Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916
Available at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.17/March-2024/1.pdf
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Open Access
Spatial and temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks
in Algeria from 2014 to 2022
Meryem Guessoum1
, Mounir Adnane2
, Ratiba Baazizi3
, and Madina-Saliha Derguini4
1.Local Animal Resources Management Laboratory, National Veterinary School, BP161 El-Harrach, Algiers, Algeria;
2.Department of Biomedicine, Institute of Veterinary Sciences, University Ibn Khaldoun of Tiaret, Tiaret 14000, Algeria;
3.Department of Clinic, National Veterinary High School, ENSV, Algiers, Algeria; 4. Veterinary Inspection of Algiers,
Department of Agricultural Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Algeria.
Corresponding author: Meryem Guessoum, e-mail: m.guessoum@ensv.dz
Co-authors: MA: mounir.adnane@univ-tiaret, RB: r.baazizi@ensv.dz, MD: derguini.m.ms@gmail.com
Received: 28-11-2023, Accepted: 06-02-2024, Published online: 05-03-2024
doi: www.doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2024.509-517 How to cite this article: Guessoum M, Adnane M, Baazizi R, and
Derguini M (2024) Spatial and temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in Algeria from 2014 to 2022,
Veterinary World, 17(3): 509–517.
Abstract
Background and Aim: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), a major transboundary animal ailment in Algeria, is a serious
economic burden on the livestock sector. This study aimed to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of FMD in Algeria
and identifies the factors contributing to this phenomenon.
Materials and Methods: Data on FMD cases occurring in Algeria from 2014 to 2022 were collected from various sources,
including archives at the Ministry of Agriculture, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, reference
laboratory reports, and unpublished scientific reports. The data were compiled and analyzed using MS Office Excel® and
SPSS® software.
Results: A total of 22,690 FMD cases and 1,141 outbreaks were reported in Algeria between 2014 and 2022. The apex of
infections occurred in 2014 (34.5%), followed by an increase in the number of infections in 2019 and 2017. The prevalence
of FMD extended to 91.6% of the districts of the country, particularly in the north (center) and eastern regions. Cows were
the most affected, with 654 outbreaks and more than 3,665 cases. Although FMD affected all four regions, there was a
statistically significant long-term decline in the incidence.
Conclusion: These spatial and temporal trends underscore the robust disease control methodologies implemented by the
Algerian government, such as the strategic immunization of livestock to fortify their viral resistance, stringent constraints
on animal mobility, and enlightenment of farmers regarding the hazards associated with unrestricted livestock movement to
effectively curb FMD dissemination.
Keywords: control measures, distribution, foot-and-mouth disease, livestock, outbreaks.
Introduction
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that inflicts severe economic
losses on susceptible cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and various wildlife
species [1–3]. The causative agent of FMD is the
Aphthovirus genus belonging to the Picornaviridae
family [4]. This virus induces the formation of vesicular lesions on the feet, oral mucosa, and mammary
glands, which cannot be clinically distinguished from
other vesicular diseases such as vesicular stomatitis,
swine vesicular disease, and vesicular exanthema
of swine, all of which can exhibit comparable clinical indications [5]. The FMD virus (FMDV) exhibits antigenic diversity and includes seven recognized
distinct serotypes: A, O, C, Asia-1, and South African
Copyright: Guessoum, et al. Open Access. This article is
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://
creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data
made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916
Territories 1–3, each containing multiple subtypes
and strains [6]. Although there is no cross-protection
among the serotypes, there are notable serological
cross-reactions [3, 7, 8].
Affected animals usually show symptoms such
as fever, lameness, and vesicular lesions on the tongue,
snout, feet, and teats. In severe cases, the epithelium
may slough off, leading to rupture of vesicles and significant release of viral load [9]. The clinical manifestations of FMD may vary according to species,
particularly in sheep, where it is particularly difficult
to detect because of the lack of obvious symptoms.
Unrecognized FMD infections in sheep can rapidly
propagate outbreaks [10]. In most adult animals, FMD
is generally not considered a fatal disease. Although
it may lead to significant economic losses because of
reduced productivity and trade restrictions, it does not
usually lead to death in adult animals. However, FMD
may be more severe in young animals, particularly
in very young calves and lambs [11]. Young animals
are particularly vulnerable to FMD, and the current
trend in animal breeding, which focuses on efficient
and disease-sensitive animals, continues to jeopardize agricultural growth in many African countries.
