ALLS, Vol 7, No 1 (2016)

Advances in Language and Literary Studies Online ISSN: 2203-4714 Advances in Language and Literary Studies [ALLS] All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of "Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD". All papers published in this book are accessible online. Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, PhD. University of Houston, United States Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, PhD Ruzbeh Babaee, PhD Journal Information ISSN: 2203-4714 ISBN: 978-1-291-71811-9 Website: www.alls.aiac.org.au & http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/index E-mail: editor.alls@aiac.org.au Publisher Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD. 11 Souter Crescent, Footscray VIC 3011 Australia Phone: +61 3 9028 6880 Website: http://www.aiac.org.au Hardcopy Provider Lulu Press Inc. 3101 Hillsborough Street Raleigh, NC 27607 USA Web: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/AIAC 2010 – 2016 © ALLS No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. ii ALLS Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, University of Houston, United States Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Ruzbeh Babaee Advisory Board Andrew Weiler, Holmesglen Institute, Australia Brian Tomlinson, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom John I. Liontas, University of South Florida, United States Mark Pegrum, The University of Western Australia, Australia NS Prabhu, National University of Singapore, Singapore Editorial Board Alex Ho-Cheong Leung, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom Ali Miremadi, California State University, United States Andrés Canga Alonso, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Anthony J. Liddicoat, University of South Australia, Australia Bakhtiar Naghdipour, Girne American University, Cyprus Canzhong Wu, Macquarie University, Australia Chan Swee Heng, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Chamkaur Singh Gill, Bond University, Australia Darryl Jones, Trinity College, Ireland Dat Bao, Monash University, Australia Fadil S Elmenfi, Omar Al-Mukhtar University/Derna, Libya iii Holi Ibrahim Holi, Rusaq College of Applied Sciences, Oman I Wayan Arka, Australian National University, Australia Jason Brown, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Karim Hajhashemi, James Cook University, Australia Leila Lomashvili, Shawnee State University, United States Kylie Cardell, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Mahmoud M Gewaily, Minia University, Egypt Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz, Near East University, Cyprus Mohammad Reza Shams, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Mounir Jilani Ben Zid, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Natasha Pourdana, Gyeongju University, Korea, Republic of Neil Anderson, James Cook University, Australia Shaofeng Li, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Siamak Babaee, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Vahed Zarifi, Iran, Islamic Republic of Wayne DeFehr, University of Alberta, Canada Wisdom Agorde, University of Alberta, Canada iv Vol 7, No 1 (2016) Table of Contents Articles Language, Teaching and Attrition: A Study on Selected Teachers Who Left the Profession Aminu Aliyu Wushishi, Muhammed Baba 1-4 An Evaluative Study of Machine Translation in the EFL Scenario of Saudi Arabia Raneem Khalid Al-Tuwayrish 5-10 Text me! Interpersonal Discourse Analysis of Egyptian Mobile Operators’ SMSs Mai Samir El-Falaky 11-20 Language Choice and Use of Malaysian Public University Lecturers in the Education Domain Tam Lee Mei, Ain Nadzimah Abdullah, Chan Swee Heng, Zalina Binti Mohd 21-32 Kasim The Acquisition of English Restrictive Relative Clauses by Arab Adult EFL Learners Hayat Eid Alroudhan 33-53 Correlation between Picture Use in Test Format and Students’ Vocabulary Achievement - Vedyanto 54-59 Relationship between Gender and Vocabulary Teaching Methodology among Iranian EFL Children: A Comparison of TPR and Direct Method Nazgol Nekoui Naeini, Mohsen Shahrokhi 60-74 Psychological and Cultural Borderlands in Tayyib Salih’s Season of Migration to the North Hussein Hasan Zeidanin 75-79 A Pragmatic Study of Humor Sura Dhiaa Ibraheem, Nawal Fadhil Abbas 80-87 The Prayers and Tears of Foucault: Panopticism and the Politics of Dissent in An Enemy of the People and Look Back in Anger Mojtaba Jeihouni, Pouria Torkamaneh 88-97 Poetics of Narrative: A Study on The Sons of the Wind by Laila Al Atrash Asmaa M. Al Zuraigat, Hussein Hasan Zeidanin 98-104 Particle Choices and Collocation in Cameroon English Phrasal Verbs Napoleon Epoge 105-113 v Relationship between the Onset Age of Bilingualism and Development of Cognitive Control among Nigerians Yasir Bdaiwi Jasim Al-Shujairi, Jamila AbdulAzeez Buba, Mohammed Sani Ya'u 114-121 The Situation of Colonial 'Other' in V. S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas Tahereh Siamardi, Reza Deedari 122-129 Comparison and Contrast between First and Second Language Learning Javed Akhter, Muhammad Amin, Faria Saeed, Shumaila Abdullah, Khair 130-134 Muhammad Complexity Level in the Use of Tense and Aspect as Perceived and Experienced by Arab EFL Learners Ahmed Mohammed Al-Quyadi 135-147 Examining the Impact of Novel Pre-activity Tasks on Macroskills: The Case of Group Discussion on Writing Ability Hooshang Khoshsima, Esmail Zare-Behtash, Mahboobeh Khosravani 148-156 The Notion of Unhomeliness in the Pickup: Homi Bhabha Revisited Ali Akbar Moghaddasi Rostami, Farid Parvaneh 157-160 Overcoming Impediments to Learning the Four Language Skills Using Note Books Anne A. Christopher 161-167 Reading through Films Madhavi Gayathri Raman, - Vijaya 168-174 Explicit-implicit Distinction: A Review of Related Literature Marwan A. Jarrah 175-184 The Acquisition of Phrasal Verbs through Cognitive Linguistic Approach: The Case of Iranian EFL Learners Mohammad Javad Ansari 185-194 Through the Lens of Good Language Learners: What Are Their Strategies? Nurhuda Mohamad Nazri, Melor Md Yunus, Nur Dalila Mohamad Nazri 195-202 A Study of the Spelling Errors committed by Students of English in Saudi Arabia: Exploration and Remedial Measures Paikar Fatima Mazhar Hameed 203-207 Analytical Study of the Status of Myth in the Creation of Literary and Artistic Works Sedigheh Sherkat Moghaddam, Andia Abai 208-213 vi Does Teaching English in Saudi Primary Schools Affect Students’ Academic Achievement in Arabic Subjects? Othman Aljohani 214-225 Interpretation of Whorf from Different Perspectives Yanlong Wang 226-234 Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story: Echo/es of Contemporary Subversive Culture Naqibun Nabi, Firoz Ahmed 235-241 An Evaluation of Top Notch Fundamentals B: A Four Phase Study Marzie Ahmadi 242-247 African Identity, Self and Other, in Obama’s Dreams from My Father Azza Ahmed Heikal, Heba Mohamed Abdel Aziz 248-252 vii Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Language, Teaching and Attrition: A Study on Selected Teachers Who Left the Profession Aminu Aliyu Wushishi (Corresponding author) Center for interpretive and Qualitative Research (CIQR) Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States E-mail: amliyu@yahoo.com Muhammed Baba Dept. of Education Foundations, Niger State College of Education Minna, Niger State, Nigeria Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.1 Received: 18/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.1 Accepted: 24/10/2015 Abstract Nigeria is a country with over 520 different languages, the multitude nature of languages is making instructions so difficult in Schools, particularly in North-Central Nigeria where they have students with different language background attending the same school. The difficulty of smooth teaching in this kind of situation is leading to attrition among teachers. This study examines the situation of selected teachers in Niger State, Nigeria, who left the teaching profession as a result of difficulty in teaching their students, whom they said cannot efficiently understand the official language of instruction (English). The teachers highlighted their main reason of leaving the profession which is mainly associated with language problem among students, they added that, the massive failure of students in the final examination has a link with the student’s inability to understand what the teachers are teaching because of their poor background in English language. The paper recommends the use of one major local language (Hausa) in teaching the students, this will make learning easy and students will efficiently comprehend instructions from their teachers, which may go a long way in reducing attrition. Keywords: Language, Teaching, Attrition 1. Introduction In Nigeria, there are concerns about the fact that teaching is a profession which is characterised by high rate of attrition (Bashar 2011). The problem of teacher retention is regularly headlined in the media and attracted series of researches among scholars in the country. The worry lies within the fact that many teachers in Nigeria who had invested time and effort into qualifying to teach had chosen to leave the profession. Growing concern about nationwide teacher shortage has focused considerable attention on education and teaching profession, several conditions account to this national crisis including increasing population of students’ enrolment and teacher attrition (Garba 2012). Throughout the decade, Nigerian schools required annual infusions of many new teachers to meet the demands of growing students’ enrolments, expanded years of schooling, and teacher attrition issues (Bashar 2011). In a similar report, Adamu (2010) commented that school staffing problems are primarily due to excess demand resulting from a ‘revolving door’ where large numbers of teachers depart from their jobs for reasons other than retirement. While few numbers of Nigerian teachers remained stable in their positions, more teachers left the teaching profession than had entered. Thus, schools are losing more teachers than they are recruiting or retaining (Adamu 2010). In Northern part of Nigeria, teacher attrition rate has rapidly raised within four years, in 2008 the rate was 13.9% but increased 20.1% in 2012, majority of the teachers moved to other profession due to some reasons like; improved condition of service in other profession, less stress, and working hours (Garba 2012). In a report released by Niger State Secondary School Board, (2012) the rate of attrition from 2010-2012 was analysed. It has shown that as at 2010 the state has 12,280 teachers while in the same year a total of 1,338 which is about 10.9% exited out of the teaching profession. In 2011, the number increased to 1,702 amounting to 15.5%. The number of teachers who quitted out of teaching profession in year the 2012 was reported to increase to 1,950 which is about 21.1%. This shows consistent increase in teacher attrition in the state. Teachers are leaving the profession to other professions such as Immigration, Customs, Civil defence corps, Politics and other Civil service which has better payment and less stressful. One fundamental aspect of the report was that, from the year 2010-2012, the state has lost a total of 4,990 teachers as a result of attrition, which is about 47.5%. Out of the three educational zones, Minna Educational Zone has the highest rate of attrition with 20.05%, out of the 47.5%, Bida educational zone with 15.3% and Kontagora zone with 12.2% within the period covered by the report. In addition, the rate of attrition was higher among male than female and within the early period of teaching career. ALLS 7(1):1-4, 2016 2 Recent surveys conducted by Niger state secondary education board (2012) showed that, language subjects suffered in terms of teacher attrition. According to the report, the state has no enough qualified language teachers and 7 out of every 20 leave to other profession yearly. This number is significant compared to the number of schools in the state and high population of students in the schools. In a study conducted by Ade (2010) on students of Language Dept. of a University in Lesotho found that almost twothird of those interviewed indicated that, they don’t want to become teachers, and even if they become, they will leave the teaching profession and go into some different occupation within the next five years. This sign of extreme discouragement with the teaching profession is particularly common among language teachers who participated in the survey. This scenario of language teachers intending to leave the profession is common among schools in Nigeria particularly in the Northern part of Nigeria where the level of education is low compared to the Southern part of the country. 