The Portrait of the Inca Garcilaso

THE TRIUMPHS OF ALEXANDER FARNESE: A CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF THE SERIES OF PAINTINGS IN SANTIAGO, CHILE By Michael John Panbehchi, Ph.D. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Commonwealth University, 2014. Major Director: Michael Schreffler, Associate Professor, Department of Art History This dissertation examines a series of nine paintings depicting the battles of Alexander Farnese in Flanders created by the Cuzco School of Painters in eighteenth-century Peru. This research asks why and how paintings depicting sixteenth-century European battles were meaningful in the eighteenth century. Due to an absence of archival documentation on the authorship, production and patronage of the series, the research method is contextual. Starting with a formal and iconographic analysis of the paintings centered on a comparison between the paintings and the engravings upon which they ar...

While political activists have long decried the cultural and economic marginalization of Appalachia in the twenty-first century, there has been no analogous effort to rectify the exclusion of Appalachia from the historiographical consideration of processes of colonial expansion and trans-Atlantic conflict in the early modern Atlantic world. This lacuna in the telling of American history leads to an impoverished understanding of Appalachia’s centrality in the European push inland from the North American coast beginning in the early sixteenth century. This article highlights the centrality of the European obsession with Appalachian mineral resources from 1528 to 1682, while reframing Appalachian history within the broader fields of Latin American, early American, and Atlantic history.

(Note: figure 2 is NOT at the Church of Our Lady of Copacabana in Lima. This is an editors' mistake, not mine)

This publication is based on papers presented in a conference on the Incas, held in 2014 at the Linden-Museum. 30 other authors also have papers published in this volume, and the linked PDF includes all of them.

This book includes the following papers: "Buscando un Inca de aqui y de alla. Los incas de nuestro tiempo, Alemania y Lima, Peru" by Karoline Noack; "Collecting Inca Antiquities: Antiquarianism and the Inca Past in 19th Century Cusco" by Stefanie Gaenger; "The Inca Collection at the Ethnologisches Museum Berlin, Genesis and Contexts" by Manuela Fisher; "Visions of the Inca Dynasty. Narrative Syyles, Emblematic Dress and the Power of Ancestors" by Ann H. Peters; "How did Huanuco Pampa Become a Ruin? From Thriving Settlement to Disappearing Walls" by Monica Barnes; "The Material Remains of Inca Power among Imperial Heartland Communities" by Kylie E. Quave and R. Alan Covey; "The Inca Takeover of the Ancient Centers in the Highlands of Piura" by Cesar W. Astuhuaman Gonzales; "Las motivaciones economicas y religiosas de la expansion incaica hacia la cuenca del lago Titicaca" by David Oshige Adams; "Inca Offerings Associated with the Frozen Mummies from Mount Llullaillaco" by Constanza Ceruti; "Tracing the Inca Past. Ritual Movement and Social Memory in the Inca Imperial Capital" by Steve Kosiba; "The Situa Ritual of the Inca. Metaphor and Performance of the State" by Brian S. Bauer and David A. Reid; "Building Tension, Dilemmas of the Built Environment through Inca and Spanish Rule" by Steven A. Wernke; "Sistema de tenencia de tierras de ayllus y panacas incas en el valle del Cusco, siglos XVI–XVII” by Donato Amado Gonzales; “What Would Have Happened After the Inca Civil War” by Kerstin Nowack.

This monograph is a detailed study of the pre-Columbian Chachapoya people and the major monument associated with the Late Intermediate Period people (c. 900-1470 CE).

Luis Jerónimo de Oré es uno de los ingenios hispano-criollos más notables del Virreinato del Perú. Ingresó tempranamente a la orden seráfica, sobresalió por su habilidad lingüística y misionó en los Andes, La Florida y en el sur de Chile. Este ensayo se centra en una poco conocida obra de Oré, Relación de los mártires de La Florida (c. 1619), producto de su experiencia en Norteamérica y el Caribe. Señalaré por qué en ese breve tratado Oré critica varios aspectos de la política imperial, describe viajes de exploración en América del Norte, comenta la vida fronteriza en la zona y elogia la labor catequética de los franciscanos. El análisis, en suma, prueba que su Relación ofrece un señero testimonio de una temprana época de globalización e igualmente enlaza la historia de América del Norte y del Sur mostrando su indisoluble vínculo con España.

