977
An acanthocephalan parasite boosts the escape performance
of its intermediate host facing non-host predators
V. MEDOC and J.-N. BEISEL*
Université Paul Verlaine-Metz, Laboratoire des Interactions Ecotoxicologie, Biodiversité, Ecosystèmes (LIEBE), CNRS
UMR 7146, Campus Bridoux, rue du général Delestraint, F-57070 Metz, France
(Received 28 September 2007; revised 26 December 2007 and 7 March 2008; accepted 7 March 2008; first published online 14 May 2008)
SUMMARY
Among the potential effects of parasitism on host condition, the ‘ increased host abilities ’ hypothesis is a counterintuitive
pattern which might be predicted in complex-life-cycle parasites. In the case of trophic transmission, a parasite increasing
its intermediate host’s performance facing non-host predators improves its probability of transmission to an adequate,
definitive host. In the present study, we investigated the cost of infection with the acanthocephalan Polymorphus minutus on
the locomotor/escape performance of its intermediate host, the crustacean Gammarus roeseli. This parasite alters the
behaviour of its intermediate host making it more vulnerable to predation by avian definitive hosts. We assessed the
swimming speeds of gammarids using a stressful treatment and their escape abilities under predation pressure. Despite
the encystment of P. minutus in the abdomen of its intermediate host, infected amphipods had significantly higher
swimming speeds than uninfected ones (increases of up to 35%). Furthermore, when interacting with the non-host
crustacean predator Dikerogammarus villosus, the highest escape speeds and greatest distances covered by invertebrates
were observed for parasitized animals. The altered behaviour observed among the manipulated invertebrates supported the
‘ increased host abilities ’ hypothesis, which has until now remained untested experimentally. The tactic of increasing the
ability of infected intermediate hosts to evade potential predation attempts by non-host species is discussed.
Key words: escape response, Gammarus roeseli, locomotor performance, non-host predators, parasite-induced behaviour,
Polymorphus minutus.
INTRODUCTION
Parasites with complex life-cycles have received a
growing amount of interest because of the subtle
interactions they develop with their intermediate
hosts. Indeed, natural selection is thought to favour
any parasite-induced alteration of host phenotype
that results in increased trophic transmission to final
hosts (the ‘ manipulation hypothesis ’, see Moore and
Gotelli, 1990). This is a well-developed characteristic in acanthocephalans which use invertebrates
to reach their final, vertebrate hosts via the trophic
pathway (Bethel and Holmes, 1977 ; Moore, 1984 ;
Kennedy, 2006). Parasite-induced behavioural
alterations are varied and include reaction to light
(Bauer et al. 2000 ; Cézilly et al. 2000 ; PerrotMinnot, 2004), vertical distribution (Cézilly et al.
2000 ; Bauer et al. 2005 ; Médoc et al. 2006), drift
behaviour (McCahon et al. 1991 ; Maynard et al.
1998), activity level (Dezfuli et al. 2003) and antipredator behaviour (Baldauf et al. 2007 ; PerrotMinnot et al. 2007 ; Kaldonski et al. 2007). Even
though the resulting trophic transmission has rarely
been verified in the field, manipulation tends to make
infected intermediate hosts more likely to be preyed
* Corresponding author : Tel: +(0)3 87 37 84 29. Fax :
+(0)3 87 37 84 23. E-mail : beisel@univ-metz.fr
upon by the parasite’s definitive host (Lagrue et al.
2007 ; Perrot-Minnot et al. 2007).
Basically, we considered 3 hypotheses about the
potential effects of parasitism on host condition
(Fig. 1). Firstly, the ‘ no effect ’ hypothesis (Fig. 1A)
is very poorly documented because it has not generated wide support in the scientific community
(Poulin, 2000), considering that it is difficult to imagine an infection without any negative consequences
on host condition. Secondly, contrary to the previous
hypothesis, the ‘ handicapped host ’ hypothesis, in
which parasitism-induced effects handicap the infested animals (Fig. 1B), is frequently cited. Effects
can include direct, pathological ones, for example
when the parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis reduces
growth rate and oxygen consumption in its
Gammarus pulex host (Rumpus and Kennedy, 1974).
Alternatively, the effect could be more indirect as
observed by Mouritsen and Poulin (2003) when infection by the trematode Curtuteria australis decreased the ability of its intermediate host, the New
Zealand Austrovenus stutchburyi cockle, to burrow.
