Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
IS CLIMATE CHANGE A BLESSING OR CURSE? THE CHANGING CLIMATE INFLUENCE ON
PLANT DISEASES AND PESTS DEVELOPMENT: A NARRATIVE STUDY.
Benson Turyasingura1, 2*, Shambhu Katel3, Dean Gabriel Chilumpha1, Wycliffe Tumwesigye4, Petros Chavula1
Africa Center of Excellence for Climate Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University.
2
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Kabale University, Uganda.
3
G.P. Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Centre, (GPCAR), Gothgaun, Morang, Nepal.
4
Department of Agriculture, Agribusiness and Environmental Sciences, Bishop Stuart University, Mbarara, Uganda.
1
Page | 1
Abstract
The study investigates the impact of climate change on the development of plant diseases and the emergence of novel plant
diseases, the conditions for disease development, mitigation strategies, and adaptation strategies for pest control. Climate
change and variability may have indirect effects on animal diseases that are more significant than direct consequences.
However, there has been little focus on the impact of climate change on agriculture, particularly concerning insect pests;
because rising temperatures hasten insect life cycles, migration, and nutrition. It is concluded that it is necessary to construct
and reinforce barriers that stop the arrival of exotic infections, develop tools for quick diagnosis of novel diseases, and train
technical personnel to use these techniques once they are in place.
Keywords: Climate, Disease and Pest, Global warming, Nutrient Management, Thresholds
Submitted: 2024-02-13 Accepted: 2024 -02-24
Corresponding author: Benson Turyasingura*
Email: bturyasingura@kab.ac.ug / bensonturyasingura@gmail.com
1
Africa Center of Excellence for Climate Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University.
2
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Kabale University, Uganda.
Introduction
The shifting climate presents a double-edged sword for
agriculture, rendering the study of its impact on plant
diseases and pests essential. While some regions across the
world may experience milder winters, longer growing
seasons, and increased crop productivity (Turyasingura et
al., 2023), these changes also create a hospitable
environment for the proliferation of pests and diseases.
Warmer temperatures can accelerate the life cycles of
pathogens and pests, leading to more frequent outbreaks and
heightened severity of infestations. Additionally, altered
precipitation patterns can create conditions favoring certain
pathogens or pests while challenging the resilience of crops.
Garrett et al. (2021) report that understanding the intricate
interplay between climate change and the dynamics of plant
diseases and pests is crucial for agricultural sustainability
and food security thus, need for the study. This knowledge
enables farmers and policymakers to implement proactive
strategies for disease and pest management, such as
developing resistant crop varieties, optimizing pest control
measures, and implementing adaptive agricultural practices
(Turyasingura et al., 2023).
In addition, more information on the effects of climate
change on the emergence of new plant pests and diseases is
needed globally, and little effort has been made up to date
(Harvey et al., 2018; Garrett et al., 2021). The research
delves into the impact of climate change on the development
of plant diseases and the emergence of novel plant diseases
(Chhogyel et al., 2020), conditions for disease development,
mitigation strategies, and adaptation strategies for pest
control. Numerous factors impacting factors affect plant
diseases (Yáñez-López et al., 2012). The consequences of
carbon dioxide and mitigation strategies, on the other hand,
were not extensively addressed (Turyasingura et al., 2023).
According to Turyasingura and Rogers (2022), since maize
is planted during the warmer and wetter summer months,
which creates an ideal home for insect pests to multiply
quickly and spread to new regions, pests cause major
damage to maize harvests (El-Naggar et al., 2020; Wang et
al., 2021). Effective control should therefore be
implemented because it is hard to avoid this pest without
implementing long-term management (Chavula, 2022;
Karlsson et al., 2020). Insects play an important role in
pollination (Thomson & Page, 2020; Khalifa et al., 2021;
Dymond et al., 2021), detritus (Tooker & Giron, 2020),
nutrient cycling (Parr et al., 2019; Crespo-Pérez et al., 2020;
Stepanian et al., 2020), and providing food for birds,
mammals, and amphibians worldwide (Freire et al., 2021).