Luis Jerónimo de Oré is one of the most notable criollo thinkers from the Viceroyalty of Peru. He joined the Seraphic Order early in life, excelled thanks to his linguistic acumen, and worked as a missionary in the Andes, Spanish Florida, and southern Chile. This study focuses on Oré’s little-known work Relación de los mártires de La Florida (c. 1619), the product of his experience in North America and the Caribbean. I will indicate propose the ways in which Oré uses his brief treatise to criticize several aspects of imperial policy, describe exploratory trips in North America, comment on life in the borderlands, and praise the Franciscans’ work at evangelism. The analysis aims to show why the Relación offers an unparalleled account of an early era of globalization while connecting the history of North and South America and demonstrating their indissoluble link with Spain.

"This book examines how the politics of dress has been incorporated in constructions of nationhood in both Asia and the Americas, and reveals how politicians and political regimes (including tribal, revolutionary, authoritarian, colonial, and democratic) manipulate sumptuary practices in order to create national identities, to legitimise hierarchies of power or to build personal political identities. In tackling these broad themes over two centuries, the editors and contributors grapple with gender politics; in particular, how men and women’s dress reflect their political and economic position in the nation-states. This collection of pioneering essays – the first volume in the Sussex Library of Asian Studies – explores the transnational nature of dress in a host of different locations and shows how changing dress codes have long been conversations between cultures. It brings the politics of dress into contemporary times and engages directly with the topical issues of dress legislation in the twenty-first century. Country case studies include: China, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Native America, Latin America and Argentina. Chapter 1 Trans-national Flows and the Politics of Dress in Asia and the Americas Mina Roces and Louise Edwards 1 Chapter 2 Gender, Nation and the Politics of Dress in Twentieth-Century Philippines Mina Roces 19 Chapter 3 Dressing for Power: Scholars’ Robes, School Uniforms and Military Attire in China Louise Edwards 42 Chapter 4 Refashioning Civilization: Dress and Bodily Practice in Thai Nation-Building Maurizio Peleggi 65 Chapter 5 Gender, Citizenship and Dress in Modernizing Japan Barbara Molony 81 Chapter 6 Identity, Nation and Islam: A Dialogue about Men’s and Women’s Dress in Indonesia Jean Gelman Taylor 101 Chapter 7 “Dressed in a Little Brief Authority”: Clothing the Body Politic in Burma Penny Edwards 121 Chapter 8 Power Dressing on the Prairies: The Grammar of Blackfoot Leadership Dress, 1750–1930 Blanca Tovías 139 Chapter 9 Nationalism and National Dress in Spanish America Rebecca Earle 163 Chapter 10 Refashioning the Inca: Costume, Political Power and Identity in Late Bourbon Peru David Cahill 182 Chapter 11 Wigs, Weapons, Tattoos and Shoes: Getting Dressed in Colonial Amazonia and Brazil Barbara A. Sommer 200 Chapter 12 Fabricating Specimen Citizens: Nation Building in Nineteenth-Century Mexico Magali M. Carrera 215 Chapter 13 Urban Expressions of Solidarity: Fashioning Citizenship in Argentina Regina A. Root 236"

In the nineteenth century, after the separation from the Spanish Crown, the invention of the Andean nations required an autochthonous group, the independence of which could be celebrated. At first sight, it might seem that only the American Indians could play this role, but this idea rapidly ran into a fatal contradiction with the contempt for the Indians of the promoters of the new republics. In addition, it was necessary to build a new identity on many disparate elements to set oneself apart from European origins. In this manner, a suitable mythical autochthony has been invented, built on the image of the Imperial Indian, the descendant of the Incas. The indigenista movement of the 1920s has greatly contributed to the making of this national representation of Peru. This article traces the evolution of this tradition and its principal actors, and describes its underlying tenets. It attempts to picture recent neo-Inca re-inventions, especially the emergence of a ritual Inca king in the neo-cult of the Sun, and the enthronement of the President of the Republic by shamans at the sacred site of Machu Picchu. Finally, it points at recent New Age extensions of this tradition. The article tries to show how mythological constructions of the past are instrumentalized to build the historical foundations of a present-day nation, and how at the same time they are being taken over by a worldwide ideology.