As a result, this ‘handicapped’ mollusc becomes
more conspicuous to both definitive avian hosts and
non-host fishes. Finally, according to the ‘ increased
host abilities ’ hypothesis (Fig. 1C), both the parasite
and its intermediate host benefit from parasiteinduced behavioural alterations. For parasites with
Parasitology (2008), 135, 977–984. f 2008 Cambridge University Press
doi:10.1017/S0031182008004447 Printed in the United Kingdom
978
V. Medoc and J.-N. Beisel
A
B
C
Fig. 1. Potential effects of parasitism on host condition as
predicted by the ‘no effect ’ (A), the ‘handicapped host ’
(B) and the ‘ increased host abilities ’ (C) hypotheses.
complex life-cycles, this apparently paradoxical
pattern could be favoured by natural selection if the
increased abilities of the manipulated intermediate
hosts prevent parasites from dying in unsuitable
predators. A potential mechanism underlying the
‘ increased host abilities ’ hypothesis could be tradeoffs in energy allocation within host-parasite systems.
Thus, infected hosts might avoid unsuitable predatory hosts more effectively than uninfected ones if,
for example, they allocate energy to locomotory
instead of reproductive or foraging functions. An
increased ability of infected intermediate hosts to
evade predation attempts by non-host species does
not prevent the parasite from manipulating its
intermediate host in ways that increase encounter
rates with appropriate final hosts, in particular when
the non-host species is an arthropod and the final
host is a waterbird.
Gammarus roeseli is a freshwater amphipod of
Balkan-European origin (Karaman and Pinkster,
1997 ; Pöckl et al. 2003) that was recorded for the
first time in France (vicinity of Paris) in 1835
(Jazdzewski, 1980). Now considered as naturalized
in France, G. roeseli is the intermediate host for the
acanthocephalan Polymorphus minutus. Following a
physical stimulus, infected G. roeseli exhibit vertical
displacement towards the water’s surface which
could enhance their chances of it being consumed by
a bird, the parasite’s definitive host (Bauer et al.
2005). Within a biological invasion context, this reverse geotactism renders parasitized specimens less
vulnerable than uninfected G. roeseli to the new,
benthic predator Dikerogammarus villosus (Médoc
et al. 2006). D. villosus is a crustacean gammarid of
Ponto-Caspian origin whose aggressive, predatory
behaviour is well documented (Dick and Platvoet,
2000 ; Dick et al. 2002 ; Bollache et al. 2004). This
amphipod has never been observed as an intermediate or a paratenic host of P. minutus (personal
observations).
The Gammarus/Polymorphus host-parasite association allows us to investigate a counter-intuitive
tactic that consists of increasing the ability of infected
intermediate hosts to evade predation attempts
by non-host species. This hypothesis has received
little attention until now and has remained untested
experimentally. Thanks to the development of a
method to measure accurately the swimming speed
of invertebrates, we studied a predator prey interaction regarding the escape speeds of preys. In this
study, we investigated in detail the escape efficiency
of G. roeseli in predator evasion faced with the
benthic amphipod D. villosus. To test the ‘ increased
host abilities ’ hypothesis, the locomotor performance of P. minutus-infected G. roeseli was assessed
experimentally, under stressful conditions, by recording several parameters including time spent
without displacement, average and maximum speeds.
Next, to assess the infected host’s reaction under
predation pressure, we measured the escape speed,
the distance covered by G. roeseli and the distance
between the prey and the potential predator.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Biological material
In spring and summer 2006, we used a pond net
(500 mm mesh) to collect G. roeseli in the Nied River
(Laquenexy, North-eastern France, 49x05k N and
6x19k E) and D. villosus in the Moselle River (Metz,
North-eastern France, 49x07k N and 6x10k E). The
yellow-orange cystacanth (the infective stage of
P. minutus inside its intermediate host), visible
through the host’s translucent cuticle, distinguished
infected G. roeseli from uninfected ones. All experiments were performed with males. G. roeseli males
were identified during the precopula mate-guarding
phase to avoid any confusion while D. villosus males
(from 13 to 18 mm in length) were sexed using sexual
dimorphism, with males exhibiting massive gnathopods (Devin et al. 2004). To avoid effects of size
or parasitic-load, we only selected G. roeseli males
measuring 9¡1 mm in length and harbouring 1
cystacanth. Animals were maintained separately in
the laboratory in aerated, temperature-stabilized
(12¡1 xC) water from the Nied River for 5 days
before the experiments began. Alder-leaf discs
(˘=20 mm) were provided to satiation as the sole
food resource.