2. Methodology To extract the views of teachers on why they left the profession, a qualitative method was used. Qualitative research is about understanding peoples’ interpretation, their experience and meaning they attributes to certain phenomenon (Merriam: 2009). It has also been added by Creswell (2009) that, a qualitative method is a kind of method in research that is aimed at exploring or understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. In qualitative study the intention of the researcher is to listen to the voice of participants or observe them in their natural environments (Field & Morse, 1992). There are different forms of qualitative research, but a phenomenological case study was selected in conducting this research with the aim of capturing the experience of the participants in details. Five teachers who left teaching were purposively selected based on their experience in teaching and with vast idea on problem of language among the students they taught. The selection was done through snow balling. A teacher who left the profession was first identified, he then suggested other teachers who left as well. All the teachers selected are graduates in the different field of study. In qualitative research, the researcher is the instrument unlike in quantitative research where a set of questions are itemised to solicit information. Interview is mainly used to collect data in qualitative research, to be supported by observation, and analysis of relevant documents. This research was also in line with the qualitative protocol. The researchers used interview to obtain their data from the participants. A tape recorder was used with the permission of the participants, and at the end of every interview session, before the next session of another interview the researchers transcribed the recorded interview verbatim so as make sure that no single vital information has escaped. The transcribed interview was visited and revisited severally with the aim of forming categories and the same process was adopted until the required themes emerged. For the sake of confidentiality the participants were anonymously referred to as; Mr. A, B, C, D & E 3. Findings of the Study 3.1 Problem of English language among students One Important factor discovered by this study as causes for teacher attrition is language problem among students. Mr. D said, There is a serious problem between us (teachers) and our students. Many of them do not understand English, as such you will spend the whole of time allocated for a period teaching and at the end the students may not understand what you are teaching. Whenever you asked the students questions regarding the treated lesson, you will realize that they don’t understand what you taught them this has always been the problem with most of students in different schools of the State. Mr. D explained further that, majority of the students in his class cannot write in English, and being a teacher he is so worried because if the students cannot effectively understand the lesson, then the aim is not achieved. He also pointed that, at times he has to use the local language in teaching the students, but the major problem is that, he can only speak one local language, while the students in the class came from different ethnic background, which he cannot speak all their local languages. Mr. A highlighted on two of his friends who left teaching before him because of language problem among their students. He said, John (an Igbo man) from the southern part of Nigeria came to this school as a Corper, and after his youth service he was retained to teach Economics, but after some months he had to leave because he is finding teaching difficult based on the fact that, he cannot combined teaching with the use of local language, because he cannot speak any of the local languages in the state. The same scenario also with Adewole who also left based on language. ALLS 7(1):1-4, 2016 3 Mr. C commented that the issue of language problems has been there for long especially among village secondary schools, because he started his teaching career at a village secondary schools were more than 80% of the school population cannot speak English, and to even write in English has also been a problem. He said that The issue of using English language as an official language is posing a great trait to our educational system especially the teaching profession. Many of our students cannot speak English and all the subjects in schools are taught in English, don’t you think that there is a missing link? Mr. C added that when he was teaching, the problem of language has been bothering his mind and is making it difficult for him to efficiently be delivering his lesson as expected. Mr. E viewed language problem among students as a big problem which is made his teaching career so boring. He always find it difficult to cope with the students because of the language barrier, he felt that teaching combing two languages (Local and English language) is not always the best because the students are not writing their final examinations with the local language but with English language. So if they cannot effectively understand English then there is a problem at the end of their studies, hence they may likely fail their final examination. He concludes that, the issue of language to him is not making teaching interesting, and is among reasons why he left teaching. Mr. A shared his experience stating that, Many of my students are having problem in English, and being the subject I taught, I find it difficult to cope with so many topics, in fact I have to repeat some topics so many times, that is why I hardly cover my syllabus before the end of the term. He added that, the language problem is commonly with the junior classes, because majority of students at this level cannot speak and understand English, to even write in English is a problem. He concludes that, language problem can be enough to push teacher out of the teaching profession, hence every teachers’ target is to impart knowledge to students. Two of the participants Mrs. C & D also mentioned language as a problem, but to them it has no much effects on the subjects they taught during their teaching career, Mr. C was teaching Mathematics before he left the profession, while Mr. D was Agricultural scientist, but they both complained lightly on how their students were not coping with the subjects because of their inability in English Language. They decided to quit out of teaching profession because of the language problem among other reasons. 3.2 Poor writing ability Another theme that emerged as reasons why the participant left the teaching was poor writing ability of their students. Apart from the poor outspoken language, many students lack the writing skills. Mr. C, commented that, whenever he administered a test to his students, marking their scripts is usually a big problem because, he cannot read some scripts he added that, I don’t understands what is wrong with our students their writing ability is so poor that you can hardly understand what they are saying. This is in line with the views of Mr. D who asserted that, beside the language problem among students that led him to leave the profession, another reason was the poor writing ability of the students. He stated that; it is annoying after teaching and you give assignment to the students and the students cannot be able to write perfectly, particularly students at the senior secondary school level. Mr. A and E shared the same opinion that, it is not all their students have have the poor writing ability, some of them can write as expected but majority have the poor writing ability and to them, the problem is making teaching uninteresting, that was why they left to another job. Although, Mr. E further explained that, the poor writing ability was not his primary reason for his leaving the profession, but it was among other reasons for his attrition. Mr. B gave different opinion stating that, during his teaching career, there was no much issue with the writing ability among the student he taught. He asserted that, majority of them can efficiently write and their writing ability was perfect. He added that, his attrition was as a result of language problem among the students. 4. Discussion 4.1 Language problem among students Language problem was the major factor of attrition among the participants who left the teaching job. All the participants complained that, they are facing difficulties in their teaching because many of their students are having problem with the official language (English). Nigeria is a country with different languages, there are more than 250 different languages (Bawa & Salahu 2012). In Niger state alone, where this study was conducted, there are over 20 different languages. Bawa & Salahu, (2012) identified the existence of over 25 different languages in the state. The interviewed teachers indicated that, the problem was serious during their teaching career and even made them with some of their colleagues to drop teaching to other jobs. One of the teachers complained that, it is disturbing to teach for the whole period while the students couldn’t comprehend, then it will be as equal as learning has not taken place. In support of this, Patricia (1998) stated that, learning occurs when individuals are able to make meaning from interrelated pieces of information which can only be done with the use of language. Language plays an important role in human life. Chater & Christiansen (2011) viewed language as the primary vehicle through which much other cultural information is transmitted either in school or at home, and hence may have produced a crucial catalytic role in the development of ALLS 7(1):1-4, 2016 4 other aspects of human culture and society. In a document produced by Queensland government of Australia (2005), stated that, 14% of their students have special needs in communicating, many of these related to their underlying language capacity. The researchers were made to understand that, the problem of language among secondary school students in the study area, emanated from the nature of primary schools in the states, which serve as the feeders to secondary schools. Most of the primary school teachers use local language in teaching the pupils, while the law says English should be the language of instruction. Although this problem is not peculiar to the study area alone. In Pakistan Coleman (2010), reported that, teachers in public schools tend to use local language in teaching their students, neglecting the use of English. The author further attributes the attitudes of the teachers to their lack of confidence in their competence or their poor ability to speak English. To ascertain the issue Language problem among students, the researchers visited some selected secondary schools to observe how instructions using the official language was going. It can been observed from the visit that, effective instruction is becoming difficult for teachers in their teaching process and it seems the students are finding the instruction a bit difficult because of their poor background on English language which was said to be the official language of Nigeria. Another discovery on why the interviewed participants left the teaching profession was the issue of poor writing ability among their students. Although one of the five participants admitted that, during his teaching career he had no problem with the writing ability among his students. But the remaining four participants indicated that their students’ writing ability was poor and discouraging in the profession. 5. Conclusion This study provides understanding on problem of language among students, which is becoming difficult for teachers in terms of effective teaching. This could be as a result of multiple mother tongue among students in the study area and the use of foreign language (English) as a medium of instruction. It will be better if government will enact a policy of adopting the major local language (Hausa) as a medium of instruction, as done in Malaysia and many other South East Asian countries where local language is used as official language. This will help in making teachers’ instruction easy and facilitate learning among students. Before concluding this part, it is important to note that, there were no much available studies on teacher attrition in relation to language problem, most studies on causes of teacher attrition focuses on low salary, poor working environment, Schools leadership style and so on. References A report on “Teacher Survey Analysis” (2012) Niger State Secondary Education Board. Adamu A. (2010) A Techniques on improving Staff Morale in Public Secondary Schools in Bauchi State. Unpublished Master thesis, Bayero University Kano, Nigeria. Ade M.L (2010) Students intention to teaching profession. A survey for ministry of Education Lesotho.2010 Australian Department of Education (2012) Promotion and transfer procedure for school teachers retrieved on 25th Sept. 2013 www.ed.gov.au Bashar M. (2011). Reforming the Teacher: An imperative for attaining the Nigerian Educational aims. International Journal of Teacher Education and Teaching, 4(1), 1-9. Bawa M.M & Salahu M.L (2012). A study on Nigeria people and culture. Star publishers. Minna. Chater, N., & Christiansen, M. H.(2011). A solution to the logical problem of language evolution: language as an adaptation to the human brain. The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 626639 Coleman H. (2010). Teaching and learning in Pakistan: The role of learning in education. The United Kingdom’s international organization for cultural relations and educational opportunities. British Council. Creswell, J.W (2009) Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage publishers: London. Field, P.A., & Morse, J.M. (1992). Nursing research. The application of qualitative approaches. London: Chapman & Hall. Garba N.A. (2012). An outlook on Educational system in Northern Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Education,3(2), 5-11. Merriam S.B. (2009). Qualitative research A guide to design and implementation: Revised and expanded from Qualitative and case study application in education 2nd edition. San Francisco: Jossey- Bas publication. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy An Evaluative Study of Machine Translation in the EFL Scenario of Saudi Arabia Raneem Khalid Al-Tuwayrish College of Science and Arts, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia E-mail: Ro0557ro@hotmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.5 Received: 25/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.5 Accepted: 27/10/2015 Abstract Artificial Intelligence or AI as it is popularly known and its corollary, Machine Translation (MT) have long engaged scientists, thinkers and linguists alike in the twenty first century. However, the wider question that lies in the relation between technology and translation is, What does technology do to language? This is an important question in the current paradigm because new translation technologies, such as, translation memories, data-based machine translation, and collaborative translation, far from being just additional tools, are changing the very nature of the translators’ cognitive activity, social relations, and professional standing. In fact, in some translation situations such as when translating technical materials or subject matter that are not a specialization with human translators, one potentially needs technology. The purview of this paper, however, is limited to the role of MT in day to day situations where the generic MT tools like Google Translate or Bing Translator are encouraged. Further, it endeavours to weigh and empirically demonstrate the pros and cons of MT with a view to recommending measures for better communication training in the EFL set up of Saudi Arabia. Keywords: AI, MT, translation, technology, necessity, communication 1. Introduction The world today has come to represent a global village. This is a result of greater human traffic across countries and continents for reasons of trade, commerce, education and tourism. Among other factors, what has aided this migration is the availability of technology: the widespread use of computers and its tools have made it possible for populace to work or live in foreign surroundings. One cannot think of a life bereft of the world wide web and email in this world. Thus we can surmise that technology is no longer an option for us, but a necessity. Today we live in a world where the use of technology dominates everything we do. One of the most important features that we get from the field of technology is ease and speed of doing everything. Demands of communication and effective use of world literatures in virtually all fields of life have compelled us to look for quality translations in our mother tongues. It is with this background that this paper endeavours to study the role of machine translation in the world of language and communication. 1.1 Defining Translation Merriam Webster defines ‘Translation’ as an act, process, or instance of translating: as. a: a rendering from one language into another; also : the product of such a rendering. b: a change to a different substance, form, or appearance : conversion. Broadly, there are four types of translation: 1) Human translation 2) Machine translation 3) Machine-Aided Human Translation 4) Human-Aided Machine Translation Whereas, the first three are familiar terms, Human aided Machine Translation is an outcome of very recent developments in the field and has been discussed later in this paper. However, irrespective of the type of translation tool employed, a good translation is the one which seems to be natural and not ‘transferred’ from another place (ref). This paper will focus on the type of translation which is basically based on technology and, that is, Machine Translation. According to linguists, Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation, MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. The need for machine translation has been increasing due to the growing need for translation in the wake of globalization, and the growing importance of communication. ALLS 7(1):5-10, 2016 6 2. Literature Review Since the paper has as its focus on Machine Translation, it would be apt to begin by citing what the software giant Microsoft has to say about it. According to Microsoft, “The principal focus of the Natural Language Processing group is to build a machine translation system that automatically learns translation mappings from bilingual corpora. The Machine Translation (MT) project at Microsoft Research is focused on creating MT systems and technologies that cater to the multitude of translation scenarios today. Data driven systems, in particular those with a statistical core engine, have proven to be the most efficient, due to their ability to adapt to a wide domain coverage and being trained in new language pairs within a matter of weeks. This team works closely with research and development partners worldwide, making the system accessible to a variety of products and services.” Further, “Machine Translation has been a major focus of the NLP group since 1999. Our approach to MT has always been “data-driven”. Rather than writing explicit rules to translate natural language, we train our algorithms on humantranslated parallel texts, which allows them to automatically learn how to translate. Our first generation Logical Form based system learned translation patterns at the level of abstract parsed structures, and was used to translate the entire Microsoft support knowledge base into several languages. Our recent research has focused on Statistical Machine Translation (SMT). Syntax-Based SMT. Translating content from English into as many foreign languages as possible is a high priority for Microsoft, not to mention the billions of people around the world who do not read English. The Treelet Translation System leverages an English natural language parser to help guide this process. This technology is currently used in several places across Microsoft, including the Live translation system for computer-related texts and the Microsoft Support site. Ongoing research has produced major improvements in the choice of word inflections and word ordering in this system. Phrase-Based SMT. Many leading SMT systems do not use any linguistic resources, such as dictionaries, grammars, or parsers. These so called “phrase-based” systems try to learn translations of arbitrary word sequences of words directly from parallel texts. By improving the methods used to prune the search for the best translation in this type of system, we have shown how to find better translations in less time than previous systems. Word Alignment. SMT systems learn translations from existing bodies of translated data. For most modern systems, identifying the word correspondences or word alignments in this translated data is a crucial step in training systems. Our group has produced pioneering work in both discriminative and generative approaches to word alignment, resulting in faster alignment algorithms with state-of-the-art quality. Language Modeling. Large n-gram language models are a crucial component in high-quality SMT systems. Trained on only target language data, they help translation systems select fluent and readable output. MSRLM is a publiclyavailable language modeling toolkit developed at MSR. The toolkit is both fast and scalable, training a 5-gram model from more than one billion pre-tokenized words in about 3 hours on a single machine.” Bar Hillel (1953) clearly states that MT should aim at rendering meaning, not words: A comment on what machines were doing in the name of translation. In a similar vein, he says that FAHQT (Fully Automatic High Quality Translation) “is impossible not only in foreseeable future but in principle”. Christian Rohrer (1953), in his paper on MT concludes with saying that, MT as a research project cuts across traditional disciplinary and institutional boundaries. Theoretical linguists, lexicographers and computer scientists must cooperate in order to solve some of the problems of (machine) translation. Grammars and dictionaries used in MT should be based on linguistic theories which are widely accepted in the linguistic community. The linguistic theories should be expressed in formalisms that fulfil the requirements of a good programming language. An open and transparent discussion between linguists and computer scientists will lead to a realistic assessment of the possibilities and prospects for MT. The well-known ALPAC (Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee), a committee of seven scientists established in 1964 by the US government ‘to evaluate the progress in computational Linguistics in general and Machine Translation in particular’, concluded in 1966 that MT funding was money wasted. Their main objection to it was that it was irrationally expensive and hence not usable on a large scale. Also it needed too much post-processing and the need for translation was really small scale and that, too, well covered by humans. Ralph Grishman (1973), in his pioneering work on Natural Language Processing, succinctly enunciates on the status and future of MT: Work on MT began in the late 1950s with high hopes and little realization of the difficulties involved. Problems in MT stimulated work in both linguistics and computational linguistics, including some of the earliest parsers. Extensive work was done in the early 1960s, but a lack of success, and in particular, a realization that fully automatic high quality translation would not be possible without fundamental work on text ‘understanding’, led to a cutback of funding. In an article interestingly named, The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language, Martin Kay (1997) says, “The only way in which the power of computers has been brought to bear on the problem of language translation is machine translation, that is, the automation of the entire process. Machine translation is an excellent research vehicle but stands no chance of filling actual needs for translation which are growing at a great rate. In the quarter century during which work on machine translation has been going on, there has been considerable progress in relevant areas of computer ALLS 7(1):5-10, 2016 7 science”. Further, and more significantly to the current study, “advances in Linguistics, important though they may have been, have not touched the core of this problem. The proper thing to do is therefore, to adopt the kind of solutions that have proved successful in other domains, namely to develop cooperative man-machine systems (bold is mine)”. According to Koehn (2004), “To adequately evaluate the quality of any translation is difficult, since it is not entirely clear what the focus of the evaluation should be. Surely, a good translation has to adequately capture the meaning of the foreign original. However, pinning down all the nuances is hard, and often differences in emphasis are introduced based on the interpretation of the translator. At the same time, it is desirable to have fluent output that can be read easily. These two goals, adequacy and fluency, are the main criteria in machine translation evaluation.” Helena Hoppe (2005), drawing from Arnold (2003: 1-2) succinctly lists the limitations of MT as the following: First of all, we cannot expect the translations to be perfect, i.e. to look polished. This would require post-editing by a human translator. However, we should be able to expect a text which is correct grammatically and which has approximately the same meaning as the source text. “Approximately” due to the fact that languages express content differently. This will be explained further in later sections. Secondly, we will definitely come across problems when there is new terminology in the source text. Translators are sometimes faced with the task of creating new expressions in the target language for a new phenomenon. This cannot be expected of a computer since it requires creativity and learning, something which we have previously established that computers are incapable of. Additionally, and this ties in with the second point, there may be phenomena in the source text which do not exist in the culture where the target text will be read. A translator would usually insert some type of explanation in the target text, i.e. act as some type of “cultural mediator” (Arnold 2003:2). This, however, can also not be expected of a computer. Due to these factors, one should have realistic expectations when examining examples of machine translation. Further, in the same paper, the writer quotes Martin Kay (2005) who says that “translation is not primarily a linguistic operation.” She clarifies that ‘What he means by --this is that making a good translation, apart from requiring linguistic knowledge, also calls for a great deal of knowledge about the world’. 3. Research problem 1. The problem of this study is expressed in the form of the following questions which the study attempts to answer: Is MT a boost or an impediment in communication? 2. What are the conditions, if any, where MT is a useful tool? 3. Can MT completely replace human translation? 