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In addition, FMD outbreaks have resulted in significant restrictions on the export of animals and animal
products from affected countries [12]. The main consequences are reduced productivity, limited entry into
the market, widespread culling of animal populations,
adverse effects on biodiversity, and irreplaceable
loss of genetic resources. The World Organization
for Animal Health (OIE) has formalized an official
registry of disease-free countries and regions, underlining its profound global importance [13]. FMD is
not considered as a major zoonosis, however, in very
rare cases, people may be infected with FMDV, usually through direct contact with infected animals or
tissues. The resulting disease in humans is generally
mild and self-limiting, consisting of fever and blisters
on the hands and feet.
FMD is considered an endemic disease in specific regions worldwide, affecting extensive areas of
Africa, Asia, and South America. The geographical
distribution of each FMD serotype varies, with serotype O having the widest spread [14, 15]. Direct losses
caused by FMD, such as reduced milk and meat production, and indirect losses significantly impact the food
security and livelihoods of communities in low-income areas where FMD is prevalent [3, 13, 16, 17].
After the recurrence of FMD in Algeria in
2014, FMD continued to be a persistent problem,
and Algeria has been designated as an FMD-afflicted
region. Health authorities work diligently to eradicate
the disease, and breeders, veterinarians, and other
experts serve as the first line of defense in the detection chain. To mitigate the risk of the introduction and
spread of FMD, veterinary services have implemented
vaccination of cattle. Prophylactic measures included
the control of animal movements, vaccination in farms
and livestock markets, and strict control in slaughterhouses. These efforts have significantly reduced the
incidence of FMD in Algeria. The national control
plan recommended by the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OIE) serves as a strategy for FMD management in Algeria. This approach
requires a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution of FMD, which involves analyzing the monthly, yearly, and geographical clusters of
FMD outbreaks.
This study aimed to describe the epidemiology
of FMD in Algeria from 2014 to 2022, with a particular focus on evaluating the effectiveness of the control
measures implemented.
Materials and Methods
Ethics approval
Ethics approval was not applicable to this study.
Study period and location
The data were collected for FMD outbreaks
in Algeria from 2014 to 2022. Algeria, located in
North Africa, is the largest country on the African
continent and the tenth largest in the world. The border connects Tunisia to the northeast, Libya to the
Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916
east, Niger to the southeast, Mali to the southwest,
Mauritania and Western Sahara to the west, and
Morocco to the northwest. To the north, Algeria has a
coastline along the Mediterranean Sea. With an area of
2.3 million km2, Algeria is characterized by a diverse
geographical landscape, ranging from coastal areas
along the Mediterranean coast to vast desert areas in
the south.
The distribution of livestock production systems in Algeria varies significantly due to the country’s large geographical area, resulting in different
weather patterns in different regions, where small
ruminants are predominantly concentrated in the
steppes and dairy farms are more prevalent in coastal
regions [18, 19]. The livestock sector contributes
approximately 5%–10% of the total income of farmers, predominantly smallholders who represent 70% of
the livestock production in Algeria [20]. These small
farms in Algeria usually lack awareness about biosecurity measures, leading to unrestricted movement
of animals. In addition, limited access to information
on livestock management and veterinary services is
considered a significant constraint for livestock production activities.
National FMD surveillance data from 2014 to
2022 were obtained from the Department of Animal
Health (DAH) in the Algerian Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development (MADR). These national data
contain information on the number of cases, animal
species (cattle, goats, and sheep), identified serotypes,
and estimated outbreak dates and locations in communes, districts, and municipalities. The data were
collected by the local sub-DAH through passive surveillance on a daily/weekly basis. Most reported cases
were diagnosed on the basis of clinical observations
by local animal health professionals, whereas some
cases were confirmed through laboratory tests performed at the national level.
Data collection
Algeria is geographically divided into 48 wilayas,
which are equivalent to administrative provinces
or territorial communities. The country is divided
into four main administrative regions: central, western, eastern, and northern. These regions are further
divided into 160 sub-prefectures and 1540 communes.
Note that Algeria underwent a reorganization in 2021,
which resulted in the establishment of 58 departments.
