regarding the use of biography as a means of presenting role models. In 1908 he declared that «[t]he closer their vitae are to the needs of the reader, the greater the benefit in publishing their biographies.» More precisely, he adds, «[a]s far as scholars, merchants or professionals who achieved their wealth or greatness through their own efforts and faith are concerned, their biographies set a good example for the young generation».25 Fig. 2: The feature «Most Famous Events and Greatest of Men» («‫)»باب اشهر الحوادث واعظم الرجال‬: Sultan Mah.mud II (left), Confucius (middle), and Peter the Great (right). In: al-Hilāl 1.3 (Nov. 1, 1892), pp. 65 and 71, and 1.4 (Dec. 1, 1892), p. 105. Copy of the Campusbibliothek Freie Universität Berlin (signature: EL 2506). 24 al-ʿUthmāniyyūn wa-l-Sult. ān ʿUthmān al-Ghāzī, muʾassis al-dawla al-ʿaliyya al-ʿuthmāniyya. In: alHilāl 1.1 (Sept. 1, 1892), pp. 3–6, here p. 3. In the Arabic original the quotation reads as follows: ‫» نفتتح هذا الباب من مجلتنا بتاريخ مؤسس الدولة العلية العثمانية وكيفية تاسيس تلك الدولة ايدها هللا على نية ان نستطرد الكالم فيما‬ ‫والقواد والعلماء‬ ‫] ومن اشتهر في سائر ممالك االرض قديما ً وحديثا ً من الملوك‬...[ ً ‫يلي الى من اشتهر من سالطينها خصوصا‬ َّ «[...] ‫والفالسفة‬ 25 Salīm S.aydnāwī. In: al-Hilāl 16 (May 4 1908), pp. 471–478, quoted from Philipp (s. footnote 12), p. 14. 242 Barbara Winckler A third strategy used by Zaydān to present the texts included in this feature as a series can be found in several biographies: By implicitly and explicitly referring back to biographical essays published in earlier issues or looking ahead to future issues, Zaydān connects these different texts. In doing so, he often emphasises historical conjunctures, ruptures and continuities. The readers are thus invited to go back to what they had read in previous issues, either by recalling or by actually re-reading previous issues. They are encouraged to compare and contrast, to think about analogies and differences, and to reflect upon positive and negative characteristics and behaviour. This may indicate that al-Hilāl was intended to be closer to a reference work than an ephemeral publication.26 Moreover, informing the readers about contents that were to be published in future issues can also be seen as a strategy to incite them to follow up in the issues to come and continue reading the journal. Starting with the preamble of al-Hilāl’s first issue, Zaydān continuously emphasises the satisfaction of the readers as being the main goal of the journal. Keeping his readers satisfied is, of course, not only an idealistic goal, but also a crucial factor in securing the continuation of the journal, with regard to both social and intellectual prestige and economic necessities. Finally, the series of biographical essays did indeed turn into a reference work when Zaydān published selected biographical essays from al-Hilāl in a separate book dedicated to the biographies of Famous Men of the East in the 19th Century (Tarājim mashāhīr al-sharq fī l-qarn al-tāsiʿ ʿashar, 1902/03). The (contemporary) reading process, at least at the moment each issue was first published, is thus indeed shaped by both periodic interruption and coherence. The conception of the «Most Famous Events and Greatest Men» feature, the carefully thoughtout selection and grouping of persons portrayed, and Zaydān’s practice of cross-referencing between individual biographical essays, all imply that the biographical essays are meant to be read as a series of exemplary lives. This enables readers—but also requires them—to draw connections between the individual elements of this series, to compare and contrast the various topics and characters, in order to progressively build a continually growing and well-balanced stock of historical knowledge and a conception of proper conduct and life management. In addition, follow-up readings keep the readers interested, prompt them to subscribe to the journal and thus enable the journal to continue to exist. 2.2 Journal-Specific Forms of Communication: Activating the Reader and Cross-Referencing Another aspect, which is even more directly related to the specifics of the new medium of the journal, is how Zaydān uses means provided by the format of the journal to directly address and interact with the reader. In the biographical essays, Zaydān occasionally ad26 For a short discussion of this aspect with regard to archiving practices, see section 2.3 below. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 243 dresses the reader employing rather conventional expressions or he anticipates the readers’ potential (mostly critical) reaction to justify his own position.27 However, he goes beyond these kinds of textual strategies that are also found in book form publications. On several occasions, Zaydān points to ‹real› interaction with his readers, both people he knew personally and others with whom he only corresponded via his journal. Sometimes he explains that he wrote a certain biographical essay at his readers’ request. In various contexts, he also occasionally asks the readers to support his work by providing material he could not get hold of, such as a picture or a specific text. To mention only two examples: In the introductory paragraph to the biography of the Egyptian officer Aḥmad ʿUrābī (1841–1911), leader of the ʿUrābī revolt against the Khedive and French and British influence, Zaydān declares that it was only in response to his friends’ and readers’ insistent demands that he decided to break from al-Hilāl’s rule of not publishing biographies of living persons.28 In the previous issue, more specifically in the section dedicated to the readers’ «Questions and Suggestions» («Bāb al-suʾāl wa-l-iqtirāh.»), we can indeed find a short letter