4. Methodology Forty undergraduate students of English (twenty each from Levels 5ans 8) at Qassim University were identified as subjects. Four random passages in English were shortlisted: Two of these dealt with scientific processes and the other two were English versions of world history lessons. Each passage was a unique sample. Thus, there were in all four unique passages, all of them in English. Ten students each from the Humanities were assigned the same world history passage while the remaining ten were allotted the other passage. The same technique was used while assigning the scientific process passages to the level 5 undergrads. The groups were named 8.1 and 8.2 for level 8, and 5.1 and 5.2 for Level 5 students. Both groups 1 were control groups and were asked to translate the passages given to them using human means (which could also include seeking the help of seniors or teachers). Groups 2 were asked to employ any of the machine translation services available to them. A time frame of three days was allotted for the exercise. At the expiry of the duration, randomly selected two responses each from the four groups (making a total of eight responses) were evaluated by five proficient bilingual users of Arabic and English: Three were professional interpreters and two were teachers. They were to grade the translations on a qualitative scale: Very good; good; average; bad; incomprehensible. The evaluations were consolidated. Here are the results: 8.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very good Good Average Bad Incomprehensible ALLS 7(1):5-10, 2016 8 8 9 1 8.2 Very good Good Average Bad Incomprehensible Very good Good Average Bad Incomprehensible Very good Good Average Bad Incomprehensible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 5.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5. Results and Conclusion As we can see, the evaluation shows a typical staggering tendency. Here is a group wise interpretation for better understanding: 8.1: Was the level eight control group. It was asked to translate the World History passage humanly. The evaluation shows staggering towards Good and Average with only response at Bad. ALLS 7(1):5-10, 2016 9 8.2: This was level eight Experimental Group. It was asked to translate using electronic tools, a different World History passage. In other words, the machine translated this passage. The evaluation staggers towards Bad and Incomprehensible. 5.1: Was the level 5 Control Group who translated the scientific process humanly. The evaluation shows a concentration on Average. 5.2: This was the level 5 Experimental Group which shows results that are very significant to this study: When the machine translated a scientific process, results were concentrated at Very Good and Good. It may be noted here that level eight students, in the final Semester of their B.A. programme, study three main courses which are, instantaneous translation, literary translation and translation problems. Thus, it can be said that their translation proficiency is slightly better than level five learners. The level five students are half way through with their BA eight-semester Programme. They are presently doing two Translation courses i.e., Theories Translation and Legal and Political Translation. These courses are undertaken after completing Introduction to Translation in Semester 4. s Further, this study can conclude that MT is most successful as a translation tool in case of scientific materials where the nuances of language are not involved. To demonstrate my point, I fed certain English idioms for MT and the outcomes were hilarious. Here are some linguistic jokes ‘created’ by Machine (Google) Translation: It's raining cats and dogs Machine translation: ‫أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻤﻄﺮ اﻟﻘﻄﻂ واﻟﻜﻼب‬ Human translation (done by me): ‫ﯾﮭﻄﻞ اﻟﻤﻄﺮ ﺑﻐﺰارة‬/‫ﺪرارا‬ ً ِ‫ﺗﻤﻄﺮ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء ﻣ‬ • Watch out for yourself Machine translation: ‫اﺣﺘﺮس ﻣﻦ ﻧﻔﺴﻚ‬ Human translation :‫اﺣﺘﺮس ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻚ‬ • One man's food is another man's poison Machine translation: ‫اﻟﻠﺤﻢ رﺟﻞ واﺣﺪ ھﻮ اﻟﺴﻢ ﻟﺮﺟﻞ آﺧﺮ‬ Human translation: :‫ﻣﺼﺎﺋﺐ ﻗﻮم ﻋﻨﺪ ﻗﻮاﺋﻢ ﻓﻮاﺋﺪ‬ • Like a hen on a hot pan Machine translation: ‫إﻧﮫ ﻛﺪﺟﺎﺟﺔ واﻗﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﻼة ﺣﺎرة‬ Human translation: ‫ﻋﻠﻰ أﺣﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻤﺮ‬ 5.1 Recommandations MT is certainly a nascent field and it may be many years before it can completely replace human interpreters and translators. The range of human emotion and its concomitant, expression, is ever expanding and evolving. In the hands of inexperienced and untrained people, MT may prove to be a curse rather than a boon: Machine translated text should ideally be vetted by human experts. However, where the bulk of matter is gigantic but text is simple, MT can come in as a handy tool to provide the mush needed speed. In other circumstances, though, it is a potent tool to be used with caution. This is especially true in EFL situations as in Saudi Arabia where the student community is ill equipped to verify the reliability of machine translated texts. Acknowledgement I hereby present my heartfelt gratitude to my dear revered teacher Dr. Arif Ahmed Mohammed Al-Ahdal of Qassim University for the precious efforts he has made all through the process of my writing this paper. He has painstakingly yet cheerfully gone through this manuscript many a time and helped me greatly to bring it to this shape. References Advantages and disadvantages of http://dilmanc.az/en/technology/mtadvantages machine translation. (n.d.). Retrieved from Aho, A.V., and ULLMAN, J.D. (1972). The theory of Parsing, Translation and Compiling. Vol. 1: Parsing. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ Arnold, D., Balkan, L., Meijer, S., Humphreys, R., & Sadler, L. (1994). Machine translation: An introductory guide. London: NCC Blackwell. Cautin, H. (1969). Real English: A translator to enable natural language man machine School Of Electrical Engineering, Univ. of Pennsylvania. conversation. Thesis, Moore Craciunescu, O., Gerding-Salas, C., & Stringer-O'Keeffe, S. (2008). Machine Translation and Computer-Assisted Translation (July). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/29computers.htm Hays, D. (1967). Introduction to Computational Linguistics. American Elsevier, New York ALLS 7(1):5-10, 2016 10 How to Choose the Right Translation and Interpretation Service Provider [Advertisement]. (2014, September 17). Retrieved from http://nilservices.com/how-to-choose-the-right- translation-and-interpretation-service-provider/ Hutchins, J. (1995). Machine Translation: http://aymara.org/biblio/mtranslation.pdf a brief history. Retrieved June 06, 2010, from Pym, A. (2012). On translator ethics: Principles for mediation between cultures. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Petrick, S.R. (1973) Transformational Analysis. Natural Language Processing, R. Rustin, ed., Algorithmics Press, New York PYM, Anthony. (2011). “What Technology Does to Translating”, International Journal of Translating and Interpreting Research, 3(1), 1-9. http://www.transint.org/index.php/transint/article/viewFile/121/81 [10 pages] Slocum, J. (1985). Machine Translation [Abstract]. Computers and the Humanities, 19(2, Natural Language Processing), 109-116. Technology. (n.d.). The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing. Retrieved December 12, 2014, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/technology. Machine translation. (2014, December 4). Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21:17, December 18, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine_translation&oldid=636581844 Maia, B. (n.d.). Machine Translation and Human Translation: Using machine translation engines and corpora for teaching and research. Retrieved from http://web.letras.up.pt/bhsmaia/belinda/pubs/MTHT.doc Woods, W.A. (1973) An experimental parsing system for transition network grammars. Natural Language Processing, R. Rustin, ed., Algorithmics Press, New York http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/mt/ Koehn, Philip (2004). Statistical Significance Tests for Machine Translation Evaluation. EMNLP Grishman, R. (1973). Implementation of the String Parser of English. Natural Language Processing, Randall Rustin, ed., Algorithmics Press Rohrer, Christian. "Linguistic bases for machine translation." Proceedings of the 11th conference on Computational linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, 1986 Arnold, D. (1994). Machine translation: an introductory guide. Blackwell Publications: Kay, Martin (1997). The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language. Machine Translation, 12, 3-23. Kluver Academic Publications, Netherlands Hoppe, Helena () Machine Translation Why Is It So Difficult? Linguistics C Level English Dept. of Humanities MidSweden University www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/translation. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Text me! Interpersonal Discourse Analysis of Egyptian Mobile Operators’ SMSs Mai Samir El-Falaky Arab Academy for Science and Technology, College of Language and Communication, Egypt E-mail: maismf@hotmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.11 Received: 23/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.11 Accepted: 28/10/2015 Abstract The present study examines the discourse of a number of Short Messaging Service (SMS). The selected data is analyzed according to the lexico-grammatical choices reflected in the interpersonal metafunction. Results are, then, interpreted for the purpose of deciding how service providers use language to convince a large number of customers of their digital products. Such accomplishment is conditioned by how much they succeed in persuading their audience that they are capable of providing them useful products and how these products, in turn, meet their communicative demands. The study assure that the selection of the lexico-grammatical tools is crucial in enabling senders to perform a number of functions such as constructing social relations, exercising power or maintaining solidarity with the receivers. Keywords: service provider, mood, pronouns, tense, discourse, lexico-grammatical 1. Introduction As a result of the breakthrough of modern telecommunication, people have become closer and opened to all aspects of life. Convincing and influencing people become difficult as they have the choice to see, compare, and deicide. People have a wide range of choices where they can opt for one and discard hundred of others. All aspects of language are supposed to be studied when it comes to analyzing any type of discourse. Although language is an integral element in communication it is not the main goal. It gains its importance, only, from the surrounding conditions and circumstances. Wodak (2002) argues, "Language is not powerful on its own. It gains power by the use powerful people make of it" (p. 10). In the context of this study, the discourse of SMS is investigated due to the phenomenal of such means of communication since the late 1990s (Ling, 2004) 2. Discourse: definition and overview Discourse, as defined by van Dijk (1997a), is perceived as a practical, social and cultural phenomenon. According to van Dijk, discursive language is composed of more than a series of words or clauses and sentences. It is a "…sequence of mutually related acts" (p.3). As they are acts, hence, discourses suggest members of some kind. Thus, language users are not only speakers, writers or listeners, they are also members of social institutions and social categories, professions, organizations, or communities. Being such members they have the ability to construct and display their social roles and identities by the language they use. 2.1 Discourse analysis An agreed upon definition of 'Discourse Analysis' is that which regards it as "the practice of analyzing empirical raw material and information as discursive forms" (Howarth and Stavrakakis, 2000. p.4). It is, generally, "taken to be the analysis of ‘texts’ in a broad sense — written texts, spoken interaction, the multimedia texts of television and the Internet, etc" (Fairclough, 2005, p.916). This, as Fairclough (2005) claims, means that discourse analysis is interested in a wide range of linguistic data such as speeches, reported interviews, debates and others as long as they constitute a discourse and its reality. van Dijk (1997a) manifests the importance of discourse analysis as being studied "not only as a form, meaning and mental process, but also as complex structures of interaction and social practice and their functions in context, society and culture" (p.7). This kind of interaction, as proposed by van Dijk, is intentional, controlled and purposeful that aim at communicating acts. Based on van Dijk's approach to discourse analysis, Butler (2003) views some of the principles that discourse study should adopt. He claims that the study of discourse must deal with authentic, naturally occurring data. It must also recognize the dynamic nature of discourse. Participants, as Butler argues, act as members of particular social and cultural groupings and not only elements of the discourse. More importantly, the study of discourse must describe the functional and semantic relationships between its units. Ultimately, researchers agree to use discourse analysis as a methodological tool, as it is an essential part of the social practices. They reach a conclusion that every text is influencing and at the same time influenced by its social context. ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 12 2.2 Computer-mediated discourse There is no wonder that technology has influenced the way we communicate. Communication in this sense involves more than exchanging information. Rather, the technological inventions builds several types of discourses that reflects our cultural worlds , our power relations and our ideological backgrounds. An agreed upon definition of computer-mediated discourse (CMD) is that form of communication between two or more participants where computer, or the like, is medium of communication. That is “any mediation involved in carrying on common, everyday discourses” (Scollon, 1998, p.6). Ling (2014) stresses the importance of Computer mediated discourse analysis (CMDA). According to Ling such approach “is focused on language and language use; it is also a set of methods (a toolkit) grounded in linguistic discourse analysis for mining networked communication for patterns of structure and meaning, broadly construed”.(p.1) The discourse of text messages includes expressive language that suits various forms of communication. Further more text messaging has influential role of affecting the society Ling (2004) claims that “texting has been credited with assisting in the coordination of social movements, such as the revolt against Philippine President” (Ling, 2004). It is obvious that many institutions may make use of CMC to gain greater bargaining power in the influential role in developing interpersonal relations between the company and the current or prospective clients. “As people become more skilled at using CMC to form and maintain relationships, they will use the media more often and use it to communicate in new ways, such as negotiation.” (Cronin, 2007, p.13). So no wonder if CMC is used by mobile operators or its marketing personnel. The outcome is expected to be influential especially if the company succeeds to mange the characteristics of this new media. Influencing others using CMC is a skill that could lead to a lot of benefits, only if properly used. Despite all the advantages of Computer mediated communication, some see it as a disadvantage. It is considered to be “a channel of communication which allows for only superficial forms of maintenance-related communication” (Moore and Craig, 2010, p.83). However, such disadvantage is overcome by the numerous pros of CMC. Moore and Craig enumerate some of them. CMC can enhance trust between interlocutors, increase relational quality and keeps individuals in touch for a long time either for close or long-distance participants. Thus it can be stated that computer mediate discourse foster creativity and unusual communicative attitudes between interlocutors. “No contemporary treatment of the relationship between discourse and creativity would be complete without consideration of the impact of digital technologies on creative practices and creative products” (Rodney, 2012 p, 165). Digital discourse, as a type of new media discourse have many forms, emails, online chats, mobile texting, etc. each one has its own features which vary from the other from different perspectives such as time, scale of distribution, size of included message. SMSs is one of the widely spread form of technological means of interaction as it is a rapid form of exchange. 2.3 The discourse of SMS SMS is a global means of communication that enables users to exchange messages instantly. The importance of SMS as a communicative medium lies in the fact that it could include important information within a limited chunk. Frehner (2008) describes SMS as “informative as well as expressive and phatic medium” (p.94) Herring (2013) stresses on the importance of analyzing various “discourse in these new environments” (p.5). According to Herring text messages has to be investigated from two perspectives: content and language. The reason why linguists should be interested in the discourse of SMS is ascribe to what Tagg (2012) claims to be the “unlikeliness of it all”. According to Tagg, text messages are not just electronic notes. They represent a representation of how technology is used for “expressive or communicative purposes…. Seen in the light of a progression of technological and social developments, texting is simply one more means of communication.” (p.2). Tag describes text messaging as unique and irreplaceable. Segerstad (2006) highlights the importance of SMSs in the fact that “it is monomodal and thus can only take advantage of what cab be conveyed through the single channel of the visible writing system” (p.34) Herring et.al. (2013) questions the term “computer-mediated communication” as that type of technology does not reflect other forms of communicative means as communicating by mobile phones which is for example is considered “honorary computers where text messaging is concerned” (p.5) according to Herring et. al (2013) terms such as ‘digital media’ and new media , digital discourse are better used to describe such type of language interactions 2.4 WHY SMS FOR THIS STUDY? Tagg (2012) states that the importance of studying the discourse of SMS lies in its important nature as a communicative means. The study at hand focuses on the analysis of SMSs sent by mobile operators to its customer as this was the initial purpose of SMS. “The text message was initially designed as a way for phone companies to get in touch with consumers rather than for inter-consumer communication” (Tagg, 2012, p.2). Thus the interest in the analysis of the SMS aroused due to the linguistic form of these short messages and how they are able to perform the functions expected from the language use. It can clearly be stated that a lot of interpersonal relations are maintained through such technological discursive form. Humphreys (2007) also stresses the viability of using mobile phones and it services, among which is SMSs, in the communication process. Humphreys ascribe such importance to the “the increased individuality of the device. Mobile phones seem personal” (p.8). Another reason of the widespread of such means of communication is the nature of the ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 13 developing countries. According to Humphreys”… mobile phone penetration rates for developing countries are significantly lower than rates in developed European…. “ (p10). These reasons among other prompt the use of SMSs as an effective means of communication. In fact, such communicative processes, especially when used with the mobile operators has the ability to create and maintain social relations if used properly with the clients. The study capitalizes on a corpus of SMS because of the importance of such discourse type. It is a rich context of language use. Segerstad (2006) assures this fact by pinpointing its importance in “mediating and maintaining social relationships” (p.50). Thus the study shows how the analysis of the linguistic choices reflects the intermingling between the technological, functional and linguistics elements of discourse. 3. Research questions Using SFG’s interpersonal metafunction, the study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the lexico-grammatical tools used by Mobile phones service providers to achieve their targets? 2. How are power relations constructed between the sender and the targeted receivers? 4. Corpus of the study To support its intent, this research capitalizes on a corpus consisting of a total sum of SMSs collected from the three mobile service providers in Egypt, namely, Mobinil, Vodafone, and Etisalat. Data, comprising 110 short messages, is processed using computer software named UAM CorpusTool. Such tool is used to make annotations to the segmented units so as to facilitate the requested statistics created on the basis of the lexico-grammatical approach. Based on the resulting statistics, a discourse analysis is carried out and analyzed qualitatively. 5. SFG and the interpersonal metafunction Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) is an approach for analyzing language according to the functions it performs. It analyzes language in terms of: (a) relationships maintained between speakers and their audiences (interpersonal function), (b) how speakers express themselves (experiential function), and (c) how they organize such expressions and feelings in their texts whether spoken or written (textual function). In this study the a corpus of SMS (Short Message service) is analysed to inspect how the communicative process proceeds. The integration between linguistic theoretical theories and ‘new discourse’ is something seen by many. Assertingly, Spilioti (2011) pinpoints the need of adopting “established theoretical concepts in light of “new” computer-mediated data derived from an array of emerging and volatile cultural setting” (p.67). That is why SFG’s interpersonal metafunction is the essential analytical tool adopted in this study. The interpersonal metafunction is one of the main purposes of communication. Discourse participants aims at interacting with each other so as to establish and maintain appropriate social links. This is related to the fact of exchanging meanings. It is a two-way communication process, i.e., what we say, we say for a purpose. According to SFG, the most fundamental purposes in any exchange are giving (and taking) or demanding (and being given) a commodity of some kind. This commodity can be information or goods and services. So, we end up with basic speech roles: giving information, demanding information, giving goods and services and demanding goods and services. The usual labels for these functions are statements, questions, and commands. These basic functions are closely associated with particular structures: statements are mostly naturally expressed by declaratives, questions by interrogatives and commands by imperative clauses. The following sections show how the Mood system is composed of two parts, namely ‘mood’ and ‘residue’ The ‘mood’ consists of two parts: (a) subject, which is a nominal group, and (b) the finite operator, which is part of a verbal group. Together the subject and finite make up the Mood. The ‘Subject’ is the doer of the action. It may be carried out by any nominal group as personal pronoun, noun clause, etc. The ‘Finite’ is one of a small number of verbal operators expressing tense (be, have, and do plus 'be' as the marker of passive voice) and modality as (can, may, could, etc.). The type of Mood can be indicated by the order in which the subject and Finite are represented. Halliday (1994) proposes a number of cases by which we can assign the type of Mood. As mentioned above, Mood is seen as a combination of Subject and Finite forming one constituent. It is the remainder of the clause that Halliday has called ‘Residue’. According to Halliday (1994) there are three kinds of functional elements in the Residue: ‘Predicator’, ‘Complement’, and ‘Adjunct’. There can be only one predicator, one or two complements and an indefinite number of adjuncts up to about seven. The predicator is realized by a verbal group minus the finite in the mood element. The predicator itself is thus nonfinite, and there are non finite clauses containing a predicator but no Finite element. A complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject but is not. It is typically realized by a nominal group. By this definition, it resembles the definition of the object in traditional terms. There is one exception of this general principle: that is, the attributive complement after verb 'to be' as in Obama’s clause “It is not true”, where ‘true’ is a complement. ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 14 It is typically realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase. The typical order of elements in the Residue is: Predicator^Complement^Adjunct(s). However, an adjunct or a Complement may occur thematically; this does not mean that it is a part of the Mood. Modal Adjuncts are classified into two types: (1) mood adjuncts: they are so called because they are closely associated with the meanings constructed in the mood system: those of polarity (yes, no, not), modality (probably, possibly, perhaps), temporality (still, already, just) and mood (clearly, almost, nearly); (2) comment adjunct: they express the speaker's attitude towards the proposition as a whole. They have a very significant function in the clause separated from the rest of the clause by commas, such as ‘Fortunately’ in Carter’s statement “Fortunately, we've had a Republican president to check their excesses with my vetoes.” As realized by circumstantial Adjunct, circumstances "encode the background against which the process takes place" (Thompson, 2004, 109). Circumstances perform a set of functions in the clause as the representation of time, place, cause and manner, etc. Table (1-3) illustrates the English circumstances and their meanings. Table 0 Circumstances - Adopted from Halliday (1994, P. 150) Circumstances Meaning Probed by Extent Distance, duration 'When?' Location Place, time 'Where?' Manner Means, quality, comparison 'How?' Cause Reason, purpose, behalf 'Why?' Contingency Condition, concession, default 'Under what conditions?' Accompaniment Comitation, addition 'Who with?' Role Guise, product 'What as?' Matter 'What about?' Angle 'Says who?' 6. Personal pronouns Personal pronouns always deserve notice (Fowler and Kress, 1979, p. 201). Linguists distinguish between the roles of the personal pronouns 'I' and 'you' and the other roles of 'he', 'she', 'it' and 'they'. The use of the personal pronouns is said to signify that "the referent is defined interpersonally" (Halliday, 1994, p. 189). SFG pays attention to the use of the personal pronouns 'I' and 'we' and the meanings they convey with respect to the relationship between participants. Fowler and Kress claim that "[t]he simplest 'we' form is 'exclusive' 'we': the writer refers to himself and some other person(s) not including his addressees"(p.201). Such reference includes also the pronouns 'us' and 'our'. Another meaning that can be signified by 'we' is the 'inclusive we'. It implies that the addresser maintains solidarity and intimacy with the listener. The use of the pronoun 'you', on the other hand, is said to measure the speaker's intention to address his/her recipients. As for the third person pronouns, they can be used to imply distance and indirectness. Thus, the use of personal pronouns is considered as "a key element textually revealing the complex of social relations, particularly in spoken genres" (Halliday, 1994, p.298). Ward (2004) asserts that the use of personal pronouns assigns the 'degree of power or control' over one another. 