Video recording device
The horizontal plan was filmed using a hermetic box
(28 cm longr28 cm wider37 cm high) with a
source of diffuse light and a webcam (Philips
ToUcam Pro II Pcvc840). This device is assumed to
protect the organisms from any external disturbance
during experiments. Tests were performed in a
979
Escape behaviour and host manipulation
Fig. 2. Pattern of escape speed of Gammarus roeseli during the first 3 sec after an aggressive encounter with the benthic
predator Dikerogammarus villosus. Following the recording method, each dot represents a frame (20 frames/s). The
swimming speeds (median and interquartile range) were obtained for each frame (see text for details) with uninfected
(A) and Polymorphus minutus-infected (B) gammarids (Nuninfected=Ninfected=36).
cylindrical glass receptacle lacking any places of
refuge (˘: 140 mm, height : 74 mm), placed inside
the box, and filled with 250 ml of aerated, temperature-stabilized (12¡1 xC) Nied river water. The low
water level (B 35 mm) encouraged amphipod displacement horizontally. Filming began once the
amphipod (G. roeseli in the first experiment and
D. villosus in the second) was carefully introduced
into the glass receptacle, using a spoon. Each video
capture was recorded for 3 min at a rate of 20 frames/
s. After each experiment the G. roeseli were dissected
to verify infection by P. minutus. The video shots
were analysed using unpublished software developed
in our laboratory. This software locates the moving
subject in a given area and computes its XY coordinates into displacement metrics.
Experiment 1 : Locomotor performance
A G. roeseli (uninfected or P. minutus-infected) was
introduced into the device and a first 3-min video
capture (control) was began immediately. Locomotor performance was assessed by exposing the
invertebrate under test to high water velocity. Thus,
at the end of the first video, we generated a circular
water-flow (B 14.66 cm.sx1 at the periphery of the
receptacle) inside the receptacle using a magnetic
stirrer (Hanna Instruments 190 M). The rotation
speed was too low to injure invertebrates (B300
rot.minx1), but the resulting flow kept the amphipod
moving. Three successive agitation periods (lasting
3, 6 and then 9 min) were each followed by a 3-min
video capture. The magnetic agitator was removed
during filming. This experiment was replicated
20 times with both uninfected and P. minutusinfected G. roeseli. The 3 and 6-min agitation periods
only slightly affected the swimming performance of
gammarids (results not shown), so in the Results
section, we focused on the first (Control) and last
(called ‘ After Treatment ’ hereafter) video shots.
The entire sequences (3600 frames for 3 min) were
analysed with our software. The time spent without
locomotor activity and the average and maximum
escape speeds in infected G. roeseli were compared
to those of uninfected individuals, before and after
the treatment.
Experiment 2 : Escape behaviour
A single G. roeseli was placed into the glass receptacle
using a spoon and acclimatized for 5 min. Then a
D. villosus male was added and a 3-min video capture
started. Twelve replicates were performed for both
uninfected and P. minutus-infected gammarids. All
D. villosus were used only once and we changed
the water before each new video shot. The shorttime experiments (3 min) prevented the prey from
being consumed by D. villosus, but its aggressiveness caused an escape response in G. roeseli
(pre-experimental inquiry). Predator encounters
were numerous in each video shot and many of them
were not aggressive. We therefore examined the
3 strongest escapes following an aggressive contact
with D. villosus using our software and considered
V. Medoc and J.-N. Beisel
980
these data as independent. The strongest escapes
were considered as the most representative of the
host potentialities. Initially, we studied the escape
pattern of G. roeseli regarding its swimming speed
following an encounter with D. villosus. For both
uninfected and P. minutus-infected individuals, the
escape speed peaked during the first second after a
contact, and then decreased with time (see Fig. 2).
Consequently, during the video shot analyses, we
focused on the first second following a physical
contact with the benthic predator to highlight differences in the escape performance between the
two prey types. The escape response of G. roeseli
within the first second following a predator encounter was divided into 4 time-intervals (0–0.25 s,
0.30–0.50 s, 0.55–0.75 s and 0.80–1 s). The average
escape speed was calculated for each time-interval
while the distance covered by G. roeseli and its
distance from D. villosus were calculated after 0.25,
0.5, 0.75 and 1 s (representing the end of the 4 timeintervals).