For example, it is believed that 80% of wild plants rely on
insects for pollination, while 60 percent of birds rely on
insects as a primary food source. The value of ecosystem
services offered by wild insects in the United States is $57
billion per year (Losey & Vaughan, 2006). As a result, any
decrease in insect numbers and variety will hurt ecosystem
Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
functioning. Turyasingura and Chavula (2022), concluded
that policies should promote both practices and services,
such as financial services and pest management strategies.
Climate change may have indirect effects on animal disease
that are more significant than direct consequences (Linders
et al., 2019; Lacetera, 2019). However, there has been little
Page | 2 focus on the impact of climate change on agriculture,
particularly on insects, because rising temperatures hasten
insect life cycles, migration, and nutrition. Crop pests are
responsible for over 57% of farm productivity losses
(Yáñez-López, 2012; Stathers et al., 2020; Chhogyel et al.,
2020). Changes in pest activity caused by climate change are
predicted to have a variety of effects on agricultural
production (Shrestha, 2019). As climate change proceeds,
insect damage will compound and combine with plant stress
as a result of direct effects on crops owing to changes in
temperature, precipitation, and CO2 levels (Turyasingura &
Rogers, 2022; Chavula, 2022). Climate change has resulted
in an upsurge in the number of insect pests, bug outbreaks,
the number of generations, and the development of resistant
biotypes (Kambrekar et al., 2015). This would undoubtedly
intensify the insect's damage, resulting in lower agricultural
yields, high crop protection costs, and adverse effects on the
economy (Oerke & Dehne, 2004). According to this study,
there are few strategies for dealing with increased pest and
disease occurrence that focus on building regional, national,
and local capacity and disease management systems that are
based on sound science, and this needs to be improved to
increase crop productivity. This study is expected to produce
robust conclusions that could be relevant to climate change's
effect on pests. The study aims to assess the influence of
climate change on plant disease development, conditions for
disease development, mitigation strategies, and adaptation
strategies for pest control.
Materials and Methods
A narrative literature search from 1992 and 2022 was
conducted using relevant keywords and phrases. This
research was conducted using journals from “Google
Scholar, Crossref metadata, DOAJ, Dimension, SCOPUS,
and Research Gate. The study employed a systematic
narrative review to arrive at the articles for the study,
additionally, the keywords that they used in the literature
search included climate change about plant diseases;
nutrient management; weather patterns; and novel plant and
animal diseases. Causes of climate change on crop and
global warming in developing countries.
To prepare this document, articles, books, and reports were
retried and reviewed from the aforementioned databases as
shown in Table 1. The preparation of this manuscript
complied with narrative review guidelines, and additional
pertinent e-books, conference proceedings, policy briefs,
and government and farmer group reports at local, national,
regional, and international levels from both developing and
developed countries were referred.
To achieve the objectives of the study an inclusion and
exclusion criteria was adopted. Inclusion criteria are used to
select publications that directly pertain to the research topic,
such as those discussing the impact of climate change on
plant health and the dynamics of diseases and pests. These
criteria ensure that the chosen publications provide relevant
insights into the specific phenomenon under investigation,
helping researchers to build a comprehensive understanding
of the subject matter. Conversely, exclusion criteria are
equally important as they help to filter out publications that
are not directly pertinent to the research focus. This might
include studies on unrelated topics or those that lack
sufficient depth or reliability. In other words, by excluding
irrelevant publications, researchers can maintain the
integrity and coherence of their study, ensuring that the data
and insights gathered are aligned with the research
objectives. The adoption of inclusion and exclusion criteria
thus contributes to the rigor and validity of the research
process. It helps researchers focus their efforts on accessing
and analyzing information that is most likely to yield
valuable insights into the relationship between climate
change and plant diseases and pests. Hence, by selecting
relevant publications while filtering out irrelevant ones,
researchers can effectively address their research questions
and contribute meaningfully to the existing body of
knowledge in the field.