submitted by a reader from Texas asking for ʿUrābī’s biography. After this request, Zaydān states his intention to publish a biographical essay, which is projected for the following issue.29 Another form of editor-reader interaction is made evident by a short paragraph at the end of the second part of the biographical essay: Under the heading «rectification» («istidrāk»), Zaydān acknowledges the efforts of well-informed friends who provided him with information he was lacking, adding a precise reference to a specific passage in a book on the history of modern Egypt.30 In many cases, editor-reader interaction thus involves cross-referencing between different issues of the journal or different parts of the same issue. In the case of the Egyptian writer and reformer ʿAbdallāh Nadīm (1845–1896), his death is first reported in al-Hilāl’s news section in the feature titled «Chronicle of the Month / Obituaries» («Tārīkh al-shahr / Wafayāt»). Zaydān ends this short piece with the note that a group of distinguished persons suggested publishing Nadīm’s picture and biography in al-Hilāl.31 He explicitly points to the «Questions and Suggestions» («Bāb al-suʾāl wa-l-iqtirāh.») feature of the same issue, 27 Among these conventional expressions, which may occur in any other medium, are phrases that often introduce a conclusion, such as «So you see that…» («Fa-tarā anna…»), or form a bridge between an introductory remark and the main text, such as «as you will see» («kamā sa-tarā»). To mention only one of the examples of the second type: In the biographical essay on Sultan Mah.mud II, Zaydān anticipates the readers’ doubts regarding a political decision taken by the Sultan, only to confront them with his own assessment, explaining why the Sultan’s seemingly problematic act was indeed a wise decision. Cf. al-Sult.ān Mah.mūd al-thānī. In: al-Hilāl 1.3 (Nov. 1, 1892), pp. 65–71, here p. 70. 28 Cf. Ah.mad ʿUrābī al-Mis.rī, zaʿīm al-thawra al-ʿurābiyya (part I). In: al-Hilāl 5.2 (Sept. 15, 1896), pp. 41–48, here p. 42. 29 Cf. Ah.mad ʿUrābī [«Bāb al-suʾāl wa-l-iqtirāh.» feature]. In: al-Hilāl 5.1 (Sept. 1, 1896), pp. 22f. 30 Cf. Ah.mad ʿUrābī al-Mis.rī, zaʿīm al-thawra al-ʿurābiyya (part II). In: al-Hilāl 5.3 (Oct. 1, 1896), pp. 82–90, here p. 90. 31 Cf. al-Sayyid ʿAbdallāh Nadīm [«Tārīkh al-shahr / Wafayāt» feature]. In: al-Hilāl 5.5 (Nov. 1, 1896), p. 198. 244 Barbara Winckler where we can indeed find the name, profession and city of origin of several persons who made this request. This is followed by Zaydān’s reply, which embraces the request while asking his readers, in turn, to provide him with a photograph of the deceased, since he could not find any.32 The biographical essay was finally published three months later (see fig. 3). Fig. 3: The death of ʿAbdallāh Nadīm: «Chronicle of the Month / Obituaries» («‫ وفيات‬/ ‫»تاريخ الشهر‬, left), «Questions and Suggestions» («‫»باب السؤال واالقتراح‬, middle), and «Most Famous Events and Greatest of Men» («‫»باب اشهر الحوادث واعظم الرجال‬, right). In: al-Hilāl 5.5 (Nov. 1, 1896), pp. 198 and 183, and 5.11 (Febr. 1, 1897), p. 401. Copy of the Campusbibliothek Freie Universität Berlin (signature: EL 2506). We cannot know for certain if the readers’ statements and submissions that Zaydān reports are real—the contemporary reader did not know that either. It might well be that some of them are invented and serve as an effective publishing strategy.33 Whether real or not, these forms of editor-reader interaction and cross-referencing between different parts of the journal figure among the strategies consciously used by Zaydān to keep readers involved and to stimulate their interest in future issues. In addition, Zaydān also relied on extra-textual activities to nourish and advertise his journal and other publications. Besides a section for advertisements within the journal, there was also an annual catalogue of publications of alHilāl press, a book store, a reading room, special offers and discounts for subscribers, and even a lottery.34 These forms of publicity and reader (or customer) acquisition and retention 32 Cf. al-Sayyid ʿAbdallāh Nadīm [«Bāb al-suʾāl wa-l-iqtirāh.» feature]. In: al-Hilāl 5.5 (Nov. 1, 1896), p. 183. 33 For a short discussion of the reliability of sources—particularly information provided by the journals’ editors themselves, which was often manipulated for their own benefit—cf. Ayalon (s. footnote 7), pp. 145f. 34 Cf. Holt (s. footnote 21), pp. 113–118. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 245 demonstrate that publishing was not only an intellectual and educational endeavour, but also a commercial enterprise, and that both elements were mutually interdependent. 2.3 Archiving Practices: From Ephemeral Publication to Reference Work Although the periodical press is most often considered a day-to-day form of publication, the apparently ephemeral nature of the press is only partially applicable to the periodicals of the Nahda period. Some of them are rather to be perceived as reference works, not least due to their encyclopaedic character and cultural-scientific orientation. This becomes manifest, for example, through advertisements or references within the journals, which inform readers about the possibility of having their journal issues bound, most commonly by the journal’s own printing press.35 While we still do not know much about contemporary reading practices or about collecting practices, there is clear evidence that readers/subscribers had their individual issues bound at the end of the year. It was also possible to purchase an annual volume at a later date. In today’s libraries, not least at Western universities, we usually find these annual volumes, which come with a separate title page and sometimes an index. The