However, it should be noted that this new distribution
in statistical services is yet to be fully implemented.
This study used a retrospective case series
approach to examine FMD. The data for this study
were collected from MADR and the Algerian Ministry
of Public Health (MPH). FMD was defined based on
clinical observation of characteristic lesions and confirmed through laboratory analysis.
Data on FMD cases in Algeria between 2014
and 2022 were collected from different sources. These
include peer-reviewed journal articles, conference
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proceedings, reference laboratory reports, unpublished
scientific reports, and gray literature. The gray literature
encompassed records from authoritative sources such as
the National Epidemiology Unit, the Central Veterinary
Research Laboratory’s Virology Database, annual
reports from the Ministry of Agriculture, and FMD
reports from the National Institute of Animal Health.
The case data consisted of details such as the date
of occurrence, location, number of cases, population
at risk (if available), serotype involved, type of vaccination, and type of vaccine used. Subsequently, outbreak information and livestock data were recorded in
Microsoft Excel 2010 (Microsoft Office, Washington,
USA) and analyzed using STATA version 14 software
(StataCorp. TX, USA).
Exclusion and inclusion criteria
Only FMD outbreaks in cattle, sheep, and goats
were identified as inclusion criteria in this study. This
information was limited to outbreaks occurred from
July 2014 to December 2022.
Statistical analysis
MS Office Excel® software was used to compile
and analyze data on the number of FMD cases and
outbreaks. Continuous data are presented as averages,
and categorical variables are presented as frequencies
and percentages. The SPSS® Statistics Version 20.0
(IBM Corp., NY, USA) enabled the use of a 5% confidence interval and Chi-square test. The difference was
significant when the p-value was 5%.
Results
Case distribution of FMD infections by years
From 2014 to 2022, there were 70,750 cases of
FMD in all 48 departments of Algeria. The highest
infection rate was observed in 2014 (p < 0.05), accounting for 34.5% of cases, followed by 2019 (15.3%),
2017 (13.3%), and 2018 (11.2%). In contrast, 2015
and 2022 exhibited the lowest infection rates of
2.9% and 5.4%, respectively (Figure-1). Of these,
80.1% (56,715 cases), 13.5% (9,592 cases), and 6.3%
(459 cases) were reported in sheep, cattle, and goats,
respectively (Figure-2).
Temporal distributions by years of FMD outbreaks
From July 2014 to the end of 2022, 1,141 FMD
outbreaks were recorded in Algeria. These outbreaks
occurred in 91.6% (44 out of 48) districts of the
country (Figure-3). The highest number of outbreaks
(p = 0.001) was reported in 2014 (40.9%), followed
by 2019 (24.1%). On the other hand, 2015 exhibited the lowest outbreaks at 2.1% and 2022 at 3.5%
(Figure-1).
Regional distributions and temporal patterns of FMD
cases
During the study period, the northern (center)
region reported the highest number of outbreaks (460
outbreaks; 40.3%), followed by the eastern region (382
outbreaks; 33.4%) (Figure-3). The southern and western regions had the lowest number of outbreaks, with
156 (13.6%) and 143 (12.5%) outbreaks, respectively.
Significant regional variations were observed
in the number of reported outbreaks within the same
year (p = 0.05) (Figure-4). In 2014, 257 cases (55%)
occurred in the central region, followed by 183 cases
(38.7%) in the eastern region. Similar trends emerged
in 2017 and 2018, with the central and eastern regions
being the most affected regions. In 2015, the southern
region experienced the highest outbreak rate (91.6%).
Notably, in 2019 and 2022, the eastern region faced
the highest impact, with 82 outbreaks (29.4%) and 21
outbreaks (56.7%), respectively (Figures-4 and 5).
In 2014, the highest incidence of infection was
observed in cattle, with 2,755 of 7,083 cows showing
clinical symptoms in the outbreak regions (Figure-2).