Table 1: Searching the Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus databases using "Climate-Change"
AND "Plant Disease Development."
Search Platform
Total no. of articles reviewed
Papers
Total no. used
excluded from
papers
the study
Papers from Scopus databases
287
267
20
Papers from WOS
360
332
28
Papers selected in this study
687
639
48
Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
Conditions for Disease Development
A susceptible host plant, a favorable environment, and a live
triangle can be broken and disease development prevented
pathogen are all required for disease development. For
by modifying the susceptibility of host plants, the
Page | 3 disease to arise, all three of these components must be
surrounding environment, and/or the viability of pathogens.
present as shown in Figure 1 (Zayan, 2019). The disease
Host
Farmer
Attitude
Chemical
Quality
Time
Pathogen
Environment
Crop Area
Figure 1: Interactions that influence the development of
plant diseases (Adopted from Zayan, 2019). The genetic
makeup of the host plant dictates its disease vulnerability
(Gu et al., 2022). The plant's susceptibility is determined by
a variety of physical and physiological parameters
(Grossiord et al., 2020), and the disease development is
influenced by the environment (Cavalli & Heard, 2019). To
infect and disseminate, pathogens typically require specific
environmental conditions. Thus, pathogens must be present
and alive. Infected plant portions and other pathogen
remains are removed, making them inaccessible to infection.
Climate change will have a varied impact on each place, and
its effects will be felt over time. Due to the great reliance on
agriculture as the primary driver of most African economies,
understanding the possible consequences of changing
climate on plant diseases is a critical problem. Climate
change is projected to raise the likelihood of disease-related
output losses in Africa. Rising temperatures, changes in the
quantity and pattern of precipitation, increased CO2 and
ozone levels (Grace et al., 2019), drought, and other effects
of human activity have had a significant impact on the
climate and ecosystems (Barnes et al., 2019). Because plant
disease is the result of interaction between a susceptible
plant, a virulent pathogen, and the environment, any change
in ecosystems can affect plant diseases (Liu & He, 2019).
Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
According to Turyasingura et al., (2022), climate change
and global warming are major concerns for African
agriculture and are among the most hotly disputed topics
affecting diversity resilience. Increased temperatures, rising
CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and changing precipitation
patterns all have a substantial impact on agricultural
Page | 4 production and crop bug pests (Malhi et al., 2021). Climate
change has a variety of effects on insect pests. They can lead
to an increase in geographic distribution; increased
overwintering survival; an increase in the number of
generations; altered synchrony between plants and pests;
altered interspecific interaction; increased risk of migratory
pest invasion; increased incidence of insect-transmitted
plant diseases; and reduced biological control effectiveness,
particularly natural enemies (Chavula, 2022). Climate
change is a primary cause of the pest population, and there
is a need for adaptation and migratory management
measures to deal with pests' shifting status (Chavula &
Turyasingura, 2022). However, data on updated integrated
pest control strategies, climate and pest population
monitoring, and the use of modeling prediction tools is
scarce.
Effect of Climate Change on Plant Diseases
Variations in pest development caused by climate change
are likely to have a variety of consequences for agricultural
production (Pham et al., 2019). Increased pest populations
stress crop plants, increasing the risk of crop loss and
lowering harvest yield and/or quality (Chavula, 2022).
Furthermore, as climate change proceeds, insect damage
will compound and combine with plant stress resulting in
direct effects on crops owing to variations in heat, rainfall,
and CO2 levels. Insects have a changeable body
temperature; therefore, they are extremely sensitive to their
environment, particularly the temperature. Insect outbreaks,
migration, biodiversity shifts, species extinctions, host
shifts, and the formation of novel pests could all be
consequences of climate change (Skendžić et al., 2021).
