Archivio per l’Antropologia e la Et nologia - Vol. CLI (2021)
The «Painted» Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia
(Marsala-TP) ‒ 2nd Century C.E.
Preliminary Anthropological and Archaeological Report of
Tomb 3 and Tomb 4
Rossella Abate1, Gabriele Lauria1, Maria Grazia Griffo2, Luca Sineo1
University of Palermo ‒ STEBICEF Department.
1
2
Regional Archaeological Park of Lilibeo - Marsala.
Parole chiave: antropologia, archeologia, ipogeo, Lilibeo, età romana.
Riassunto ― L’ «Ipogeo dipinto di Crispia Salvia» costituisce il più importante
monumento dell’antica necropoli punico-romana di Lilibeo (l’odierna Marsala) ed è
finora l’unico esempio paradigmatico, in Sicilia, per la decorazione pittorica parietale.
Il monumento è stato commissionato da Iulius Demetrius in memoria della defunta
moglie Crispia Salvia, una nobildonna discendente da due famiglie molto importanti
dell’isola.
Di seguito viene riportato uno studio Antropologico preliminare, delle Tombe 3 e 4
(Crispia Salvia e Iulius Demetrius) al fine di integrare i dati storico-culturali con quelli
osteologici. I risultati degli studi condotti in laboratorio affiancati a quelli archeologici
confermano la presenza di due individui di alto rango sociale le cui condizioni e lo
stile vita erano esclusivi delle famiglie patrizie romane.
Key words: physical anthropology, archaeology, necropolis, Lilibeo, roman age.
Summary ― The «Painted Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia» is the most important
monument of the ancient Punic-Roman necropolis of Lilibeo (today's Marsala). It is
the only known paradigmatic example in Sicily of pictorial wall decoration. Iulius
Demetrius commissioned the monument in memory of his wife Crispia Salvia, a
noblewoman descended from two very important Sicilian families. Here we report
on a preliminary anthropological study of Tombs 3 and 4 (Crispia Salvia and Iulius
Demetrius). We integrated the historical-cultural context with the osteological data.
The results combining laboratory and archaeological research confirm the presence
of two high-ranking individuals characterized by conditions and lifestyle that were
exclusive to Roman patrician families.
Introduction
The hypogeum of Crispia Salvia is the most important monument of the
ancient necropolis of Lilibeo (Marsala-Trapani). Notably it is the only one
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known in Sicily with rich pictorial wall decorations, including scenes alluding
to the delicate trespass from life to death. This exceptional monument was
discovered in 1994 during the demolition of a building. It was located in a
sector of the Punic necropolis mostly characterized by returned pit tombs
attributable to the IV-III century. B.C. However, the site continued to be used
until the late Roman-Imperial age in the middle of the 2nd-century C.E. The
excavations revealed a large underground chamber, with six burials (4 within
rectangular niches, while 2 are of the arcosolium type) carved along the walls
of the limestone bank, used for a long period.
Here we present an anthropological study of the human skeletal remains
found during the 1994 excavation campaign conducted by the Superintendency
BB.CC.AA. of Trapani and integrated with other remains derived from
«micro-excavation» in situ in 2019. These remains are now stored at the Lilibeo
Museum (museum of the Archaeological Park of Lilibeo-Marsala).
During the archaeological research of 2019, the complete cleaning of
the tombs revealed two irregularly shaped «pillows», dug into a rock bank
that were useful to better understand the original orientation of the buried
inside the tombs. Our results presented here provide a contribution to the
interpretation of the anthropological, historical and archaeological context
of the site.
The necropolis of Lilibeo - Historical Notes
The necropolis occupies about a 90,000 square meter area along the
north-eastern side of the town, outside the walls of the ancient Punic-Roman
Lilybaeum. The area, bounded to the northwest by the sea, by the outer edge
of the Punic moat at the southwest and to the east by the modern church of
Santa Maria Della Grotta. It was used from the foundation of the Punic city
in the 4th century B.C. up to the late imperial age. There was a continuous
superimposition of new burials, consequent tampering and readjustments
over the centuries.