A cumulative incidence of 1,009 affected cows was
observed in the district of Setif in the northeastern part
of the country (Figure-4). Adjacent areas such as TiziOuzou, Bejaia, Mila, and Bouira also reported varying
infection rates (Figure-3). Suspected cases of FMD
30000
40%
35%
25000
30%
20000
25%
20%
15000
15%
10000
10%
5000
0
5%
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
No. of outbreaks
467
24
0
128
207
278
0
0
37
No. of suspected
8020
5490
0
3167
28353 24211
0
0
1509
No. of affected
2767
159
0
420
3173
3694
0
0
82
Infection rate
35%
3%
0%
13%
11%
15%
0%
0%
5%
0%
Figure-1: Annual foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks, suspected cases, and affected cases recorded in Algeria between
2014 and 2022. N°= number.
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511
Number of suspected cases
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In 2022, there were 37 reported FMD outbreaks.
Out of 1,509 suspected cases, 82 were confirmed,
with 80 cases affecting cattle. Table-1 summarizes
FMD outbreaks and cases from 2014 to 2022.
30000
25000
20000
15000
Discussion
10000
This study identifies the temporal and spatial patterns of FMD in Algeria from 2014 to 2022. The disease remained prevalent throughout the study period,
with notable peaks in 2014, 2018, and 2019. Algeria
is listed as an FMD-endemic country, and the disease
continues to pose economic and productivity challenges [21]. During the study period, 1,141 outbreaks
were recorded, with an average annual incidence of
138.8 outbreaks. The distribution of outbreaks was
extensive, covering almost all regions, with a higher
incidence in the central and eastern regions.
In 1999, there was a call for increased alertness
in all Algerian regions, leading to a comprehensive
active monitoring of farms. All veterinary professionals were mobilized and strictly adhered to the biosafety measures. Media channels have been used to
raise awareness, emphasizing farmers’ participation
in disease prevention and control programs to protect
livestock. All cattle affected on the farms were culled,
and the owners received appropriate compensation
from the local government. In addition, enhanced
surveillance activities covered a 10-km radius of the
outbreak zone. Extensive vaccination campaigns
included 1.4 million cattle and 160,551 boosters every
month. In addition, 600,000 sheep and 34,733 goats
were vaccinated around the outbreak areas. Since
1999, Algeria has reported no FMD cases [22].
On July 23, 2014, an FMD outbreak was detected
in the Setif district, eastern Algeria, near the Tunisian
border [23, 24]. The outbreak originated on a cattle farm
and was linked to the illegal introduction of animals
from Tunisia. Subsequent testing identified the virus
as part of the O/MESA/Ind2001d lineage, which is
closely related to strains isolated during Tunisia’s 2014
FMD outbreaks [22]. The outbreak spreads rapidly, and
cases were documented in many districts. Since late
August, more than 350 outbreaks have been officially
registered in 33 different districts. Notably, none of the
documented cases involved cattle, with no clinical or
serological evidence of FMD in small ruminants.
To limit the spread of the disease, regional
authorities have put in place a national emergency
vaccination program targeting cattle. In addition,
imports of susceptible animal species from high-risk
countries have been temporarily suspended. Rigorous
sanitary measures, such as the isolation of infected
animals, hygienic slaughter procedures, and thorough
disinfection, have been rigorously enforced within
households and their surroundings. These comprehensive measures effectively halt the transmission of the
disease and prevent the emergence of new cases.
In 2015, there was a significant decrease in
the number of recorded outbreaks, which could be
5000
0
cow
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
7083
sheep 817
goat
120
46
0
904
0
0
255
5350
0
2063 25821 21624
1116
172
0
0
1040
94
0
200
0
0
214
1416 2415
Figure-2: Annual distribution of foot-and-mouth disease
cases reported in Algeria, by species, during 2014–2022.
Figure-3: Spatial distribution of foot-and-mouth disease in
the districts of Algeria (2014–2022). The map depicts the
district-level administration divisions represented by gray
lines. The shaded area highlights the cumulative reports
of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in each district from
2014 to 2022, providing an overview of the disease’s
distribution across the country over the specified period
[Source: The base map was adopted from https://www.
pngegg.com/en/png-chhsm, accessed November 5, 2023].
were observed in 200 goats and 1,572 sheep, with the
El-Bayadh region reporting the highest infection rate
among sheep, affecting 142 animals.