Tropical insects that are sensitive to temperature changes
may be at higher risk as a result of global warming. They
may become extinct if temperatures rise by 2-40C, such as
the pod-sucking bug, which has a perilous limit of (15–
32)0C and has already reached 330C in the tropics
(Skendžić et al., 2021). For such insects, rising temperatures
may be difficult to tolerate. Insect physiology and
development can be affected directly or indirectly by
temperature, depending on the physiology or presence of
hosts. Temperature can have a variety of consequences
depending on an insect's development plan (Willmott et al.,
2022).
Historical Perspective of Pests and Diseases
Pesticides have been employed to minimize the damage that
pests and vermin do to crops ever since the birth of
civilization (Kogan, 1998). To fend off a plant stalk
(Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici), the Romans created the god
Robigo, to whom they made sacrifices. Along with praying
to the gods, more conventional methods of crop protection
have been practiced for over 4,000 years. Early farmers used
plant selection for disease resistance; they chose seeds from
the best plants and conserved seeds to sow from year to year.
Greek philosopher Theophrastus noted that crop diseases
were more prevalent in the lowlands in 300 BC. As early as
200 BC, the Chinese are said to have used plant insecticides,
as well as chemical agents to treat body lice. Additionally,
around the middle of the 1600s, farmers in the south of
England discovered that wheat cultivated from seed
recovered from a shipwreck had a lower amount of bunt than
other crops. Pesticides weren't created for plant disease
management for another 2800 years. It was advised that
wheat seed be soaked in brine before planting. In 1882,
French chemist Millardet made the biggest stride toward
chemically treating plant diseases. He noticed that applying
a copper sulfate and lime solution to grapevines reduced the
amount of downy mildew on them as well. The mixture was
improved by Millardet, who gave it the name "Bordeaux
Mixture." The Bordeaux mixture was colored "Paris Green"
to prevent grape phylloxera. Insecticides based on natural
substances, such as "pyrethrum and nicotine," were added in
the early 1900s, increasing the dependency on pesticides.
Lead arsenate was first used in pesticides in the 1890s.
However, the widespread use of pesticides in agriculture
was brought about by Paul Müller's discovery of
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in 1939 while
working for Geigy Chemical Company. Its low cost,
endurance, low mammalian and plant toxicity, and broadspectrum activity ensured its widespread adoption and use.
Therefore, the success of DDT stimulated the development
of new pesticides. The effectiveness of these poisons led to
repeated downgrading or abandonment of research into
other pest control strategies. This had a big impact on
research areas that used live things. The publication of
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring in 1962 and subsequent
allegations of excessive chemical use brought attention to
the use of biological controls recently. DDT was eliminated
and its use was outlawed globally. Recently, it has been
suggested that DDT should continue to be used against
malaria vectors in regions where the disease is prevalent.
Agriculture has traditionally employed biological control as
a component of pest management. Predatory ant colonies
were used to control caterpillars. These farmers erected
bamboo bridges between trees to aid ant migration. Russian
entomologist Elie Metchnikoff used the insect pathogen
Metarhizium anisopliae to control the sugar beet curculio in
1884. The first description of using fungal spores to control
many pine trees was published in 1963.
Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
Mitigation Strategies
Utilizing Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is a
technique that combines all nutrient sources, including
organic, inorganic (chemical fertilizer), and biofertilizer,
and applies them to soils to improve crop growth, provide
high-quality yields (Selim, 2020), and avoid spread of
Page | 5 disease in the garden is essential to sustainable agriculture,
which calls for resource management that meets evolving
human requirements without harming the environment or
depleting essential natural resources (Chavula & Hassen,
2022). Integrated nutrient management refers to the
preservation of soil fertility and plant nutrient delivery at an
optimal level for maintaining the target production by
optimizing the benefits from all available sources (Sharma
et al., 2019). Turyasingura and Rogers (2022) note that
chemical fertilizer came under scrutiny in the early 1990s
due to its widespread use in industrialized countries was
perceived to be damaging the environment through nitrate
leaching, eutrophication, greenhouse gas emissions, and
heavy metal uptake by plants affecting crop yields.