fact that these editions were at least partly intended to address a foreign audience, among them Western Orientalists, is evident in the use of foreign languages on the title page. In the first volume of al-Hilāl, for example, the title page indicates, both in Arabic and English, the journal’s title, editor, thematic orientation and annual subscription price, as well as the address of the al-Hilāl printing press (see fig. 4). The volume is said to be the «Second Edition» of the first year, «From September 1892 – August 1893», printed in 1898, i.e. roughly five years after its first publication. The journal thus clearly encourages two distinct reading practices: the successive reading of «single numbers separated by time»36 and the parallel, «temporally autonomous»37 reading that is made possible by the availability of «bound volumes on the library shelves».38 As will be discussed in the second part of this paper, not all the journals of the time, however, were bound or sold as annual volumes and thus preserved as a ‹work›. 35 36 37 38 Cf. Ayalon (s. footnote 7), p. 207. Beetham (s. footnote 5), p. 96. As mentioned above, I borrow this term from Kaminski / Ramtke / Zelle (s. footnote 20), p. 25. Beetham (s. footnote 5), p. 96. Holt points out that the annual volumes of al-Hilāl differed considerably from the individual issues: In the reprint of the first year, for example, a portrait picture has been updated, several advertisements are replaced by others, and a serialised novel has been omitted. Cf. Holt (s. footnote 21), pp. 115f. 246 Barbara Winckler Fig. 4: Title page of second edition/annual volume of al-Hilāl’s first year (Sept. 1892–Aug. 1893), al-Hilāl Printing Office, Cairo 1898. Copy of the Campusbibliothek Freie Universität Berlin (signature: EL 2506). How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 247 3. Speaking to Her Homeland’s Women (and Men): Editorials in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda (Beirut, 1921–27) The journal that I will be discussing in this part differs from al-Hilāl in several respects. The women’s magazine al-Marʾa al-Jadīda [The New Woman] was published in Beirut between 1921 and 1927 (see fig. 5).39 The journal is considered one of the first women’s journals published in Lebanon.40 It was edited by Jūliyā T.uʿma Dimashqiyya (1882–1954),41 who had worked as a teacher in her early adult years. Before founding the journal, she hosted a literary salon in Beirut, which can be considered a performative equivalent of the journal. She also was the head of several women’s associations, including Jāmiʿat al-Sayyidāt [The Women’s League]. All these activities are closely related: al-Marʾa al-Jadīda was declared to be «the organ of Jāmiʿat al-Sayyidāt»;42 several speeches or lectures published in the journal were originally presented to the association; and most of the authors were regular attendees of her salon. al-Marʾa al-Jadīda is considered one of the most influential women’s journals 39 In the only existing monograph on the journal’s editor, Jūliyā T.uʿma Dimashqiyya, Michel Jih.ā states that the last issue of al-Marʾa al-Jadīda was published at the end of 1926. Cf. Mīshāl Jih.ā: Jūliyā T.uʿma Dimashqiyya. Beirut 2003, p. 37. However, the journal continued to be published well into 1927. The last issue I was able to consult in 2017 in the Bibliothèque Orientale of the Saint Joseph University of Beirut was the May issue of the year 1927. As will be explained below (see section 3.3), not all issues of al-Marʾa al-Jadīda are preserved in the library. In the following, I will thus quote from and refer to the monograph/anthology published by Jih.ā in case the issue in question is lacking in the library’s holdings. 40 In Egypt, the women’s press had emerged much earlier, starting with al-Fatāt [The Young Woman], founded in 1892 in Alexandria by the Syrian immigrant Hind Nawfal (ca. 1869–1920). Cf. Baron (s. footnote 9), p. 16. The first Beirut-based women’s journal is said to be al-H . asnāʾ, edited by Jurjī Niqūlā Bāz (1882–1959) from 1909 to 1912. Cf. ibid., p. 77 and Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 19. 41 Since biographical information on Julia Dimashqiyya is almost entirely unavailable in English, I here present a short summary of her life and work: Jūliyā T.uʿma Dimashqiyya was born in Mukhtāra, a small town in the Chouf District of Mount Lebanon. She had the chance to attend schools in Sidon and Choueifat, where she received a teaching diploma. She worked as a teacher in several schools, first in Palestine, then in Lebanon, and became the director of the Islamic Maqased School (Madrasat alMaqās.id al-Islāmiyya) in Beirut. In 1913, she married Badr Dimashqiyya, a renowned Sunni Beiruti, thus entering into an interfaith marriage. For several years, she hosted a literary salon (muntadā) in their private home, located in the confessionally mixed neighbourhood Ra’s Beirut. The salon was frequented by some of the most renowned writers and intellectuals of the time. In 1917, she founded Jāmiʿat alSayyidāt [The Women’s League], an association of educated women of different denominations who met once a month in her private home to discuss women’s rights and other issues. In 1921, she founded the women’s magazine al-Marʾa al-Jadīda [The New Woman], which became the official organ of Jāmiʿat al-Sayyidāt. In 1925–26, she started publishing two spin-off periodicals: the newspaper al-Nadīm [The Confidant] and the children’s magazine Samīr al-S.ighār [The Children’s Companion], which evolved out of the children’s feature of the same title in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda. In 1927, Julia Dimashqiyya stopped publishing her journal, for financial and health reasons, but continued to be involved in social and cultural causes, both in civic associations and through publishing in the periodical press. Seven years before her death, in 1947, she was honoured with the Lebanese Order of Merit. For further—sometimes contradictory—biographical information, see Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), pp. 11–35 and Nāzik Sābā Yārid / Nuhā Bayūmī: al-Kātibāt al-lubnāniyyāt: Bībliyūghrāfiyā 1850–1950. Beirut/London 2000, pp. 51–53. 