The Lilibeo necropolis has been known since the 18th century thanks to
numerous occasional finds. However, the first systematic research activities
were undertaken only at the end of the 19th century by a local scholar, Salvatore
Struppa, and by the archaeologist Antonino Salinas. Excavations intensified
after the Second World War in the 1960s, as a consequence of the massive
building expansion of the modern Marsala that overlaps the ancient city
(Giglio, 2016a).
The necropolis represents the most explored sector of ancient Lilybaeum,
and today is well-known, thanks to the systematic excavations conducted
first by the Archaeological Superintendence of western Sicily (Bisi, 1969-
T he «Painted» Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia (Marsala-TP) – 2nd Century C.E.
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1971; Di Stefano, 1974-1980), and then by the Superintendence of Cultural
and Environmental Heritage of Trapani, established in 1987 (Bechtold, 1999;
Giglio, 1987). In particular, the monograph by Babette Bechtold (Bechtold,
1999) provides a detailed account of the sector of the necropolis investigated
between 1987 and 1998. The monograph provides information on areas that
were obscured by the superimposition of the modern city on the necropolis.
The Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia
The painted hypogeum of Crispia Salvia represents an example of a private
tomb. The underground burial chamber, currently accessible to the public by
steps dug into the limestone bank, unfolds as a large 25 m2, trapezoid (Fig. 1)
oriented in NW-SE direction (Giglio, 1996a).
Fig. 1. Planimetry of the Hypogeum (drown by E. Abbate).
There are six tombs in the walls of the burial chamber. They are numbered
counterclockwise starting from the entrance. The most ancient tombs (n. 2, 3, 4
and 5) are dated to the middle of the 2nd century C.E. (thanks to the epigraphic
characters of the Latin inscription of T3 and the pictorial decoration). These
early tombs are rectangular case inside niches carved into the rock while the
latter tombs belongs to the arcosolium type.
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The walls were entirely smoothed with a white lime coat on which the
pictorial decoration was made. The decoration consists of a red perimeter band,
which covers the external quay of the burials and by figurative scenes with
funerary subjects and decorative motifs. The decorations are characterized
by lively polychromy, whose recurring theme is the floral element, providing
a clear allusion to a heavenly environment (Bonacasa-Carra, 2002; Giglio,
1996a).
The north wall of the hypogeum was occupied by T3, a rectangular niche
oriented in the EW direction, dedicated to Crispia Salvia. Above the T3 are
depicted two winged figures, in convergent flight, holding a garland of red
flowers arranged in a festoon (Fig. 2), while in upper-west position, inside
a recess, is affixed a terracotta slab with a Latin inscription concerning the
deceased (Bivona, 2000). The slab reports the name, Crispia Salvia, 45 years old,
to which the husband, Iulius Demetrius, dedicates the epigraph remembering
her as a very sweet wife with which he lived for 15 years «libenti animo»
(Giglio, 1996a) (Bivona, 2000).
Fig. 2. Overview of the Hypogeum (photo by L. Pomara in Giglio, 1996a).
The tomb of Iulius Demetrius (T4) was placed on the western corner on the
north wall and, also in this case, it was a rectangular niche. The deceased was
placed in supine decubitus inside the burial (this type of burial have been
already described in the Punic necropolis and Romans Time by Rosaria Di
Salvo (Di Salvo, 2016).
The onomastics of the woman reveals her noble origins. She belonged to
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two gentes of considerable importance: the Crispius and the Salvii. The origins
of the husband are less clear. Indeed, the name Iulius Demetrius was common
in all the cities of the island and he could have been a person of high rank
(such as a magistrate), a simple Roman citizen or even a freedman (Bivona,
2000). The clearest proof of the family social rank is found in the richness
and complexity of the pictorial decoration of the entire burial chamber; if it
is really to be considered contemporary with the burial of Crispia Salvia (2nd
century C.E.) based on the epigraphic characters and the discovery of a lamp,
as claimed by R. Giglio (Giglio, 1996a and 2002), and not later (attributable
instead to the following century) as R.M. Bonacasa-Carra (Bonacasa-Carra,
2002). In support of the dating of the T3, it seems worthy of note that in 2019 a
fragment of an African pan (Hayes 181-A form) was found dating back to the
first half of the second century C.E., which confirms the known chronological
horizon.