In Northern Europe, images of Saint James the Greater depict the saint as a pilgrim with staff, prayer book and brimmed hat decorated with a scallop shell. On the Iberian Peninsula, however, the saint is generally portrayed very differently – on horseback trampling a cowering Moor underfoot. This image, and others involving Christian saints intervening in battles, was transferred to Africa and then on to the Americas. Within years of the first American conquests, the Moor under the hooves of the triumphant Saint James was portrayed as an Amerindian. Although it is often assumed that these depictions represent an unfeeling celebration of Iberian victory, the reality is more complex. This essay explores how cultural exchange and evolving emotional responses to conversion and colonisation led both Iberian and indigenous artists to quite literally carve victory out of defeat. It also looks at how sixteenth- and seventeenth-century outsiders responded to these altered heroes of the Reconquista, and at the continuing consequences of Iberia’s attachment to martial myths.

This essay reviews the following works: Heaven, Hell, and Everything in Between: Murals of the Colonial Andes. By Ananda Cohen Suarez. Austin:University ofTexas Press, 2016. Pp. xi + 304. $29.95 paperback. ISBN: 9781477309551. Of Love and Loathing: Marital Life, Strife, and Intimacy in the Colonial Andes, 1750–1825. By Nicholas A. Robins. Lincoln:University ofNebraska Press, 2015. Pp. x + 280. $60.00 hardcover. ISBN: 9780803277199. Revolution in the Andes: The Age of Túpac Amaru. By Sergio Serulnikov. Translated by David Frye. Foreword by Charles F. Walker.Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013. Pp. xi + 155. $22.95 paperback. ISBN: 9780822354987. The Tupac Amaru Rebellion. By Charles F. Walker.Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press ofHarvardUniversity Press, 2014. Pp. xi + 341. $29.95 hardcover. ISBN: 9780674058255.

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While there are differences between cultures in different places and times, colonial representations of indigenous peoples generally suggest they are not capable of literature nor are they worthy of being represented as nations. Colonial representations of indigenous people continue on into the independence era and can still be detected in our time. The thesis of this book is that there are various ways to decolonize the representation of Amerindian peoples. Each chapter has its own decolonial thesis which it then resolves. Chapter 1 proves that there is coloniality in contemporary scholarship and argues that word choices can be improved to decolonize the way we describe the first Americans. Chapter 2 argues that literature in Latin American begins before 1492 and shows the long arc of Mayan expression, taking the Popol Wuj as a case study. Chapter 3 demonstrates how colonialist discourse is reinforced by a dualist rhetorical ploy of ignorance and arrogance in a Renaissance historical chronicle, Agustin de Zárate's Historia del descubrimiento y conquista del Perú. Chapter 4 shows how by inverting the Renaissance dualist configuration of civilization and barbarian, the Nahua (Aztecs) who were formerly considered barbarian can be "civilized" within Spanish norms. This is done by modeling the categories of civilization discussed at length by the Friar Bartolomé de las Casas as a template that can serve to evaluate Nahua civil society as encapsulated by the historiography of Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, a possibility that would have been available to Spaniards during that time. Chapter 5 maintains that the colonialities of the pre-Independence era survive, but that Criollo-indigenous dialogue is capable of excavating their roots to extirpate them. By comparing the discussions of the hacienda system by the Peruvian essayist Manuel González Prada and by the Mayan-Quiché eye-witness to history Rigoberta Menchú, this books shows that there is common ground between their viewpoints despite the different genres in which their work appears and despite the different countries and the eight decades that separated them, suggesting a universality to the problem of the hacienda which can be dissected. This book models five different decolonizing methods to extricate from the continuities of coloniality both indigenous writing and the representation of indigenous peoples by learned elites.

This article examines biographies of Christian Indigenous women written by missionaries in the 1720s in both New England and Mexico.

It is a revised version, in English, of the text "Presentación. Una obra fundacional para los Estudios Andinos”, published originally as a presentation of the three volumes of the Fuentes documentales para los Estudios Andinos, 1530-1900, ed. by Joanne Pillsbury, PUCP Press, Lima, 2016 (Vol. I, pp. 13-21).