Statistical analysis
Speeds were calculated for each frame (20 frames/s),
based on the distance covered by G. roeseli between
2 consecutive frames. The maximum speed was
defined as the 95-percentile speed to reduce the
variability induced by extreme values.
For Exp. 1, as data did not meet normality and
homogeneity assumptions (following Shapiro-Wilk
W-tests), we performed non-parametric statistics.
The swimming activity of each individual being
recorded before and after the agitation periods
(paired samples), the treatment effect was assessed
using Wilcoxon paired-sample tests. Then, MannWhitney U-tests were performed to evaluate differences between uninfected and P. minutus-infected
gammarids (independent samples).
For Exp. 2, data that met normality and homogeneity assumptions (following Shapiro-Wilk
W-tests) were tested for significance with parametric
statistics (Student t-tests), or otherwise, with nonparametric statistics (Mann Whitney U-tests). We
performed all tests with a 5 % type I error risk, using
STATISTICA Software 6.0 (StatSoft, France).
Experiment 1 : Parasitism and locomotor activity
Fig. 3. Locomotor performance of Gammarus roeseli
infected by Polymorphus minutus. The time spent without
displacement (A), maximum (B) and average (C) speeds
(median and interquartile range) were obtained for
uninfected (white bars) and infected (black bars)
amphipods before (Control) and after an experimental
treatment including 3 disturbance sequences
(Nuninfected=Ninfected=20, see text for details). The
asterisks indicate significant differences between
uninfected and parasitized animals (Mann-Whitney
U-test, Pf0.05), whereas lower-case letters indicate
significant differences in the measurements before and
after treatment (Wilcoxon paired-sample test, Pf0.05).
No significant differences were found in the stationary times between uninfected and infected amphipods (Mann Whitney U-test, control : U=170,
N1=N2=20, P=0.43 ; after treatment : U=195,
N1=N2=20, and P=0.90, Fig. 3A) and the treatment had no effect on this parameter (Wilcoxon
paired-sample test, uninfected : T=79, N=20, P=
0.332 ; infected : T=90, N=20, P=0.575). While
the maximum speeds decreased significantly during
experiments (uninfected : T=41, N=20, P=0.017 ;
infected : T=39, N=20, P=0.014), values were
34.5 % higher for infected compared to uninfected
gammarids in controls (Mann Whitney U-test,
U=93, N1=N2=20, P=0.003, Fig. 3B) and
RESULTS
981
Escape behaviour and host manipulation
Table 1. Swimming speed (median and interquartile range) of uninfected and Polymorphus
minutus-infected Gammarus roeseli following contact with the benthic predator, Dikerogammarus villosus
(Significant statistical effects (Pf0.05, Nuninfected=Ninfected=36) are shown in bold.)
Swimming speed (mm.sx1)
Mann Whitney U-Test
Time interval (s)
Uninfected
P. minutus-infected
U
0–0.25
0.30–0.50
0.55–0.75
0.80–1
81.0 (70.0–93.5)
70.3 (39.6–98.5)
59.1 (30.4–89.7)
56.1 (28.1–80.5)
98.4 (87.5–121.9)
74.5 (39.4–109.9)
51.6 (27.7–85.0)
44.1 (28.2–77.1)
316
590
596
591
P
<0.001
0.519
0.564
0.526
remained 35 % higher after treatment (U=108,
N1=N2=20, P=0.012). The average speeds also
decreased significantly with treatment (Wilcoxon
paired-sample test, uninfected : T=38, N=20, P=
0.012 ; infected : T=6, N=20, P<0.001). Infected
G. roeseli were slightly faster than uninfected ones
in controls (Mann Whitney U-test, U=135, N1=
N2=20, P=0.081, Fig. 3C) and this difference became significant (by 19.4 %) after treatment (U=119,
N1=N2=20, P=0.028).