In 2017, 128 FMD outbreaks were detected in
different regions, with distribution as follows: 35%
(45/128) in the central region, 28% (36/128) in the
east, 20% (21/128) in the west, and 16% (21/128) in the
south. Of the 420 confirmed cases, 59.3% (249 cases)
were observed in cattle, whereas 40.7% (171 cases)
were identified in small ruminants. In 2018, the majority of FMD outbreaks occurred in the northern regions
of the country, with some outbreaks also reported in
the western and southeastern regions. Overall, a total
of 207 FMD outbreaks affected 580 ruminants.
In 2019, 278 FMD outbreaks were reported. The
highest number of outbreaks occurred in the eastern
region (29.5%), followed closely by the central and
western regions. Small ruminants showed the highest
susceptibility, with 24,039 clinically diagnosed cases.
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140
No. of outbreaks
120
100
80
60
40
20
adrar
Chlef
Laghouat
Oum El Bouaghi
Batna
Béjaïa
Biskra
Béchar
Blida
Bouira
Tamanrasset
Tébessa
Tlemcen
Tiaret
Tizi Ouzou
Alger
Djelfa
Jijel
Sétif
Saïda
Skikda
Sidi Bel Abbès
Annaba
Guelma
Constantine
Médéa
Mostaganem
M'Sila
Mascara
Ouargla
Oran
El Bayadh
Illizi
Bordj Bou Arreridj
Boumerdès
El Tarf
Tindouf
Tissemsilt
El Oued
Khenchela
Souk Ahras
Tipaza
Mila
Aïn Defla
Naâma
Aïn Témouchent
Ghardaïa
Relizane
0
Districts
2014
2015
2017
2018
2019
2022
Total
Figure-4: Spatial distribution of foot-and-mouth disease in Algerian districts during 2014–2022.
Number of outbreaks
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
center
257
0
0
45
66
77
0
0
15
East
183
0
0
36
60
82
0
0
21
West
17
2
0
26
24
74
0
0
0
south
10
22
0
21
57
45
0
0
1
Figure-5: Distribution of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks
in Algerian regions and per year during 2014–2022.
attributed to extensive vaccination campaigns initiated
in response to the 2014 outbreaks. Together with the
early detection and culling of affected animals, these
efforts are likely to have contributed to the decline in
reported cases. Notably, a significant number of cases
have been reported in western Algeria, coincident with
the official outbreak of FMD in Morocco, involving
the same serovar (O) [25].
According to the literature, sheep are typically
asymptomatic or exhibit mild symptoms of FMD,
yet they play a key role in transmitting the virus to
more vulnerable ruminants, especially cattle [26].
However, some studies have indicated that sheep can
also develop clinical signs of FMD because of the
high mutation rate of the virus [27]. The absence of
FMD outbreaks reported in Algeria in 2016 suggests
the effectiveness of the control measures implemented
after the 2014–2015 epidemic.
In 2017, Algeria reported a new outbreak of
FMD associated with a different strain, specifically serotype A. Four outbreaks associated with
FMD serotype A occurred in the northern part of the
country [28]. Subsequently, virus samples were forwarded to the OIE reference laboratory in Brescia,
Italy (IZSLER), for confirmation and genetic lineage
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identification through sequence analysis. Phylogenetic
analysis focusing on the VP1 coding gene revealed
that FMDV serotype A detected in Algeria belonged
to the A/Africa topotype, specifically falling within
lineage G-IV. This lineage is endemic to sub-Saharan
countries. Genetic analysis revealed that the closest
genetic relatives of this Algerian serotype A virus are
type A isolates from Nigeria dating back to 2015.
The FMD World Reference Laboratory at the
Pirbright Institute conducted vaccine-matching tests
to identify the most suitable vaccine strain for potential use against a specific identified strain. According
to the 2017 Biennial Report submitted by the Algerian
authorities, a significant preventive vaccination campaign was conducted between July and December
2017. This large-scale vaccination campaign targeted
almost two million cattle and involved the administration of a bivalent vaccine intended to confer immunity
against serotypes A and O. However, the report did not
specify the effectiveness of this vaccine against the
previously identified strain. There is a need for further
clarification and research to determine the efficacy of
the vaccine against these specific FMD strains.
Since July 9, 2018, Algerian veterinary authorities have reported a worrying resurgence of FMD,
with nine new outbreaks documented across various
regions in the northern part of the country. In response,
many strict control measures have been swiftly implemented, including the culling of infected animals,
strict restrictions on livestock movement, thorough
disinfection of affected farms, and establishment of
strict surveillance protocols both within and outside
designated containment and protection zones [29].