7. Methodology and theoretical framework The analysis commences by the SFG representation where the interpersonal metafunction of the Hallidayan Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday, 1994) is used as the major analytical framework. This lexico-grammatical theory is a self-contained system, trying to explain why language is the way it is. The theory perceives language as a network of options from which language users make selections. The system networks are fed into the computer software where human annotation takes place. After annotation, SFG-based statistics are queried for features that satisfy the needs of the research questions. In this study the software UAM CorpusTools developed by Mike O’Donnel is utilized. Finally, the results are analyzed to see how SMS senders communicate with their target audience. 8. Analysis and discussion A crucial requirement to capture the market of mobile communication is the fast communication between the mobile network operators and the current and prospective customers. This can take place through various communicative channels, one of which is the texts messages. The analysis of the interpersonal metafunction of the SMSs reveals the exchange that takes place between participants of such kind of discourse. The choice of tense, mood type and the pronominal references reflect how service providers opt to interact with their recipients in the process of giving or demanding. ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 15 8.1 Tense Choice There are various factors that determine tense choice especially when language is intended to convince the receiver through a short chunk. Tense in a given discourse is chosen according to the purpose of the message. Hintz (2007) claims "the functions of tense in discourse…are often not limited to locating events in time"(p.122). It can be seen from the following table that the present tense over-rules. Table 2 TENSE-TYPE Mobinil Vodafone Etisalat Present 100.00% 80.50% 100.00% Past 0.00% 19.50% 0.00% The table shows that the present tense dominates the language used by the companies especially Mobinil and Etisalat. The following examples illustrate this: .ǛNJ ƹDŽ ljƼNJ Ƨұǃ NJƭ ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ ‫ﺣ ﻠ ﻚ‬ǀ Ƶ‫ﺮ‬ Ǜƃ ‫ﺸ‬ Ƶƅ ‫ﺘ‬Ƭ‫ﺑ‬ #3*838* ‫ﻛ ﻠ ﻢ‬ · · Call 838**#3 with one Pt. for a message that explains where you credit goes every day · Enjoy 500 felix unit to use as you like ƀljǛ Ɲ ҖƽǚǛƹ LJ‫ ײַ‬Ƹǂ ƹӨƏҚƄҗƂ ƲƶNJ ƧƿӨҳǃ 500 ǜ ƜҚƺҚƃǚ · ҒNJ ƽǛҰƹ ҒƬNJ ƫə 20 ӨһǛҚǁ ǀ NJ ƾү 10 ǜ ‫ﻞﺸﺎﺤ ﻦ‬ ‫· ﻛﺗ ﻣ‬ · Everytime you recharge with 10 LE you will have 20 free minutes · Mobinil offers the easiest way to transfer, call #7# and transfer the credit ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ ƳDŽ ҳ ǃ #7# ƸƶƱƴljDŽ ҸҚƶƵҒƬlj Ɠ ƴǂ ƃǚ‫ﻣ ﻠ ﻚ‬ ƴNJ ƾNJ ‫ﺪ‬DŽ ƹ‫ﺑ ·ﺘ ﻘ‬ The previous examples highlight the reasons for the use of the present tense. Verbs in present tense such as ‘explains’, ‘like’, ‘recharge’, and ‘offers’, promote the subscription of new clients who many want to have the same ‘current present’ experience. Continuity and permanence of the returning benefits make the present tense the best choice for the messages sent to clients who, in turn, seek a lot of benefits. Another reason for such use may be ascribed to the need of the sender to assure that what the receiver witnesses is an evidence and fact of his benefit. Such use may help in convincing the receiver of and make them believe in the truth of the complement. Although the past tense may "usually involves imparting less information than the use of the present"(Riddle, 1978, 120), service providers may manipulate it to imply some meanings indirectly. As seen in table (2) the past tense is used with a percentage that has not exceeded 20 % of the whole corpus. Vodafone SMSs use the past tense in some examples. If compared to the simple present tense, the low percentage of the past tense still has significance in convincing the receiver. The following examples use past tense to show that the processes of ‘promotion’ or ‘winning’ are complete processes not liable to any changes. % 50 Ƹƌ Ə ƭ ҚƇǚǃ ƪ ҸƵǚǐӨ ƍ · ƞƵǚ The offer began, hurry up and subscribe with 50% discount ғ ǛƧǛ Ɛ ǚҒƝDŽ ƺҰƺ ƜҚƺҚƃǚƼƄ ǃ ǚDŽ ƵǚƜƹ Ɔ ƶƺƞҚƹ LjƶƵǚƴƺƝ DŽ Ƶǚ.. · · ALO did what had never been done. With ALO options enjoy many additional services. .ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ ƴljDŽ Ҹҗǃ ƼҸƇ LjƧ‫ﺮ ﻓ ﺖ‬ ǃ ң ‫ﺻ‬7.86 ƭ Ǜƞƹ ƻǛƱ DŽ ҚƱǚ3 ƷDŽ ljұﬞ Ǜƹǚ · · · Yesterday was 3rd of October, you had 7.86 and you transferred credit …. The verbs ‘began’ and ‘did’ indicates that the actions already started and that the client is ready or even in a hurry to get the ‘prepaid’ services offered by the company. Other messages may use verbs in the past tense giving the clients past account statements which may reflect transparency and where the clients’ money goes. The third example exemplifies this. 8.2 Mood Types An interesting finding in the analysis of the given corpus can bee seen in the approximate resemblance of the use of both the declaratives and the imperatives. The following table shows that the average use of declaratives is 50.3% while the average use for imperatives is 49.7% Table 3 Mood type Mobinil Vodafone Etisalat average Declarative 40.60% 52.20% 58.10% 50.30% Imperative 59.40% 47.80% 41.90% 49.70% Interrogative 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 16 Service providers vary in terms of their use of declaratives. It can be seen that the both Etisalat and Vodafone prefer declaratives more than Mobinil does. The reason why Vodafone and Etisalat opt for declaratives more than imperatives may be ascribed to the need to send a lot of information in the short messages, declaratives in this context are seen to be purposefully used to acclaim a winner, state a status, or congratulate a user. This may be represented in the following examples: (ƴNJ ƾNJ DŽ ƹ) ҒƤƹə Ғ lj Ɛ ƷDŽ ƃﬞ ƭ ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ Ƽƹ Ƹү 0.51 ‫ﺧ ﺼﻢ‬ ‫· ﺗﻢ‬ · 0.51 Pt. had been deducted from you credit as tax fees Ʈ ƉǛ ƏƵǚƓǛ ƬƾƵǚӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ LjƧ ҒƖ Ƭƽ 630 ƻǠǚƮljӨƵ2016-9-29 ‫ﺘ ﻰ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺤﺣﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﺔ‬ ‫ﻄ‬102 ‫ ﻘﺻ‬ҒƧ ‫ﻧ‬ǛƐ ǚƸҗ · · 102 points had been added till 29-9-2016. you have now 630 point in your point credit ǛǂƧ ƞljӨҳǚǃ Ƴǃ ǚҖƽǚǃ ƺƄljə 25 ƷDŽ ljǑүǛƨƹ ҒƶƹǛ Ɲ ғ ǠǛƌ җ ǚ · · Etisalat have a surprise on the 25th of December and you are the first one to know it. (ƻDŽ ƧǚəDŽ Ƨ) ǀ NJ ƾү 50.1 Ҳ Ƌ ǐ ƭ ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ ǃ ғ ﬞ ǛƲƵǚƼҸƇ Ƹҗ · · You card had been recharged and you have now 50.1 LE. The previous examples, among others, are helpful in providing the clients of the required informtions. Even though these declaratives are short chunks, they may answer the clients’ questions or inform the users of new services and offers and similar digital products. As it is vital for service providers to give information, it is also important to increase their profits by demanding from the receivers. It can be observed that imperatives are used equally with declaratives. It is undeniable that imperative clauses can be manipulated by service providers to get the audience to follow their embedded instructions. This is claimed in the essential function of SMS as it “…provides a stronger call to actions” (Haig, 2002 p.11) Although imperatives seem to give an authoritarian impression, the messages are seen to be preceded by a declarative clause that includes information beneficial to the user. The following examples show how the two-clause messages empower the hearers and push them forward to do something of their benefit which of course is in return is beneficial to the service provider. #757*10* ƸƶƱƭ ǚ ҚƇǡ Ƶ¤ƷǛ ljǚ7 ƿӨƺƵƻDŽ ƧǚəDŽ Ƨ ƷǛ ƫﬞ Ǡ ҒƬNJ ƫə 5 · ҒƬNJ ƫӨƶƵƅ ƫ 50 ǜ 999 ƸƶƱƔƬƧ Ƴǃ Өljǚǜ ǚﬞ ǚLjƽǛƣǚƻDŽ җƳDŽ ƱƳƀƾҗﬞ ӨƬҚǁ ƴNJ ƾNJ DŽ ƹ Ƽƹ Ǜlj ƌ ҳ · · Five minutes for Vodafone number for 7 days, to subscribe call #757*10* · Exclusively from Mobinil you can download Arab Idol call tones. Only call 999 with 50 Pt. Such combination of declarative-imperative messages can be seen as a useful linguistic repertoire creating a two-waycommunicative environment. This in turn can help shortening the distance between the sender and the receiver making the clients trust the company and also convinced that they are appreciated by it. 8.3 Adjuncts The use of adjuncts in any type of discourse varies in its importance from one type of discourse to another. It can be seen from table (4) that the circumstantial adjuncts have over ruled comment adjuncts with a percentage exceeding Table 4 ADJUNCTS-TYPE Comment-adjunct Circumstantial-adjunct Percent 9.5% 90.5% As indicated in table above, it can be noticed that the sender opts for the use of the various circumstantial adjuncts to describe the products they have from different perspectives such as time, place, manner, etc. Reference to these elements is helpful in answering a number of questions depending on the intention of the sender and the targeted audience. It is also important to describe the services and nature of the products. The following table shows the distribution of such elements in the given corpus: Table 5 CIRCUMSTANTIAL-ADJUNCT-TYPE Manner Time Contingency Extent Cause Accompaniment Angle Role Percentage 30.3% 25.0% 11.8% 9.2% 7.9% 6.6% 6.6% 2.6% ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 17 It can be noticed that manner adjuncts are used with a percentage 30.3% of the total amount of adjuncts. The following examples represent some of such uses. · ‫ ﻧ ﺎ‬858 ‫ﺠ ﺎ‬ǜ ‫ﻣ‬ƴƌ җ ǚƭ ǚ ҚƇǡ Ƶ · To subscribe, freely call 858 ƅ ǡ ƻǛ ƹDŽ ljƿӨƺƵҒƬNJ ƫə 20ǜ ƜҚƺҚƃǚǃ ҚƱǚǃ ǚǀ NJ ƾү 23ǜ ƼҸƇǚ · · Recharge with 23 LE or more, and freely enjoy 20 minutes for 2 days In the previous examples the company attempts to use adjuncts which appeals to the clients. The services a positively portrayed to attract a lot of users. The words ‘‫ ’ﻣﺠﺎﻧﺎ‬and ‘‫ ’ﺑﺒﻼش‬are likely to draw clients to the services offered, especially when they are ‘free’. Second in rank is time adjuncts which relate the audience to the temporal reference of the products offered by the sender. For example: ҢƱǚǃ ǚǀ NJ ƾү 10 ǜ ƼҸƈҗǛƺƵƭ ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ Ʀ ƞƐ džƶƝ ƴƌ ҳǚ · · Get the double of your credit when you recharge with 10 LE or more ƮҚƾҸƇ Ʀ ƞƐ Ƽƈ ǃ ǚﬞ ǛҚһǚǃ ƼҸƈƵǚƴ ƫ ‫ ﻧ ﺎ‬#‫ﺎ‬2#‫ﻛﻣﻠﻢﺠ‬ · · Call #2# freely before recharging and choose the Double Credit option. LjƬlj Ɠ ҒƹӨһ LjƧǛƽǛҰƹ ƭ ҚƇǚƻǠǚ · · Now, subscribe freely in My Road Service The time reference is very crucial in the text messages sent by the company. Time is the currency dealt with by mobile operators. Things are based on other things. This entails that some actions are supposed to be taken before gaining the benefits offered. In this case temporal adjuncts take place. Also senders may use adverbials which indicate the time when the services are available. The time adjunct ‘now’ for instance indicates that what the receiver is waiting for, in now available. The reason why manner and time circumstantial elements outnumber the types of adjuncts is based on the importance of information conveyed by the mobile operators to the audience, regarding the manner of the product and the time in which the product becomes available. Conditional clauses also occupy a considerable sum in the given data. Contingency adjuncts are seen in the following instances: 829Ƴ ҒNJ Ɛ ǛƧҒƵǛƃﬞ Җƞ ǚғ ǠǛƌ җ ǚƼƹ ƍ ǃ ƞƵǚƴljǛ ƃﬞ ҒƹӨһ LjƤƶҗƀljǛƝ ‫· ﻟ ﻮ‬ · If you want to cancel the promotion messages from Etisalat send an empty message to 829 · You have 30 minutes to all Vodafone numbers for two days. If you want anything else call #0*365* #0*365* ƸƶƱǀ NJ ƽǛҗǀ үǛ ҳ LJǚƀljǛ Ɲ ‫ ﻮ‬ƅ‫ﻟ‬ǡ ƷDŽ ljƿӨƺƵƻDŽ ƧǚəDŽ Ƨ ƷǛƫﬞ ǚƴƲƵҒƬNJ ƫə 30 ƮNJ Ƶ 800 ǜ ƴƌ җ ǚǃ ǚ#4* ƸƶƱӨljƀƺƶƵǀ Ɛ ǃ ǚҒƺƶƱҖƞƺү ‫ ﻮ‬Һ‫ﻟ‬Ɩ ƹ ǃ ǀ Ɛ ǃ ǚ ƄƲҗƼƲƺƹ · You can win a room and a kitchen if you collect the word ‘room’. For more information call *4# or call 880 · Send 4999 in a message and download John Legend call tone if you want to attend the party Ғƶƨҳ Ƒ Ҹҗǀ Ƌ ƧƀljǛ Ɲ ‫ ﻮ‬john ‫ ﻟ‬Legend ƻDŽ җƳDŽ ƱƳƀƽ ǃ 999 Ƴ ǀ ƵǛƃﬞ LjƧ 499 Җƞ ǚ · · · These examples are good representation of the gains that are conditioned by another action taken by the client himself. This two-clause declarative creates an atmosphere of mutual benefit or exchange between the company and the clients. Extent adjuncts revolve around the duration in which the digital products advertised are offered for how long. The following examples show how senders exploit such adjuncts: ƿəǃ ӨҸƹ ҚƨƵƍ · Hurry up the offer is available for a limited time · 102 point are valid till 29-9-2016 ƞƵǚƪ ҸƵǚ 2016-9-29 ‫ﺘ ﻰ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺤﺣﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﺔ‬ ‫ﻄ‬102 ‫ ﻘﺻ‬ҒƧ ‫ﻧ‬ǛƐ ǚƸҗ ƳDŽ ƹ LjҚNJ ƃ ƼƋ ƴNJ ƾNJ DŽ ƹ ƛ ƧLjƧ əǃ ӨҸƹ · ҚƨƵƍ ƞƵǚ · · · The offer is valid for a limited time in Mobinil branch in Sun City Mall Because the main interest of the companies to draw a large number of clients in a short time, extent adjuncts are used to limit the time span available for the clients to subscribe for a certain service or limit the availability of of some products. The adjuncts ‘for a limited time’ and ‘till 29-9-2016’ are good examples for such significant use. ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 18 Cause, accompaniment and angle are three adjuncts used with nearly the same percentage of usage which ranges from 6.6 % to 7.9%. Their use has discursive implications. The following examples show the mass benefits that users will gain fro the offered products. ƼljǠ ƻǃ ǚҒƫǛLjƧƭ ҚƇǚǃ ǜ DŽ җǜ Ǡ LJ ҚƇǚƮҗLj ǃ ƴNJ ƾNJ DŽ ƹ Ɯƹ Ǜlj ƌ ҳ · Exclusively,with Mobinil and B.Tech you can buy a laptopb and subscribe to Online Bundle. ƿǑƧǛ Ʋƺ ƼҸƇ əǛƝǚƴƱ · · · Every recharge process goes with a reward. In this example, the adjunct shows that benefit will be gained in accompaniment with the advertising company. The statement indicates that it is with Mobinil and B.Tech that you can buy a new laptop. In the second example, the statement shows that each credit recharge is accompanied with a reward. In similar statements such accompaniment adjuncts are used with positive implications. Cause adjunct are also used in this context to justify the reason for the advertised offers. The client always has a reason to do a certain action and it is a good quality reason. The following example illustrate the point. Ʈҗ Ǜ ƽǛNJҜljӨҸҚƵƻǠǚ367 ƸƶƱғ ǠǛƌ җ ǡ ƵLjƹDŽ ƬƵǚ‫ײַ‬ǛǂҰƵǚғ ǛƺNJ ƶƞҗdžƶƝ ǚơǛƾ · · According to NITRA call 367 now so as to update you data. Returning again to Table (4), it can be observed that despite their low frequency, comment adjuncts are also used to perform the modal function of expressing attitudes and judgments and convince the user that he is about to experience something beneficial for him. For instance, Ʀ lj ƈƵǚLJDŽ ƾƵǚӨƵDŽ ƺƵǚǃ ҒƾƄƵǚƁ ǐﬞ əǛNJ ƝǚҒƃǛ ƾƺ LjƽǛǂҚƵǚƩﬞ ǚ · Congratulations for the New Year and the Prophets’ Birthday ƼljǠ ƻǃ ǚҒƫǛLjƧƭ ҚƇǚǃ ǜ DŽ җǜ Ǡ LJ ҚƇǚƮҗLj ǃ ƴNJ ƾNJ DŽ ƹ Ɯƹ Ǜlj ƌ ҳ · · Exclusively, with Mobinil and B.Tech you can buy a laptopb and subscribe to Online Bundle. ǛNJ ҸƵǚDžӨƹ ҒNJ ҳǡ Ƌ ƮljӨƵƭ ǃ ƹ · · · Congratulations, you have a lifetime validity Comment Adjuncts as claimed by Halliday (1994) “express the speaker’s attitude either to the proposition as a whole or to the particular speech function” (p.129). Such use of comment adjuncts is helpful in shaping the receivers’ minds with the point of view and the gains returning to the mobile users. 8.4 Pronouns Personal pronouns always deserve notice (Fowler and Kress, 1979, p. 201). Linguists distinguish between the roles of the personal pronouns in general and the 'I' and 'you' in particular. The use of the personal pronouns is said to signify that "the referent is defined interpersonally" (Halliday, 1994, p. 189). SFG pays attention to the use of the personal pronouns 'I' and 'we' and the meanings they convey with respect to the relationship between participants. The use of the personal pronouns in the data at hand is very indicative. Except wit h a few instance where the first plural person pronoun (-na) ‘our’, almost all the references in the analysed SMSs are represented in the 2nd person voice. Regardless of the process type, the recipient seems to be a second person. This creates an atmosphere of intimacy and portrait the image of having a dialogue between the sender and the receiver of the message. The following examples show that: ‫ﺎ‬ ‫ﻧ‬ ‫ﺎ‬ ‫ ﺠ‬333 ‫ ﻣ‬ǜ ƴƌ җ ǚ ӨƏƵǚƼƝ ғ ǚﬞ Ǜ ƄƨҚƃǡ ƵƀljƀƞƵǚǛ‫ﻨ‬NJ ƺƝ ‫ﻠ‬ · Our dear client for inquiries about the service call 333 freely · Special offers to the special cliens call *011# and see it yourself ‫ﺴ ﻚ‬ƥ ‫ﻔ‬ DŽ Ƈ‫ﻨ‬ǃ ‫ﺑ‬ ƅ ǡ #011* ƶƓǚƼljƀNJ ƺƺƵǚơǡ ƺƞƶƵ ƀNJ ƺƹ ƀNJ ƺƹ ƍ ǃ Ɲ · · · · Ƃ ҖƽǚƮƽǛƈƝ ғ ǠǛƌ җ ǚƼƹ ƛ DŽ ƃǠǚǚ‫יִ‬ǁ ƿǑƧǛƲƹ · ҒljӨǁ ӨNJ Ƌ ﬞ ǀNJ ƾү 200 ƮNJ Ƶғ ǠǛƌ җ ǚƜƹ ƘҸƵǚӨNJ ƞƃ Җƽǚ · This week’s reward goes only for you. You are lucky with Etisalat you have 200 LE credit as a gift Biber and Conrad (2009) claim that both the first and second person pronouns are commonly found in the languages used ion SMSs. “This reflects the primary focus on the sender and receiver” (p.207). The current analysis finds that the use of the second person pronoun is aimed at orienting the receiver of the benefits gained not a thing imposed on him. The sender is anonymous where no social relations are attained so the directness of the second person is in favor of the receiver to the sender especially in such context where immediate response is not a must. ALLS 7(1):11-20, 2016 19 9. Conclusion Text Messaging has a very wide reach, especially when they are sent by the mobile operators which have access to millions of its subscribers. Such large scale of audience may allow the company to advertise and prompt marketing campaigns, regardless of social or economic standard of the clients. It is clear from the analysis carried out that the grammatical choices are intended to communicate some kind of interpersonal messages between the sender (service provider) and the receiver (Mobile user). Such interpersonal relations are manifested through the exploitation of the grammar of Mood, tense and pronouns. Mood choice indicates how the sender attempts to sustain a relationship with the receiver. Balancing between the declaratives and the imperatives, senders manage to create an intimate dialogic style avoiding any authoritarian impression on the senders. A similar effect is achieved by the use of the second personal pronouns which help managed to overcome the selfreferencing and self-distancing at the same time. In fact, the flexibility of the use of text messaging allows the senders to be creative in creating a conversational or dialogic atmosphere between the company and the receiver which inturn returns to be beneficiary for both sides. 9.1 Further research It is highly recommended to study other means of technological exchange that takes place using the Arabic language.. It could also be beneficiary to observe the impacts of using SMS for commercial purposes and marketing bargains in various cultures. Further research can also be directed to a comparison between Short message techniques in Arab and western cultures. 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In Lynne and Young and Claire Harrison. (Eds.), Systemic Functional Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis: Studies in Social Change. (pp. 281-295). NewYork: Continuum. Wodak, R. (2002). What CDA is about: A Summary of its History,Important Concepts and its Developments. In Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (Eds.) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. (pp. 1-12). London: Sage Publications. Key terms and definitions SMS: Short Messaging service allowing users to exchange short informative chunks Computer-Mediated Discourse: A type of discourse exchanged where computerized means is the medium of communications Mobile Service Provider: The Mobile operator provides the mobile services such as voice call, SMS, Mobile Data Mood: In SFG terms, mood refers to the combination of Finite and Subject whether declaratives, interrogatives or imperatives Tense: The time in which the action happens reflected in the Finite Pronouns: An anaphoric reference substituting the nominal referents Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Language Choice and Use of Malaysian Public University Lecturers in the Education Domain Tam Lee Mei Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: jollytam0516@gmail.com Ain Nadzimah Abdullah (Corresponding author) Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: ain@putra.upm.edu.my Chan Swee Heng Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: shchan@fbmk.upm.edu.my Zalina Binti Mohd Kasim Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: zalina_mk@upm.edu.my Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.21 Received: 19/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.21 Accepted: 31/10/2015 Abstract It is a norm for people from a multilingual and multicultural country such as Malaysia to speak at least two or more languages. Thus, the Malaysian multilingual situation resulted in speakers having to make decisions about which languages are to be used for different purposes in different domains. In order to explain the phenomenon of language choice, Fishman domain analysis (1964) was adapted into this research. According to Fishman’s domain analysis, language choice and use may depend on the speaker’s experiences situated in different settings, different language repertoires that are available to the speaker, different interlocutors and different topics. Such situations inevitably cause barriers and difficulties to those professionals who work in the education domain. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to explore the language choice and use of Malaysian public university lecturers in the education domain and to investigate whether any significant differences exist between ethnicity and field of study with the English language choice and use of the lecturers. 200 survey questionnaires were distributed to examine the details of the lecturers’ language choice and use. The findings of this research reveal that all of the respondents generally preferred to choose and use English language in both formal and informal education domain. Besides, all of the respondents claimed that they chose and used more than one language. It is also found that ethnicity and field of study of the respondents influence the language choice and use in the education domain. In addition, this research suggested that the language and educational policy makers have been largely successful in raising the role and status of the English language as the medium of instruction in tertiary education while maintaining the Malay language as having an important role in the communicative acts, thus characterizing the lecturers’ language choice and use. Keywords: Language choice and use; lecturers; Malaysian public university, education domain; domain analysis 1. Introduction 1.1 Background of the Research Language choice is defined as the language, variety or code utilized by a particular speech community for a particular purpose or function in verbal interaction (Fishman, 1972). In a multilingual society, individuals constantly have to make a choice of which language to use for which situation and this depends on the interlocutors who are also constrained by their own linguistic repertoires. Some people view this as a problem since it could cause barriers and difficulties in communication. Nonetheless exercising a choice in language use in different contexts can be a complex task. This is due to the fact that the speaker often has to decide constantly which languages are appropriate to use for what purposes, and the decision is often instantaneous. Besides, the speaker might be influenced by the characteristics of the interlocutor, such as ethnicity, age, gender, educational level, proficiency level and domains in which the particular communicative event takes place. Deciding the language to use in everyday communication is not uncommon especially when the person lives in a multilingual society. Such decision would be simple by someone who lives in a monolingual society. However, people who live in a bilingual or multilingual country inevitably face more decision makings in choosing what language to use as all of the people speak more than one language. It is also common that all of them do not speak the same language. Thus, domain analysis which is proposed by Joshua Fishman (1972) is crucial to provide a good understanding of the ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 22 linguistic situation for a bilingual or multilingual country. Which language an individual choses to use may depend on who is the interlocutor, and the situation in which the conversation takes place. 