42 See, for example, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 4.1/2 (Jan./Feb. 1924), no page number (back of the title page). In Arabic, the phrase reads as follows: «‫»لسان حال جامعة السيدات‬. 248 Barbara Winckler of the time. Its editor played an active part in Beiruti society and was committed not only to women’s rights and education, but also to various other social, political and cultural causes. The journal was published three decades after al-Hilāl’s debut in another city and country, which entails a different political and social context, as well as a different use of media. In the first few decades of the 20th century, Arabic journals developed from text-dominant content to illustrated magazines, which included more and more pictures, but also various text types speaking to different interests and resulting in different reading practices.43 Compared to al-Hilāl, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda also addressed a different readership: mainly women in various stages of their lives. The journal’s masthead, at the top of the first page, explicitly points to its intended function and addressees, stating that the journal is meant to be «the mother’s book, the wife’s guide, the young woman’s mirror, the child’s companion».44 The masthead also states that the goal of the journal is «to spread the spirit of an education of independence, to enhance family life, and to elevate the Arab woman, in sciences, ethics and society» (see fig. 6).45 Despite these indications, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda was not exclusively addressed to women, but sometimes explicitly spoke to male readers, discussing general social and cultural issues and calling on men to support women’s education and liberation. Moreover, a number of male figures, among them some of the most famous authors and intellectuals of the time, regularly contributed to the journal.46 Every issue of al-Marʾa al-Jadīda starts with an opening article written by the editor.47 These texts can be productively analysed with regard to seriality and journal-specific forms of communication. In the absence of reliable evidence about the actual reading process, I will discuss how the form and style chosen by Julia Dimashqiyya for her editorials potentially affect reading practices. 43 Looking at the emergence of the illustrated magazine in interwar Egypt and how it necessitated novel reading practices, Walter Armbrust argues that concepts like flow, remediation and hypertextuality, which are often attributed to television and the Internet, help us to understand the cultural and sensory impact of this earlier medium. Walter Armbrust: Meandering Through the Magazine: Print Culture(s) and Reading Practices in Interwar Egypt. In: Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 15. 1–2 (2022, forthcoming), special issue «Media Transitions and Cultural Debates in Arab Societies: Transhistorical Perspectives on the Impact of Communication Technologies», eds. Teresa Pepe / Barbara Winckler. 44 See, for example, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 3.7 (July 1923), p. 225. In the Arabic original, the quote reads as follows: «‫ سميرة الولد‬/ ‫ مرآة الفتاة‬/ ‫ مرشد الزوجة‬/ ‫»كتاب األ ّم‬ 45 Ibid. The Arabic original reads as follows: ّ ‫»مجلّةٌ غايتها‬ «‫بث روح التربية االستقاللية وتحسين الحياة العائلية وترقية المرأة العربية علميّا وأدبيّا واجتماعيّا‬ 46 Jih.ā lists more than thirty authors who wrote for the journal, including Amīn al-Rayh.ānī, Ah.mad Shawqī, Salīm Sarkīs, Mīkhāʾīl Nuʿayma, Khalīl Mut.rān, Mayy Ziyāda and Mārī ʿAjamī. The number of male authors exceeded by far that of female authors. Jih.ā counts 34 male versus 16 female authors in 1924 and 63 male versus 12 female authors in 1925. Cf. Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), pp. 45–47. 47 She exceptionally cedes the place to another (male) writer in only two issues. For a discussion of one of these two cases, see section 3.2 below. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 249 3.1 Seriality/Sequentiality: Monthly Letters for the Benefit of Women and the Nation The editorials in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda— just like the biographical essays in alHilāl—are short, formally self-contained texts. However, by virtue of the fact that the first pages of the journal are always occupied by the (almost) unvarying form of address «Ilā ibnat bilādī» [To my homeland’s daughter], the texts implicitly form a series. Moreover, the choice of typography and text layout for this phrase highlights its function as a title or even a feature title (see fig. 6).48 Akin to my argument on the biography feature in al-Hilāl, the prominent position on the first pages of the journal indicates the importance accorded to this series of texts. The editorials broach and discuss a Fig. 5: Cover page of al-Mar’a al-Jadīda 3.9 (Sept. wide range of topics that the editor con1923). Copy of the Bibliothèque Orientale, Saint Joseph University of Beirut (Lebanon) (signature: 184F4/183D2). siders crucial to her journal’s readership, to society as a whole and to its female readers, in particular. Among the main topics discussed in the editorials are questions related to a woman’s role and place in society, particularly women’s rights and education, but also