Materials and Methods
Preliminary operations
The skeletal materials are stored in the Regional Archaeological Museum
Lilibeo (Marsala, TP). These materials derive mostly from the original
excavation performed by Rossella Giglio as part of the recovery activity of
the Superintendence for Cultural and Environmental Heritage of Trapani
(Giglio, 1996a and 1996b). The collection was integrated with new material
recovered in 2019. Furthermore, the soil taken during the «micro-excavation»
in situ (Borgognini et al., 1993; Mallegni, 2005) was sieved, as recommended
by current methodologies, to recover all the small remains such as phalanges,
or teeth. The osteological materials of Tombs 3 and 4 are attributable to two
adult individuals (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4).
All the skeletal elements were reconstructed in anatomical positions to
facilitate the analysis (White et al., 2005) and for the consistency evaluation
of the skeletons. Conservation forms and photographic documentation
completed the study. The anthropological evaluations were based on the
measurements and indices of Martin and Saller (Martin and Saller, 1957) and
modifications (Canci and Minozzi, 2005; Mallegni and Lippi, 2009).
Determination of Sex
Sex determination was made using the «combined method» of Acsàdi
and Nemeskèri (Acsàdi and Nemeskèri, 1970) and the methods of Ferembach,
Iscan, Bruzek and Novotny (Ferembach, 1979; Iscan et al., 1986; Bruzek, 2002;
Krogman and Iscan, 1986; Novotny, 1986).
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Fig. 3. Skeleton Recording Sheet of Tomb 3 – Crispia Salvia.
T he «Painted» Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia (Marsala-TP) – 2nd Century C.E.
Fig. 4. Skeleton Recording Sheet of Tomb 4 – Iulius Demetrius.
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Determination of the Biological Age of Death
The methods employed refer to the degree of dental wear proposed initially
by Brothwell (Brothwell, 1981) and then by Lovejoy (Lovejoy, 1985), and to the
ribs’ sternal extremity (margins and surface) morphological changes based
(Iscan et al., 1984; Oettlé and Steyn, 2000).
Anthropometry
As mentioned above, skeletal remains measurements and related index
were taken and calculated on what is proposed by Martin and Saller (Martin
and Saller, 1957).
The height (or stature) was estimated according to the methods of Trotter
and Gleser (Trotter and Gleser, 1952; 1958; 1977).
Skeleton biology - Determination of Diseases and MOS
Pathologies were identified through a non-invasive analysis according
to Canci and Minozzi (Canci and Minozzi, 2005), Ortner (Ortner, 2003) and
Capasso (Capasso, 1985). Special attention was dedicated to the Markers of
Occupational Stress (MOS) (Capasso et al., 1999). For the MOS related to the
dentition, the reference was Hillson (Hillson, 1996).
Results and Discussion
We have divided the results into two sections, concerning Tomb 3 and
Tomb 4 of the Hypogeum. The osteological recognition provided the
biological profile and the main anthropological features of the buried. The
study contributed new data useful to understand the lifestyle and the general
conditions of the buried individuals, corollary to the knowledge of the
historical and archaeological contexts.
Anthropological Analysis «Tomb 3»
Tomb 3 is a primary burial with osteological remains of an individual.
Thanks to the epigraph dedicated by Iulius Demetrius to his dead wife we know
the tomb was that of Crispia Salvia (Fig. 5). She was a woman of noble origins
who died at about 45 years old (Giglio, 1996a; Bivona, 2000).
T3 Determination of Sex
Considering that the skull was fragmented and incomplete, the analysis
of the skeletal sex focused on the pelvic fragments (Ferembach, 1979; Iscan et
al., 1986; Bruzek, 2002; Novotny, 1986). All the diagnostic characters available
(right iliac wing and the sacrum) show female characteristics (ample and
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U-shaped ischial incisura and sacrum with the classic «spoon» shape).
Moreover, a suite of characters such as the short (left) scapula, the femura
with a slightly harsh line and the small ribs and vertebral bodies supported
this conclusion (Krogman and Iscan, 1986).
Fig. 5. Skeleton of burial in Tomb 3 – Crispia Salvia.
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T3 Determination of the Biological Age of Death
In accordance with the epigraph which reports that Crispia Salvia died at
45 years old (considerable for that period), the skeleton was that of an adult.