Experiment 2 : The escape speeds of
intermediate hosts
During the first quarter of a second, the median
swimming speeds of infected animals were 21.5 %
higher (Mann Whitney U-test, U=316, N1=
N2=36, P<0.001, Table 1), but after this short
period no differences in speed were found between
uninfected and infected amphipods. The highest
speeds were reached at the beginning (0–0.25 s) of
the escape response, with infected individuals
reaching a maximal escape speed of 150 mm.sx1, a
value 26 % higher (Fig. 4) than that of uninfected
individuals (U=357, N1=N2=36, P<0.001).
G. roeseli covered a distance at least 21.2 % longer
when infected with P. minutus only at the beginning
of the escape response (at t=0.25 s : U=316, N1=
N2=36, P<0.001 ; at t=1 s : U=583, N1=N2=36,
P=0.469, Table 2A). Hence, at the beginning of
the escape movement, the distance between the
potential predator and infected G. roeseli was significantly greater than with uninfected individuals
(at t=0.25 s : 24.2 %, Table 2B).
DISCUSSION
This study assessed the effects of P. minutus infection
on the locomotor/escape performance of its intermediate host, according to 3 hypotheses designated
‘ no effect ’, ‘ handicapped host ’ and ‘ increased host
abilities ’. Acanthocephalan parasites encysted in the
abdomen of their intermediate hosts have been found
to compress the internal organs, which is usually
considered as a handicap (Dezfuli and Giari, 1999).
To support this idea, Pascoe et al. (1995) found, in
Fig. 4. Escape speed of Gammarus roeseli interacting with
a predatory species. The escape speeds (means¡S.D.)
were observed for uninfected and Polymorphus
minutus-infected G. roeseli in the first second following
contact with Dikerogammarus villosus. Nuninfected=
Ninfected=36 and the asterisk indicates a significant
difference between uninfected and infected gammarids
(Student t-test, Pf0.05). The dotted lines refer to the
maximum swimming speeds (mean values) of uninfected
(A, N=20) and P. minutus-infected amphipods
(B, N=20) measured without D. villosus, during the
first experiment (control, see text for details).
the study of another host-parasite association, that
the feeding performance of Gammarus pulex was
altered by its infection with the acanthocephalan
parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis. In the presence of
brine shrimp eggs, infected amphipods had significantly longer median-feeding times than uninfected
ones, which was attributed to the potential physical
obstruction caused by developing cystacanth inside
the host (Pascoe et al. 1995).
For the first time, we measured the escape speed
of a crustacean amphipod and the cost of infection
by an acanthocephalan parasite on its swimming
performance. Despite most previous findings
pointing to behavioural or physiological alterations
induced by parasites (reviewed by Kennedy,
2006), our results appeared counter-intuitive by
supporting the ‘ increased host abilities ’ hypothesis.
While the time spent without displacement remained
unchanged during tests, the average and maximum
swimming speeds of G. roeseli in the absence of the
982
V. Medoc and J.-N. Beisel
Table 2. Cumulative distance covered by uninfected and Polymorphus minutus-infected Gammarus roeseli
following a contact with Dikerogammarus villosus (A), and distance between G. roeseli and this potential
predator (B) (median and interquartile range)
(Significant statistical effects (Pf0.05, Nuninfected=Ninfected=36) are shown in bold.)
(A) distance covered by G. roeseli (mm)
Mann Whitney U-Test
Time (s)
Uninfected
P. minutus-infected
U
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
20.3 (17.5–23.4)
37.0 (29.5–44.9)
50.4 (37.3–66.6)
67.1 (49.1–91.3)
24.6 (21.9–30.5)
44.0 (34.1–56.3)
56.5 (41.3–74.0)
69.4 (50.0–97.7)
316
470
537
583
P
<0.001
0.045
0.211
0.469
(B) distance between G. roeseli and D. villosus (mm)
Mann Whitney U-Test
Time (s)
Uninfected
P. minutus-infected
U
P
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
33.1 (29.9–40.3)
39.3 (33.4–55.3)
50.0 (34.1–66.0)
54.7 (33.4–73.4)
41.1 (33.3–46.4)
48.6 (38.9–61.9)
50.2 (38.2–78.7)
52.9 (32.3–78.7)
393
495
576
646
0.004
0.086
0.423
0.987
predator were significantly higher when infected by
P. minutus (at least 20 %), both before and after the
treatments. Furthermore, following an encounter
with the benthic predator D. villosus, the highest
escape speeds were observed in infected animals.