to her role and position in the family, which is considered to be the core of society. Education is a central topic, particularly the education of girls, both in the sense of knowledge acquisition and character building (taʿlīm and tarbiya). Several articles discuss issues related to married life, domestic duties and the role of the mother in educating children. Although Julia Dimashqiyya 48 In earlier issues of the journal, the phrase is centred and set in a bigger font size, while, later on, it was even ornamented in the style of Arabic calligraphy. For the former style, see, for example, earlier issues of the year 1923; for the latter, later issues starting from September 1923. The ornamented style was often used for feature titles in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda—a practice also known from other journals, including those published in earlier decades, such as al-Hilāl. 250 Barbara Winckler speaks in favour of marriage by encouraging her readers to seek the well-being of all family members and to assume responsibility for the ‹natural order› (i.e. the role of women as mothers and wives), she emphasises the importance of preserving women’s right to choose between married and unmarried life and of raising children, particularly girls, in a way that fits their individual character. She often speaks in favour of a simple, productive life in the service of the family and nation, and she regularly calls on her readers to contribute to these kinds of discussions, both in the pages of her journal and in society, not least through women’s associations. Unlike the Egyptian women’s movement, which prioritised the demand for political participation, Julia Dimashqiyya argues that, before entering polFig. 6 : Journal’s masthead and ornamented title of feature/ itics, women should get men’s editorial «To my homeland’s daughter» («‫)»الى ابنة بالدي‬. In: al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 3.9 (Sept. 1923), n. p. [p. 305]. Copy of acknowledgement of their work the Bibliothèque Orientale, Saint Joseph University of Beirut at home. It is important to note (Lebanon) (signature: 184F4/183D2). that she addresses not only the middle-class housewife, but also the working woman, both educated and uneducated women. One of the main characteristics of these editorials is that they question prevailing beliefs and attitudes. They demand that women be self-confident, not only about claiming their rights, but also to be self-critical and abandon bad habits, such as wasting time and money on fashion and appearances. In some of the texts, Julia Dimashqiyya explicitly addresses male readers, explaining to them why they were partly to blame for these kinds of negative female behaviour and how they could support women’s liberation. Despite her unambiguous support for women’s rights, she was cautious not to demand what could be considered too radical a change. It is important to note that the editorials are not limited How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 251 to women’s issues, but constantly call on both men and women to work towards the unity, progress and independence of the nation. Thus, the editorials do not summarise or comment on the articles published in each respective issue, but rather discuss relevant topics independently. The connections between the individual editorials are definitely stronger than those between an editorial and the contents of the same journal issue. Julia Dimashqiyya explicitly presents her editorials as a regular «letter» or «message» (risāla) to her readers or even as a constant «conversation» (h.adīth). She regularly refers to the editorials of previous or future issues, often picking up on a discussion or thoughts with which she had been dealing in a previous issue. In the July issue of the first year, the editorial begins as follows: My lady: The circumstances force me to continue my last conversation with you [fem.], especially since my aim with this monthly message is but to convey to you the thoughts, sayings and deeds that are gathered in my memory and that touch your present life, while being significant to you and me in adapting and coordinating our role as women at the outset of our independent living.49 These texts are thus to be considered a feature in its own right, rather than an introduction to a specific issue and its contents. Throughout the run of the journal, they are to be read as a series of lessons on how both educated and less educated women at various stages of their lives can have a meaningful way of life that offers them satisfaction, while, above all, serving the well-being of their families and the progress of the nation. 3.2 Journal-Specific Forms of Communication: An Intimate Conversation and Collective Effort As already mentioned, Julia Dimashqiyya presents her editorials as a continuous conversation with the journal’s readers. However, direct author-reader interaction on the pages of al-Marʾa al-Jadīda is not as evident as it was in al-Hilāl. Ordinary readers’ voices are rarely to be found, at least in an unmediated form, since the journal does not have a regular readers’ letters feature. However, while most of the texts published in al-Hilāl were authored by the editor, a large number of texts in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda are written by other authors —possibly readers of the journal or, as mentioned above, attendees of Julia Dimashqiyya’s salon or members of her other associations. We thus find references to interaction between 49 al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 1.4 (July 1921), quoted from Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 97 (emphases are mine). The Arabic original reads as follows: ِ‫ ليس إالّ ألنقل إليك‬،‫ وخصوصا ً ان غرضي من هذه الرسالة الشهرية‬، ِ‫ ظروف الحال تضطرني لمتابعة حديثي األخير معك‬:‫»سيدتي‬ ‫ما يتج ّمع في ذاكرتي من األفكار واألقوال واألعمال التي تلمس حياتكِ الحاضرة ولها شأن يهمّكِ ويه ّمني في تكييف وتنسيق الدور‬ «.