To corroborate this conclusion, a first evaluation was based on the degree of
dental wear (Brothwell, 1981; Lovejoy, 1985). The method (with its diagnostic
limits) showed an uncommon light wear not coherent with the age inferred
from the funerary epigraph. At this point, we considered the ribs’ sternal
extremity (margins and surface) morphological changes, all of which showed
irregular and raised margins (with the widened surface) attributable to the
range 35-54 years (Iscan et al., 1984; Oettlé and Steyn, 2000), in accordance
with the age reported in the epigraph.
T3 Anthropometry
Measuring the right radius (the only entire long bone of T3), we calculated
some anthropometric indices, such as the diaphiseal index and robustness
index (Martin and Saller, 1957), that attested to a general slender body
constitution and a height of about 163 cm (Tab. 1-I) (Trotter and Gleser, 1952;
1958; 1977).
Tab. 1. Table Reporting Anthropometry and Height of (I) Crispia Salvia and (II) Iulius Demetrius.
T3 Diseases and MOS
In summary, the anthropological data of the T3 skeleton allowed us to
determine that the specimen belongs to a female 35-54 years old, about 163
cm in height. The lack of skeleton diseases and MOS (for instance arthrosis
and osteophytes), combined with a slender build (long fingers and toes,
narrow ribs, no evidence of muscle insertion on the long bones and small
kneecaps and sacrum) suggested that the specimen had a quite comfortable
lifestyle (Canci and Minozzi, 2005; Ortner, 2003). Further, the platicnemia
and platymeria of the left tibia and femur, and the body constitution, suggest
that the specimen carried out a limited physical activity (Capasso, 1985). In
contrast to this observation, we observed a general flattening of the left tibia
T he «Painted» Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia (Marsala-TP) – 2nd Century C.E.
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sometimes associated with walking on steep or uneven ground (Capasso et
al., 1999). Teeth affected by very limited damage and the absence of diseases
related to mechanical stress indicated proper chewing and access to foods
that are not particularly stressful (only a few mild cavities and tartar linked
to the bad oral hygiene at the times ‒ Hillson, 1996). It is reasonable to assume,
according to historical and archaeological references, that the T3 female
individual lived in a comfortable environment enjoying the good health
prerogative of the patrician families of Lilibeo.
T3 Special Finds
The accuracy of the funerary ritual and the integrity of T3 was attested by
the discovery of the ossified «thyroid cartilage» which is a rare and extremely
breakable element, difficult to find intact especially in a disturbed context.
Anthropological Analysis «Tomb 4»
T4 is a single burial that holds the skeleton of the husband of Crispia
Salvia, Iulius Demetrius who homaged his deceased wife with this priceless
monument. The discovery of the two fibulae, still in situ, in supine position
suggests that it was a single primary burial (Fig. 6).
T4 Determination of Sex
During the preliminary step, part of the neurocranium was restored and
reconstructed. A very marked inion and nuchal line, both typical male sexual
characters, were described. Moreover, the large and robust mastoid process
supported the hypothesis that it was an adult male.
T4 Determination of the Biological Age at Death
Through the T4 teeth recovered (listed in Fig. 3) it was possible to estimate
an age at death between 35 and 45 years old (Brothwell, 1981; Lovejoy, 1985).
Considering the limits of the method age of death was also determined by
the ribs’ sternal extremity changes. The extremities showed irregular and
raised surface edges and, on this base, the age at death was estimated to range
between 35 and 54 years (Iscan et al., 1984; Oettlé and Steyn, 2000).
T4 Anthropometry
To estimate the height of the T4 specimen we analysed the fibulae
(the only two intact long bones of the skeleton) recovered in 2019. All the
necessary measurements were taken and the anthropometric indices
obtained (the diaphiseal index and the robustness index) attested to a robust
body constitution (Martin and Saller, 1957). The fibulae maximum lengths
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provided a height of about 175 cm (Tab. 1-II) (Trotter and Gleser, 1952; 1958;
1977) that is above the average of the time (Di Salvo and Schimmenti, 2008; Di
Salvo et al., 2008; La Torre and Raffa, 2016; Lauria, 2020).
Fig. 6. Skeleton of burial in Tomb 4 – Iulius Demetrius.
T he «Painted» Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia (Marsala-TP) – 2nd Century C.E.