Serotype O, belonging to the East Africa 3 topotype,
was the FMD strain identified in these outbreaks [29].
Notably, FMD exhibited rapid transmission, with
207 FMD outbreaks detected. The Tizi-Ouzou region
emerged as the epicenter of this outbreak, which was
characterized by an alarmingly elevated infection rate.
In this region, cattle species were the most affected by
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Table-1: Annual outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease, suspected cases, affected cases, animal species and regional
occurrence in Algeria (2014–2022).
Year
Animal
species
Region
Number of
outbreaks
Number of
suspected cases
Number of
affected animals
Infection
rate (%)
2014
Cow
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
238
155
15
7
12
18
1
1
7
10
1
2
0
0
0
5
0
0
2
10
0
0
0
7
32
32
22
14
9
3
4
4
4
1
0
3
50
23
11
9
12
26
10
30
4
11
3
18
5
8
6
3
49
46
42
27
23
28
26
15
11
8
0
0
2620
4050
372
41
279
531
1
6
73
39
1
7
0
0
0
46
0
0
460
4890
0
0
0
94
127
302
401
74
575
60
716
712
42
8
0
150
423
414
116
163
1095
10219
2205
12302
87
531
93
705
8
56
100
8
3683
7355
6746
3840
394
790
986
245
114
141
0
0
1161
1458
115
21
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
16
142
0
0
0
0
0
95
136
18
17
2
4
132
2
0
0
14
327
143
34
76
81
780
266
1405
18
6
2
35
0
0
0
0
628
1055
1107
617
96
79
82
30
72
8
0
0
44.3
36.0
30.9
51.2
4.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.2
0.0
0.0
3.5
2.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
31.5
33.9
24.3
3.0
3.3
0.6
18.5
4.8
0.0
0.0
9.3
77.3
34.5
29.3
46.6
7.4
7.6
12.1
11.4
20.7
1.1
2.2
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
17.1
14.3
16.4
16.1
24.4
10.0
8.3
12.2
63.2
5.7
0.0
0.0
Sheep
Goat
2015
Cow
Sheep
Goat
2017
Cow
Sheep
Goat
2018
Cow
Sheep
Goat
2019
Cow
Sheep
Goat
2022
Cow
(Contd...)
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Table-1: (Continued).
Year
Animal
species
Region
Number of
outbreaks
Number of
suspected cases
Number of
affected animals
Infection
rate (%)
Sheep
Center
East
West
South
Center
East
West
South
2
8
0
1
2
5
0
0
16
989
0
35
4
210
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Goat
the disease, with an average infection rate of 49.5%.
In contrast, sheep and goats exhibited infection rates
of 10.1% and 7.7%, respectively.
Tizi-Ouzou, known for significant dairy production in Algeria, witnessed a notable spread of FMDV,
potentially attributed to livestock trade within animal
market. FMDV, characterized by rapid replication
within infected animals and transmission to susceptible
animals in close proximity, including through aerosol
transmission, likely contributed to the extensive outbreak in Tizi-Ouzou [1]. As in the case of previous
outbreaks, immediate vaccination campaigns targeting
cattle with a bivalent vaccine containing serotypes A
and O were launched following the identification of this
disease. Temporary closure of livestock markets has
been conducted, and newly acquired animals have been
placed under quarantine as part of the control measures.
In 2019, Algeria reported 278 FMD outbreaks
with no clinical infection in bovine species; however,
3,694 confirmed cases occurred in sheep. In addition, there was a relatively high incidence of infection
among goats, affecting 287 animals. These findings
are mainly based on comprehensive veterinary control
measures targeting cattle populations across multiple
wilayas. All essential preventive measures have been
rigorously enforced to prevent this epizootic disease
and minimize the risk of livestock infection. Despite
the stringent implementation of preventive measures
and directives regarding the culling of infected animals, resistance persists among some farmers, presenting a challenge to containment efforts.
Inspection teams have successfully mobilized all
necessary human and material resources to effectively
control disease outbreaks, with particular emphasis on
enclaves and border regions. To ensure effective control of animal health in the region, officials have called
for involving relevant authorities and associations.