As the difference between escape and capture in
a predator-prey encounter can be decided in a splitsecond interaction (Wisenden et al. 1999), parasitized amphipods exhibiting a prompt escape might
have much more time to seek shelter from attack than
healthy individuals.
To support this idea, we found that the distance
covered by infected gammarids, at the beginning
of an escape (0–0.5 s), significantly exceeded those of
uninfected individuals. Consequently, the distance
between D. villosus and G. roeseli was greater when
the latter was infected by P. minutus. Thus, under
natural conditions, this ability might increase the
probability for infected prey to be out of reach of a
potential predator.
From the parasite’s perspective, the increased
escape response of infected G. roeseli interacting
with D. villosus does not directly enhance parasite
transmission to the definitive host, but might prevent
cystacanths from dying in an inappropriate, non-host
predator. Combined with a negative geotaxis (Bauer
et al. 2005 ; Médoc et al. 2006) the escape response
induced by P. minutus makes the infected intermediate hosts available for surface predators. However, the transmission of P. minutus to water birds
remains to be verified experimentally (but see Bethel
and Holmes, 1977 with Gammarus lacustris infected
by Polymorphus paradoxus).
The deleterious effects of P. minutus infection
on the fitness of its crustacean hosts are welldocumented, especially in Gammarus pulex. Alibert
et al. (2002) suggested a positive association between acanthocephalan infection and developmental
instability in G. pulex. Ward (1986) reported total
castration of infected females and an accompanying
decrease in their pairing probability (Bollache et al.
2002). Finally, acanthocephalans do not interfere
with spermatogenesis according to CharniauxCotton and Payen (1985) (reported in G. lacustris
infected by Polymorphus parodoxus and P. marilis, see
Zohar and Holmes, 1998). However, the pairing
success of G. pulex males infected with P. minutus is
considerably reduced (Bollache et al. 2001). G. roeseli
used in this study is considered to be a recent host
species compared to the more intensively studied
G. pulex. Although both amphipod species show a
negative geotaxis when parasitized with P. minutus,
the effect is greater in the native host G. pulex than
in G. roeseli (see Bauer et al. 2005). Without further
investigation and considering only the deleterious
effects of infection on a host’s condition, such differences in the manipulation efficiency could be
wrongfully interpreted as a less well-adapted strategy
to newly-colonizing host species. In contrast, our
results contribute additional elements to the
P. minutus-induced effects underlying a potential
adaptation which might favour parasite fitness with
regard to non-host predator avoidance. The selective
role of non-host predators on the parasite’s transmission strategy was demonstrated in a mollusc/
trematode host-parasite association (Levri, 1998).
Escape behaviour and host manipulation
The author found that infection with the trematode
Microphallus sp. altered the daily foraging behaviour
of the snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum in a timespecific manner, which minimizes its exposure to
an inappropriate predator, the New Zealand fish
(Gobiomorphus cotidianus).
In support of the ‘ increased host abilities ’ hypothesis, a recent study performed on the same
G. roeseli population investigated the salinity tolerance of this host-parasite system (Piscart et al.
2007). Infected amphipods were found to be much
more resistant than uninfected individuals, and this
pattern was not related to ATPase activity, the
principal ion-exchange mechanism in aquatic crustaceans. Beyond the implication for animal dispersion, this pattern might increase parasite fitness by
keeping the transmission effective under stressful
conditions.
In conclusion, short time-scale measurements
of G. roeseli swimming speed indicated that the
first second following an encounter with a benthic
predator was crucial in determining the outcome of
the interaction. Infection with P. minutus significantly increased G. roeseli swimming activity over
this critical time-frame, thus reducing the chance
of parasite death in an unsuitable host species.
However, although this would leave the infected
gammarid available for predation by a suitable water
bird definitive host, the impact of this increase in
swimming ability on interactions with water bird
predators remains to be investigated.
We wish to thank Philippe Rousselle (Université Paul
Verlaine – Metz) warmly for the computer software used
in the behavioural study of gammarids and Anna MathenyCartier for her linguistic corrections of an earlier version
of the manuscript. We gratefully thank Dennis Webb
(University of Rennes) for its suggestions on a revised
manuscript. We are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions. This
study was funded by the French Ministry of Ecology
and Sustainable Development as part of the 2003–2005
Biological Invasions Program, and by a grant from the
‘ Conseil Régional de la Région Lorraine ’ to V.M.
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