‫الذي نمثلهُ نحن النساء في مطلع حياتنا االستقاللية‬ The expression ‹[small] monthly letter/message› (‹risāla shahriyya [s.aghīra]›) is used on several occasions; see, for example, the editorial in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 3.1 (Jan. 1923), quoted from Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 167. 252 Barbara Winckler the editor and readers or guest authors that happened outside of the journal, during meetings of the associations or cultural events, rather than the sort of cross-referencing between different parts of the journal that is found in al-Hilāl. In other words, the form and range of discussion and interaction are framed by the form of publication and distribution of the journal: In contrast to al-Hilāl—which, as we have seen, stands out due to its global distribution, reaching not only various cities in Egypt, Syria and the Arab world, but also the US, and thus facilitating communication between people who never met—al-Marʾa al-Jadīda mainly spoke to a local or regional public. This is reflected, for example, in the opening phrase that addresses the readers, which explicitly mentions the «homeland» («bilādī»), as well as in the contents of the editorials and articles, which usually discuss the local context, despite dealing with topics of general relevance such as women’s education or family life. Whether or not the prevailing tone was the result of a real personal relationship between the editor and a significant group of readers, the ‹conversation› takes on a very personal, almost intimate character that is evident from the very opening address or the feature title, «To my homeland’s daughter». In most cases, Julia Dimashqiyya deliberately writes in the style of personal address, using the singular direct speech to talk to the individual woman, rather than to ‹women› as a category or a group. Moreover, she seeks to develop an intimate relationship with her readers, either by pointing out that they belong to the same homeland (even if some of them currently live abroad) or affectionately using very intimate forms of address such as «My dear» («Yā ʿazīzatī») or «My love» («Yā h.abībatī»). The editor thus emphasises the ‹friendship› that is assumed to have existed between the journal and its readers.50 It is important to note, however, that this emotional, often empathetic style must also be seen in the light of the prevailing romantic trend of the time.51 Besides the general use of this kind of expression, Julia Dimashqiyya often speaks to her readers as if addressing a specific person. Sometimes, the editorial is presented as a reply to a letter, a personal question posed by an individual reader or a reaction shared by some readers.52 In many cases, it is not clear if she is referring to a specific woman and a real event or if she is rather using this form of address as a rhetorical device to give the text a dialogical voice—an issue that we have already discussed with regard to al-Hilāl. Another related aspect is the editor’s effort to present her journal as an inclusive, even a collective undertaking. Julia Dimashqiyya regularly calls on her (female) readers to write her about something constructive, stressing the importance of exchanging ideas and experiences and emphasising her desire and need to learn from and with her readers. 50 See, for example, the New Year’s greetings in the first issue of the journal’s second year (Jan. 1922). 51 For a short overview of developments in and debates regarding prose style in modern Arabic literature, see, for example, Pierre Cachia: The Critics. In: M. M. Badawi (Ed.): Modern Arabic Literature. Cambridge 1992, pp. 417–442. 52 See, for example, the editorials of the issues 1.8 (Nov. 1921), 4.11 (Nov. 1924) and 1.5 (Aug. 1921), respectively. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 253 Although a number of famous writers and intellectuals, both male and female, contribute to the journal, she stresses that al-Marʾa al-Jadīda is not meant to be an erudite medium exclusively addressing well-educated readers. On the contrary, it is considered as «an itinerant school» («madrasa tawwāfa») or «domiciliary school» («madrasa baytiyya»),53 addressing readers of all ages and conditions and aiming to create a kind of ‹learning community›.54 Julia Dimashqiyya maintains this form of personal address in the rare editorials that are (formally) addressed to men and even in the short series of editorials that was published between July and December 1925 with a view to the upcoming elections and in which the editorial addresses the government. In this series of editorials, entitled «To my homeland’s ruler / and my homeland’s son» («Ilā h.ākim bilādī / wa-ibn bilādī»), she openly points to serious deficiencies in the educational system, particularly in relation to content, teaching methodologies, teacher training and the administration and inspection of schools, and she urges the ruler and deputies of Greater Lebanon to take action, particularly in favour of the education of girls.55 The editorials addressed to men start with a short preamble explaining to female readers the necessity and benefits of directly speaking to men (see fig. 7). She emphasises the need to point to specific problems and the measures to be taken, rather than repeating general statements about women’s rights and education. In particular, she calls on women to stand up for their own rights and to carry this debate forward with men. Read [fem.] this speech that I am addressing to him and help me speak to him with what you have got from arguments and statements.56 In these editorials, Julia Dimashqiyya appeals to men to treat women as equals, arguing that it is to men’s advantage if women are educated and take on an active role in society, as this would make them true partners of their husbands and distract them from futile activities. Moreover, it is men, she states, who prompt women to waste time and money in primping and preening to keep up with the latest fashions. In these texts, too, she maintains the tone of familiarity, while addressing the male reader as «son of my homeland» («ibn bilādī») or «my brother» («akhī»).57 53 al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 1.1 (April 1921), quoted from Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 91. 