This introductory chapter to Decolonizing Indigeneity: New Approaches to Latin American Literature explains the phenomenon I describe as "The Colonial Force". This "force" impides our ability's to adequately approach indigeneity in general, and in Latin American literature

In this chapter, I examine the production of antiquity and the social roles of ruins within the early colonial Americas (ca. 1532–1650 A.D.), focusing on the Andean region, where Inca ruins brought about new ideologies and understandings of the past during Spanish rule. Th e Incas lacked a written history, but during the process of Spanish colonization the physical remains of recently ruined buildings were invoked—in historiographies, courtrooms, and public ceremonies—to exemplify or stand for a bygone Inca past. Building on recent theories of historical production (Todorov 1995; Trouillot 1995), I seek to understand the courtroom arguments and ruination practices through which these Andean things and places became models of a past that held meaning and political value for both colonizers and the colonized, Christian and Inca. In reviewing archaeological and historical evidence pertaining to these ruins, I complement studies of Spanish colonization in the Andes that concentrate on official written histories and their authors (prose about the past akin to Shelley’s Ozymandias [see introduction]), by identifying the practices through which Spanish and Andeans sought to produce ruins that lay outside of the centers of politics and learning (vernacular practices of transformation akin to the changes effected on McDuff ’s Ozymandias [see introduction]). With these practices, actors of diverse cultural background sought to fix materials and memories of the past, creatively drawing on indigenous American and European idioms of historical production to both direct and make sense of the colonial encounter (Chase 2015; Gose 2008; Lamana 2007; Urton 1990; Yannakakis 2008). Taking this approach, I complement studies that focus on how colonial regimes attempted to impose visions of past and present social orders through historiography and aesthetic representation (e.g., Dean 2010; MacCormack 2007; Niranjana 1992), but concentrate more on how places and things in the countryside became what I term “sites of articulation”—that is, sites that incite conflict and demand cooperation precisely because they held value for both local people and colonial authorities (cf. Amin 1995).

This essay examines images of the Virgin Mary and of the bleeding body of Christ, in Spain and Spanish America, placing examples from the visual arts as well as cases of ekphrasis in literary texts (by Góngora, Cervantes, Domínguez Camargo and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz) in the context of colonialism and the oppression of Iberian confessional minorities.

Ernst Haeckel was one of the nineteenth century’s most famous and influential scientists and science popularizers. According to one historian of biology, he was “the chief source of the world’s knowledge of Darwinism” in his time. At the same time, he endeavored to set up his own pantheistic-evolutionary theology in the place of Christianity. This study makes use of new information technologies to gather documents which have been largely unavailable to historians until recently. Halverson finds that Haeckel’s ideas met with a poor reception in the United States because American journalists, ministers, and scientists insisted on maintaining a sharp separation between science and theology, while Haeckel was intent on merging the two under an evolutionary-pantheistic framework. Although often regarded as an advocate of the “conflict thesis,” on his own terms he was a deeply religious man who wanted to reform, rather than abolish, theology.

Metalworking occupies a unique place within Inca artistic production. A surprising percentage of the surviving works in this high-value medium might be considered anthropomorphic or zoomorphic, making them singular in the Inca artistic corpus, famed for its avoidance of flora and fauna. Descriptions by Spanish chroniclers suggest that many more anthropomorphic and even perhaps “naturalistic” works once existed. This essay thereby grapples with the following two questions: why did the Inca approach metal so differently from other sculptural media, most notably stone? And how do we square descriptions of Inca metalwork’s “naturalism” in European chronicles with what we might describe, at best, as anthro- or zoomorphic forms in the surviving Inca corpus? I draw on evidence of precious metal sculptures found in archaeological contexts, recent research on the Berlin museum “Inca” corncob, and an analysis of the chroniclers’ writings to address the prevalence of anthropomorphism in Inca gold and silver production and argue that, for the Inca, the materials with which they worked shaped the representational modes they employed. Rather than inert substances awaiting the intervention of the artisan, materials could be numinous agential entities in their own right. Stone, the Inca material par excellence, possessed inherent agency, in that the Inca perceived stones as living entities; these were often left entirely unhewn. In contrast, gold, with its malleability and potential for fluidity, was not considered a living being in its own right, but instead metallic effluvia, the tears of the powerful sun deity. As tears, gold was charged with the power of this important deity but was not in and of itself living. This distinction between gold as tears of the sun, and stone, with its own intrinsic vitality, explains the contrasting ways in which the Inca worked the two materials: metals were sacred but not living and, due to their fluidity, had no “natural” state or shape. Thus, unlike stone, they could and perhaps should be shaped into anthropomorphic forms without betraying their own essential nature. To grasp this essential difference between metal and stone, it is necessary first to reframe “naturalism” against Spanish chroniclers’ descriptions and to excavate the ways in which Spanish sources have largely and perhaps unavoidably shaped our perception of Inca metalwork. (To read the complete article, follow this url: http://mavcor.yale.edu/conversations/medium-studies/tears-sun-naturalistic-and-anthropomorphic-inca-metalwork)