Setting action thresholds
Integrated pest management (IPM) first establishes a
threshold or a point at which the set of related variable levels
specifies that appropriate control activities must be taken to
control pest populations, before initiating any control
decisions or actions. In addition, IPM helps to reduce pest
diseases by approximately fifty percent hence, effective at
pest management in African countries. Thus, the most
common thresholds are:
1. Density thresholds: Indicates the level of
insect population at which crop damage is noticed.
2. Period thresholds: These are the points in the
life cycle of a crop when pests are more or less
destructive than at other points.
3. Economic thresholds: The amount of
damage or pest population density at which control
actions should be implemented to avoid financial
loss to the crop. The loss that would have
happened if nothing was done should be less
expensive than the cost of control as shown below.
Monitoring and identification of pests
Numerous insects, plants, and other living things are not
seen as pests that need to be controlled (Nagy et al., 2022).
Most of the creatures aren't dangerous; in fact, some of them
are helpful. IPM programs must accurately identify and
screen for pests to combine the action determination
thresholds with proper management decisions (Scheff &
Phillips, 2022; Karlsson et al., 2020). With this method,
there is no longer a chance that pesticides will be used when
they are unnecessary or that the wrong kind of pesticide will
be used.
Prevention
IPM programs are created to manage the crop, lawn, or
indoor space to prevent the appearance and development of
pests to accomplish effective pest control. In the case of
crops, this could entail employing suitable planting
techniques, such as crop rotation, the use of pest-free
rootstock, and the planting of resistant plant kinds (Zayan,
2019). These cost-effective control methods carry a lesser
risk to the environment and public health while yet being
very effective.
Adaptation Strategies
By biological definition, adaptation is the process by which
a species adjusts to its environment; it results from natural
selection operating over many generations on heritable
variation. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Aryal et al., 2020), adaptation is the
process of making changes to natural or human systems in
response to present or anticipated climatic stimuli or impacts
to mitigate harm or take advantage of advantageous
opportunities. Due to the increased likelihood of the
occurrence of some anticipated climate changes and the fact
that productivity and food security can only be guaranteed
if we can develop a highly effective strategy to adapt
agriculture to climate change, adaptation measures have
drawn more attention in recent years (Brar et al., 2020). In
addition, disease management under the scenario of climate
change concluded that preventive control measures, such as
the use of a variety of crop species in cropping systems,
modification of sowing or planting dates, use of diseaseresistant and abiotic stress-tolerant cultivars, application of
an integrated management strategy, and effective quarantine
systems, may become especially important (Rocklöv &
Dubrow, 2020).
Conclusion
Climate change is a natural phenomenon with diverse
effects, and agriculture is a significant component directly
tied to both livelihoods and a major economic factor.
Establishing trials to breed cultivars resistant to adaptability
is essential, especially in areas where their effectiveness is
most pronounced. Exotic pathogens are identified as a
primary factor contributing to the emergence of diseases.
Hence, it is crucial to build and strengthen barriers
preventing the introduction of exotic infections, create tools
for swift diagnosis of new diseases, and provide training for
technical personnel to proficiently apply these techniques
once implemented.
Conflict of Interests
The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
Student’s Journal of Health Research Africa
e-ISSN: 2709-9997, p-ISSN: 3006-1059
Vol. 5 No. 3 (2024): March2024 Issue
https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
Funding
The authors received no funding for this research.
Page | 6
Availability of Data and Materials
Data generated and analyzed during the current study are
included in the body of this paper.
Authors Biography
All authors are MSc. Graduates from Africa Center of
Excellence for Climate-Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity
Conservation, College of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, Haramaya University.
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https://doi.org/10.51168/sjhrafrica.v5i3.1030
Original Article
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