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T4 Diseases and MOS
Degenerative arthrosis and arthritic processes accompanied by vertebral
«osteophytes beaks» were evident on T4 bones. Several strong MOS
characterized the whole skeleton that appeared robust and with no signs of
nutritional deficiencies (Canci and Minozzi; Capasso, 1985; Ortner, 2003).
Notable were the powerful ribs (and their strong connection with the
vertebral bodies), and the remarkable muscular imprints (in particular on the
right shoulder blade and on all the legs and feet bones). These traits were
presumably due to intense physical training, probably in the martial arts
(Capasso et al., 1999). The right femur characterized by a marked hypertrophy
and a huge ossification of the linea aspera was highly significant. On the
left femur, great and lesser trochanters carried powerful gluteal muscular
insertion; the very robust patellae were characterized by osteophytic
formations on the anterior surface and around the quadriceps femoris insertion
site area. The fibulae also had strong muscular insertions (more accentuated
on the vastus lateralis insertion area) while on the heels’ posterior side bony
spicules, with vertical development, occupied the whole area of the insertion
of the tendo calcaneus.
The entheseal changes listed above precisely describe the so called
«knight markers» which means a robust skeletal structure highly stressed by
intense use of the entire body (Capasso et al., 1999). The findings could be the
evidence that T4 was a man prepared for the art of war (the elite soldiers, as
knights were generally privileged rich members of the society).
Conclusion
The newly available data presented above, confirm and support the
archaeological deductions, further clarifying the anthropological and
historical-archaeological context. According to our analysis, the human
remains belong to two individuals a male and a female between 35 and 54
years old. A general slender build and a height of about 162 cm characterize
the female remains (T3- Crispia Salvia). On the contrary, the male remains
(T4- Iulius Demetrius) are rather robust with strong muscular insertions and a
height of about 175 cm. The palaeopathological analysis of T3 female revealed
only mild and occasional osteoarticular degenerative pathologies with no
signs of functional stress except for a general flattening on the left tibia and
femur. Instead, the T4 male remains had evidence of widespread arthrosis
and vertebral osteophytic beaks. Several entesial changes on the muscle and
tendon insertion areas (especially in the legs and the feet) are, reasonably, the
consequence of intense physical activity and equestrian practice (Capasso et
al., 1999). T3 and T4 teeth show slight attrition, with some cavities and tartar.
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Overall, the osteological analysis clearly shows that both the specimens
belonged to high-ranking individuals characterized by conditions and
lifestyles that were exclusive to Roman patrician families.
The onomastics of the name of the buried (defuntam) in T3, Crispia Salvia
allowed us to infer her origins from two families (gentes) of considerable
importance, the Crispii and the Salvii (previously attested in Lilibeo and
western Sicily). The gentilitial Crispius (testified by several tools discovered
in various sites and Segesta by tiles bearing the C.A.) was connected to a
family that had considerable economic interests in the area. Even the Salvii,
attested to Lilibeo by another funerary inscription, belonged to a high social
rank. However, the origins of the husband are less clear indeed, given the
widespread distribution of the name Iulius Demetrius in all the Sicilian cities.
He could have belonged to high-ranking personalities, (such as magistrates
and municipal), Roman citizens and even to freedmen (Bivona, 2000).
This work highlights the importance of combining anthropological
study, where possible, with archaeological evaluations. Specifically, the
anthropological study consisted in defining the parameters of skeletal biology
on two individuals that the archaeological and epigraphic context placed in a
well-defined social and elitist stratum of the Lilibeo context. The possibility
of evaluating age with anthropological methods on a sample of known age
(the age of Crispia Salvia is epigraphically attested) has also highlighted the
possibility that the skeletal or dental morphological analysis may give results
that do not correspond to other evidence.
Acknowledgement ― The authors thanks Professor Jacopo Moggi for the useful
revision and suggestions. The authors thanks the pro tempore Director of the Park
Arch. Enrico Caruso and the Director of the Museum, Dr Anna Maria Parrinello
(today Director of the Park), for the authorization to study the materials, the kindness
and the availability shown. Authors also thanks the whole Regional Archaeological
Park of Lilibeo for the excellent hospitality that gives us the opportunity to carry out
this study.
Corresponding author: gabriele.lauria03@unipa.it
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