There exists a consensus in academic literature regarding the centrality of engraved prototypes for the production of colonial paintings in the Spanish Americas. In Peru, these artistic models were written into legal contracts between painters and clients. An examination of the notarial contracts produced in Cusco from 1650 to 1700 suggests that prototypes in a variety of formats were not only central to artistic professional practice, but that adherence to their images may have provided one motive for entering into such agreements. This study leans upon the centrality of Flemish print sources to confirm the attribution of a partial canvas at the Pinacoteca Universidad de Concepción, Chile as an episode of the series on the life of Diego de Alcalá (c. 1710) in Santiago, Chile. Commissioned from Cusco by the Franciscans of Santiago, the status of the hagiographic cycle as the most extensive ever produced on the subject of this missionary saint dictates that a multiplicity of sources was necessary for its creation. By identifying two engravings that served as its models, this study recovers the subject of this painting as a miracle that sustained Diego during an arduous journey.

Between 1472 and 1572, the conquests of Peru were many: by the Inca, who in the 15th century spread from their southern Andean heartland in Cusco to build an empire that stretched from what is now southern Colombia to northern Chile and Argentina; by the Spanish conquistadors under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, who reached down from Panama in search of the rumored wealth of the kingdom of " Birú " and fatefully encountered the aspirant Inca emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca in November of 1532; by the Spanish crown, which intervened after the revolt of Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca in 1536 and the rebellion of the conquistadors in the 1540s; and by the Inca's former subjects, the Spaniards' Indian allies, and their mestizo sons, who ended independent Inca resistance by helping to capture Atahualpa's nephew in the Vilcabamba valley in 1572. This essay sketches the century-long arc of those many conquests, which together yielded a historical entity not quite like any other in the early modern world, let alone Americas: a composite Spanish-Indian kingdom whose incredible wealth lay not just in the gold and silver that its mines and burials produced but in the network of subjects and laborers that drew both the Inca and their Habsburg successors on to further conquests than was wise.

Lope de Vega, who perfectioned the Spanish late sixteenth- and seventeenth-century history play, famously pondered historical drama as a highly effectful means of "rekindling famous deeds and words in the memory of the people". Due to its eminent ability to make history come alive before the eyes of the audience, the emerging historical drama was certainly the most popular instance of what may be termed the contemporary obsession with history and thus – as critics have not failed to notice – the most important aesthetic vehicle of collective memory and cultural identity formation during this crucial period of nascent European nation states. However, besides its lucid visualization of the past, its 'enargeia', and ensuing hold on the collective imagination, both rather well-researched, could there be other, as yet undescribed features particular to the historical drama? Does it have a specific enunciatory mode or special take on history – vis-à-vis historiography strictu sensu, for example? Which aesthetic and performative elements support its specific way of dealing with the past, if indeed we may speak of such? Guided by these research questions, the present essay proposes a novel approach to Pedro Calderón de la Barca's somewhat misread seventeenth-century play about the Spanish-Catholic military and religious conquest of Inca Peru, introducing the concept of "historical mimesis" to describe the universal or philosophical, plausible but not veristic, creative and performative staging of history found in La aurora en Copacabana.