54 This intention is stressed in numerous editorials—most explicitly, in the very first issue (April 1921), in which she ‹imagines› six different types of readers: from the young girl to the loving mother, from the working woman to the uneducated wife to the intellectual woman author, whom she invites to cooperate with her in the effort to educate their less educated mothers, sisters and friends. In the first issue of the third year (Jan. 1923), she also stresses the collaborative character of the journal, expressing her indebtedness to her readers. 55 Cf. al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 5.7–12 (July–Dec. 1925). 56 al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 3.5 (May 1923), quoted from Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 169. The Arabic original reads as follows: «.‫ت من حج ٍة وبيان‬ ِ ‫»فاقرإي هذه الكلمة التي أوجهها إليه وساعديني على مخاطبته بنفسكِ أيضا ً بما أُوتي‬ 57 See, for example, the three successive editorials addressing the male reader, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 3.5–7 (May– July 1923). 254 Barbara Winckler Fig. 7: Editorial by guest author Salīm Sarkīs (left, two columns), preceded by the editor’s preamble to her female readers (right). In: al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 4.9 (Sept. 1924), pp. 377–378. Copy of the Bibliothèque Orientale, Saint Joseph University of Beirut (Lebanon) (signature: 184F4/183D2). Another exception is the editorial written by a guest author.58 In a short preamble addressed to her female readers, Julia Dimashqiyya presents the author of the editorial, the Lebanese writer and journalist Salīm Sarkīs (1867–1926), as an active supporter of women’s education and liberation. However, this does not stop her from opposing some of his views and refuting his criticism. In the following editorial, she thus makes it clear that she never called for radical change, but sought to free herself from the fetters of ignorance, while calling on men to accept her as equal partner and acknowledge the value of her work at home or in society.59 58 According to Jih.ā, only two editorials were written by guest authors: one by Būlus al-Khūlī (1876– 1948), professor at the American University of Beirut, which was published in May 1921; the other by Salīm Sarkīs, which was published in September 1924. Cf. Jih.ā (s. footnote 39), p. 40. 59 For Sarkīs’ editorial and the editor’s preamble and reply, see al-Marʾa al-Jadīda 4.9–10 (Sept.–Oct. 1924). How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 255 3.3 Archiving Practices: Discontinuous Transmission In contrast to al-Hilāl and other cultural-scientific journals, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda cannot be found in the libraries of Western universities; it is in fact hard to find the journal even in the Arab world. To my knowledge, the typically twelve issues of alMarʾa al-Jadīda were not bound in annual volumes.60 I had the chance to work with the journal in the Bibliothèque Orientale of the Saint Joseph University of Beirut, where the journal is preserved in individual issues. This archiving practice results in a discontinuous transmission, as grave lacunae can be found on different levels: Firstly, several issues are lacking entirely; secondly, individual pages were torn out; and thirdly, parts of pages Fig. 8: Page of cut-out picture from a biographical essay. In: alwere cut out, mainly pictures Marʾa al-Jadīda 4.9 (Sept. 1924), p. 382. Copy of the Bibliothèque Orientales, Saint Joseph University of Beirut (Lebanon) (signature: (see fig. 8). Although we can 184F4/183D2). conclude from this discontinuous transmission that al-Marʾa al-Jadīda was considered more of a day-to-day medium, more research has to be done in this field to have reliable information. Finally, while journals archived in bound volumes are clearly better preserved, this archiving practice has its disadvantages, since a number of elements, such as cover pages and advertisements, are lost in these editions. 60 It might be that the journal’s binding technique does not allow for that. I would like to thank Tom Gretton (University College London) for pointing to this material aspect in his commentary on my talk during the conference «Interrupted Reading – Follow-On Readings: Reading Journals», Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 17–19 September, 2018. 