Coordination meetings were held with livestock breeders
to assess herd sensitivity and locations, strategize vaccination campaigns, outline preventive measures necessary
to protect animal health in border areas, and coordinate
the mobilization of mixed brigades in cooperation with
Saharawi refugees to vaccinate valuable animals.
Algeria remained free from reported FMD outbreaks in 2020 and 2021, underscoring the continued effectiveness of comprehensive FMD control
measures implemented in response to the 2018–2019
Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916
outbreaks. However, a resurgence occurred in 2022,
with 37 outbreaks reported in nine provinces. Among
ruminant species, bovines exhibited the highest average infection rate, emphasizing the persistent need for
vigilance and effective FMD control strategies.
The recurrence of FMD outbreaks in Algeria can
be attributed to different factors. Insufficient vaccination coverage in susceptible animal populations is a significant contributor to FMD outbreak recurrence [30].
Challenges, such as inadequate vaccination campaigns
and difficulties in reaching remote areas, can lead to
the existence of pockets of vulnerable animals [31],
highlighting the need for comprehensive vaccination
programs. In addition, the persistence of FMDV in
the environment, particularly in contaminated equipment, clothing, or vehicles, can introduce the virus to
new areas or herds even after initial control [32]. This
highlights the need for strict biosecurity measures to
prevent virus transmission through fomites and other
environmental sources.
In addition, wild animals, especially cloven-hoofed species, can sometimes act as reservoirs
for FMDV [33], emphasizing their role in carrying and
transmitting the virus to domestic livestock. Movement
of infected animals or contaminated products between
regions can facilitate the geographical spread of FMD.
Moreover, considerations related to the virus itself are
crucial. Recent research indicates that FMD virus can
undergo genetic changes, potentially leading to the
emergence of new strains or serotypes [34]. These
genetic variants may not be effectively covered by
existing vaccines, leading to recurrence. To address the
evolving nature of the virus, ongoing surveillance and
vaccine development efforts are essential.
In addition, favorable temperature and humidity
conditions create an environment conducive to the
survival and transmission of the FMDV [35]. These
conditions can enhance the persistence of the virus
in the environment, potentially leading to increased
transmission. Furthermore, human activities such as
handling infected animals, improper disposal of carcasses, and accidental virus release from laboratories
contribute to the recurrence of FMD outbreaks. These
activities pose a risk of introducing the virus into new
areas or populations and highlight the need for strict
biosecurity measures and responsible practices to mitigate these risks.
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Conclusion
References
The temporal distribution of FMD in Algeria
from 2014 to 2022 showed significant variability,
which was influenced by factors such as inadequate
control measures, difficulties in regulating livestock
movements, changes in diagnostic procedures, and
free trade policies. In view of the significant economic
impact and transboundary nature of the disease, these
findings highlight the need for the Algerian government to strengthen regional control programs and
surveillance systems. To effectively combat FMD in
Algeria, a multifaceted approach is recommended.
First, comprehensive education initiatives for cattle
farmers should focus on the benefits of vaccination and
active participation in control programs. Concurrently,
consider the re-establishment of quarantine stations
to monitor the movement of cattle and prevent disease spread. In addition, significant investment in the
development of a novel vaccine offering long-term
protection and reduced post-vaccination responses is
crucial. This technological advancement would substantially enhance FMD prevention and control efforts
in the country. Implementing these strategies together
can mitigate the impact of FMD and protect the livestock industry in Algeria, thus contributing to regional
and international FMD control efforts.
1.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Authors’ Contributions
MG, MA, MD, and RB: Played essential roles
in collecting official statistics and analyzing official
records. MG, MA, and MD: Initiated and guided
the conceptualization of the study, conducted extensive literature search, and data compilation. MG and
RB: Analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript
with substantial input and revisions from all authors.
All authors have read, reviewed, and approved the
manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Algerian
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(MADR), the Algerian Ministry of Public Health
(MPH), and the Department of Animal Health (DAH)
of MARD for their valuable contributions to this study.
Their collaboration and data provision were instrumental in the successful completion of this research.
We appreciate their commitment to improving scientific knowledge and their support in addressing the
challenges facing animal health in Algeria.
9.
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15.
Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
16.
Publisher’s Note
Veterinary World remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published map and institutional affiliation.
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