256 Barbara Winckler 4. Conclusion Given the lack of periodical research in the field of Arabic Studies, the shortage of (accessible) archival material in the Arab world and, as a result, the difficulties in providing evidence of readers’ practices, this paper examined the printed material published in the journal. Two journals with different orientations from different time periods were analysed with regard to seriality, journal-specific forms of communication and archiving practices. The periodical publishing mode that is typical for journals regularly involves ‹interrupted reading›, resulting in a ‹temporally heteronomous› reading experience. Seriality is a way for journal editors to deal with periodic interruption and find ways to produce coherence, in order to secure ‹follow-on readings›. In both journals, the texts on the first pages form a series that remained constant over the years. The conception of the biographies feature in al-Hilāl, the selection and grouping of the portrayed persons and the cross-referencing between the individual biographical essays, all enable the reader to connect between various topics and build up a continually growing, well-balanced stock of historical knowledge and a conception of proper conduct and life-management. The editorials in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda form a series of articles rather than an introduction to the specific issue, since, firstly, they are presented by the editor as ‹monthly letters› to her readers and, secondly, they raise topics that are considered crucial to her journal’s readership and to society as a whole. Questioning prevailing opinion and encouraging women to assume responsibility for their own lives and the well-being of their family and nation, as well as calling on men to contribute to women’s liberation and the progress of society, the editorials are to be read as a series of lessons for a meaningful way of life. While Julia Dimashqiyya’s editorials seem to be less didactic in tone, less normative, allowing for different ways of life, both editors use the potential of seriality to impart knowledge and values and to secure follow-up readings and stimulate the readers’ interest in future issues. The use of journal-specific forms of communication somewhat differs between the two journals. Jurjī Zaydān emphasises author-reader interaction, assigning the reader a seemingly active role by way of readers’ letters and requests he addresses to them. Julia Dimashqiyya addresses her readers in a distinctly personal, almost intimate way, while presenting the publishing (and reading) process as a continuous conversation between confidants or compatriots united in their concern for the welfare of the country and its people. Cross-referencing within the journal is prevalent in al-Hilāl, in which the content, except for readers’ letters, is almost exclusively written by the editor. In al-Marʾa alJadīda, a great number of guest authors contribute to a diversity of topics and opinions, but, in contrast to al-Hilāl, the direct interaction between the editor and the readers or the guest authors takes place beyond the borders of the journal: namely, when people actually meet in person, which is made possible through the journal’s mainly regional distribution. How Writing and Publishing Strategies Potentially Affect Reading Practices 257 Looking at archiving practices reveals considerable differences between the two journals. In the case of al-Hilāl, it might be more adequate to consider the seemingly ephemeral medium as a reference work, subscribers having their individual issues bound at the end of the year and others, such as Western libraries, purchasing annual volumes printed in later editions. Two distinct reading practices thus seem to be intended: the successive reading of ‹single numbers separated by time› and the parallel, ‹temporally autonomous› reading made possible by the availability of ‹bound volumes on the library shelves›. In contrast, al-Marʾa al-Jadīda can only be found in individual issues in a few libraries or private archives, and the collections are characterised by severe lacunae. However, this archiving practice also has an advantage, since cover pages, advertisements and other material are not cut off for bound volumes, but are at least partly preserved. I would like briefly to conclude by making reference to a terminology of paratextuality that is especially well-adapted to the needs of periodical research. In this context, paratextuality is understood as an ahierarchical, parallel relation of texts within a journal and the contiguity through which texts can semanticise each other. This can be examined synchronically or diachronically, i.e. within one issue or across several issues. A journal does not have a genuine centre; instead, what is central is defined by the current perspective of the reader and thus changes continually.61 This terminology can help us to analyse how various texts within a journal relate to each other and how this relation may be continually changing. As we have argued, both the biographical essays in al-Hilāl and the editorials in al-Marʾa al-Jadīda form a series and speak to each other, thus entering a paratextual relation. On the other hand, the texts published in the news section and the readers’ letters feature mainly refer to the biographical essays and can thus be considered their peritexts. What is gained by using this terminology is that the place and function of texts within a journal can be more clearly defined. The biographical essays and the editorials, as paratexts, are considered to have an informative value that is supposed to remain valid over time. By contrast, readers’ letters and current news—as peritexts that call for or look ahead to potentially future biographical essays or comment on previously published texts—seem rather to have a communicative function that is mainly relevant to the present moment. Studying journals with a focus on their crucial characteristics, such as publishing and reading practices and the interplay between them, and using a terminology developed specifically with regard to this medium could thus contribute to improving our understanding of how journals function as a form and institution, considering the periodical an ‹autonomous object of study›. 61 Cf. Kaminski / Ramtke / Zelle (s. footnote 20), pp. 32–38.