1.2 Sociolinguistic Profile of Malaysia The multilingual state in Malaysia has been a result of many events and developments in the nation’s history and growth. In the past, Malaya (before Malaysia was form) was first conquered by the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and Japanese. After that, it was the British who colonized all of Malaya and the colonization by the British had the most impact compared to the other colonizers. During the colonial period, there was generally a large number of Malayan aborigines and Malay in the country. There were also small groups of Siamese, Arabs and Proto-Malays who speak Malay. During the British colonial rule, the government had encouraged mass importation of Chinese and Indian workers to Malaya. All these had brought about a diverse mixture of speech communities that constantly came into contact with one another and consequently shaped Malaya as a multilingual country. During British imperialism, English language was the official language in the formal domains. The “formal” domains include the legal domain, government domain and education domain. Informal domains refer to the domains where informal interactions take place, such as, in the vendor-buyer relationship in the transaction domain, or between the employer and his servant who was from different ethnic group in the workplace domain. Before the independence, English was used in English medium schools to produce the elites of the then Malayan society. For most commoners however, Malay was the lingua franca for people of various linguistic backgrounds where it is used when they communicate with each other or carrying out their trades in informal domains. After the independence, Malaya underwent drastic changes with regard to the language policy. Bahasa Malaysia (BM) was declared as the sole national language and official language for the purpose of nation building in the year 1957. As for the English language, it was announced that it would be the second most important language (Asmah Haji Omar, 1993). Hence, enormous effort and resources have been spent in implementing BM as the medium of instruction in schools and tertiary institutions, and also establishing it as a language that can cope with the demands of the fields of science and technology. This led to English being gradually phased out as the medium of instruction. Despite the change in the language policy, the English language was not completely neglected in the education policy. It is still taught as one of the compulsory subjects in schools. However, there also exists a unique situation in the Malaysian school system whereby vernacular languages i.e. Mandarin and Tamil, are used as the medium of instruction in the primary national type schools. As such, a large number of Malaysians who have gone through these schools are proficient in either Chinese or Tamil language. The recognition of the importance of vernacular languages was a recognition of language rights that are enshrined in the constitution. At the same time, English and Malay languages are also taught in these vernacular schools. From the historical perspective, it is clear that languages are given different emphases in Malaysia. While Malay language is the official medium of instruction in national schools, Chinese and Tamil languages can be the medium of instruction in the primary national type schools. English is also taught as a subject in both national and national type schools. The difference between the national and national-type schools is that the former use Malay as the medium of instruction while the latter use either Chinese, Tamil or English language as the medium of instructions. Despite this, English language remains dominant in various domains in Malaysia such as business, education, politics, tourism, employment, law, media and translation. English is entrenched as a global language and the Malaysian government sees the need for its citizens to be multilingual. Language policies govern the use of languages in education from primarily to the tertiary level. In other words, at every level there will be manifestations of language choice and use. In this study, language choice and use is focus on lecturers at the tertiary level. At this level, the language choice and use have been seen to be impacted by earlier experiences. 1.3 Research Objectives This research aims to investigate the patterns of language choice and use of university lecturers in Malaysian public university. In addition, it examines if there are any significant differences between ethnicity and the field of study with the language choice and use of the English language. 1.4 Theoretical Framework The domain analysis framework proposed by Fishman (1964, 1965, 1968, 1972) was adapted in this research. Fishman hypothesises that domains are the theoretical constructs that can be explained through the phenomenon of language choice and use. It is of salience in explaining language choice of large speech communities who are bilingual or multilingual. The theoretical framework of domain analysis addresses the issues of “who” speaks “what language” to “whom” and “when”. The keywords are “who”, “what”, “whom”, and “when”. “Who” refers to the bilingual or multilingual speaker, “what” refers to the language(s) of that speaker’s linguistics repertoire, “whom” refers to the interlocutors in different specify domains and “when” refers to the contexts or the domains of language use. This elaboration would clarify the language choice and use of a speaker depending on his / her experiences situated in different settings, different language repertoires possessed by the speaker, different interlocutors and different topics. This theoretical framework forwarded in 1964 has been used by many researchers in the field (Ting & Ling, 2013; Adams, Matu, & Ongarora, 2012; Bond, Harris, Maslanka, Pickering, & Turkoglu, 2011; Nancy, 2011; Chaudhry, Khan, & Mahay, 2010; Dealwis, 2010; Namei, 2008; Burhanudeen, 2006). ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 23 2. Material and Methods This research follows a quantitative methodology that utilized a cross-sectional design. In this research, the researcher collected data on the pattern of language choice and use of 200 lecturers through non-probability sampling using the purposive sampling method. The data were gathered using a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of three sections: Section A, B and C. Section A elicited information on the demographic profile of the respondents such as field of study, faculty, age, gender, ethnicity, mother tongue, and educational background. Section B focused on the patterns of language proficiency of the three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian) in four languages (Malay, Chinese, Indian and English). Section C focused on the language choice and use of the lecturers with different interlocutors and in different situations. The respondents were allowed to select more than one language for each of the sub-domains because this reflects the language choice and use of a multilingual speaker. In addition, the respondents had to indicate how frequently (Frequently, Sometimes, Frequently) they choose and use the identified languages (i.e., Malay, Chinese, Indian and English) in those situations. The questionnaire was adapted from the study of Yeh, Chan, and Cheng (2004) on language use in Taiwan. The researcher has chosen to use this questionnaire as a basic tool and it incorporated more than half of the nine criteria that determine the vitality and endangerment of a language (International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Programme: Safeguarding of the Endangered Languages, 2003). Besides, this instrument has been validated and widely used by many researchers (Mostafizar Rahman, Chan, & Nadzimah, 2007; Leo & Abdullah, 2013; Awal, Jaafar, Mis, & Lateh, 2014).The questionnaire was adapted, piloted and modified to meet the researcher’s requirements and objectives of the research. More items were added to Yeh, Chan, and Cheng (2004)’s questionnaire as it was felt that they would be able to elicit more pertinent information that could be useful for an insightful discussion. The adapted questionnaire was cross-validated by several others researchers to ensure that it was free from errors and met the survey’s objectives before the initial piloted questionnaire. After that, the revised questionnaire was piloted to a total of 30 lecturers from the Malaysian public university. Then, the piloted questionnaires were collected from the respondents who were invited to give comments to the questionnaire. Amendments were then made to the questionnaire based on the respondents’ feedback obtained in the pilot study. In addition, internal consistency reliability judgement tests were carried out to determine whether all of the items in the questionnaire were reliable and accurate. The consistency of responses was tested using SPSS Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate the proportion of variance that was systematic or consistent in a set of test scores (Bryman, 2004). The rule of thumb for the reliability coefficients is provided by George and Mallery (2003) who stated that if the Cronbach Alpha is more than 0.90 the reading is excellefnt, more than 0.80 is good, more than 0.70 is acceptable, more than 0.60 is questionable while less than 0.50 is unacceptable. The reliability coefficients for the responses on the education domain was 0.97. Therefore, it suggested that the items in the survey questionnaire have an excellent internal consistency. Finally, the data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 19.0 (SPSS) in which the descriptive statistics and selected aspects of inferential statistics were computed. The responses are analysed for significant similarities and differences found in the respondents’ patterns of language choice and use. Subsequently, the data are reported according to frequency, cross tabulation, one-way ANOVA and independent sample t-test. 3. Findings This section describes the demographic profiles and the language proficiency of the lecturers. It also provides the information on language choice and use of the three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian) with different interlocutors, in different situations in education domain. In addition, it determines whether there are any significant differences between ethnicity and field of study with their language choice and use of English language. 3.1 Profile of the Respondents The demographic background such as the field of study, age, gender, ethnicity, mother tongue and the medium of instruction experienced by the lecturers provide useful information on the respondents’ daily language choice and use. The respondents from both Sciences (S) and Social Sciences (SS) field of studies were evenly distributed (100 respondents from each field of study). Five age categories were summarized in Figure 1 to facilitate data interpretation. Majority of the respondents were between 36 to 45 years old (42.0%) and followed by those between 46 to 55 years old (26.5%). Only 1.0% of the respondent was below 25 years old. Figure 1. Age of Respondents ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 24 The respondents had a good gender balance, with 54.5% (N= 109) female and 45.5% (N=91) males. Figure 2 portrays the ethnicity of the respondents. Most of the respondents were Malay (N =100, 50.0%), followed by Chinese (N = 80, 40.0%); whereas Indians (N = 20, 10.0%) were the minority group. Figure 2. Ethnicity of Respondents Table 1 illustrates the distribution of respondents’ mother tongue according to their ethnicity. All Malay respondents (100.0%) claimed that their mother tongue is Malay while 90.0% of the Chinese respondents indicated that Chinese language is their mother tongue. However, 2.5% of the Chinese respondents mentioned that their mother tongue is Malay and another 7.5% claimed that it is English. 80.0% of the Indian respondents stated that their mother tongue is Indian language whereas another 20.0% said it is English. Table 1. Distribution of Mother Tongue according to Ethnicity Mother Tongue (%) Ethnicity M C I E Malay 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chinese 2.5 90.0 0.0 7.5 Indian 0.0 0.0 80.0 20.0 Notes: M=Malay, C= Chinese Language (Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, etc.), I= Indian Language (Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, etc.), E= English 3.2 Medium of Instruction Experienced by the Lecturers Table 2 demonstrates the medium of instruction for respondents’ primary education, secondary education (Form 5 or O level, and Pre-U) and tertiary education (Certificate or Diploma, Bachelor, Master and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)). Most of the respondents reported Malay language as their medium of instruction in Form 5 or O level (56.5%), PreUniversity (46.5%), and in primary education (45.5%). Malay language was used in the lower education system due to the fact that Malay language is the national language of Malaysia and there is a language act that enforces all of the students who attend schools to learn Malay language. Table 2. Medium of Instruction Education Percentages (%) Medium of Instruction Malay PE F5 Pre-U CD B M PhD 45.5 56.5 46.5 18.0 26.0 13.5 10.0 Chinese 21.5 2.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 Indian 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.5 0.0 English 19.5 22.0 25.0 19.0 45.0 61.5 54.0 Malay + Chinese 0.5 3.0 1.0 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 Malay + Indian 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 Malay + English 10.5 15.0 16.0 9.0 23.0 15.5 8.5 Chinese + English 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Notes: PE= Primary education, F5= Form 5 or O level, CD= Certificate or Diploma, B=Bachelor, M=Master, PhD= Doctor of Philosophy ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 25 However, English language was used more as medium of instruction at tertiary level for graduate studies (Master – 61.5%, PhD – 54.0%) compared to undergraduate studies (Bachelor – 45.0% and Diploma – 19.0%). Thus it is seen that English plays a significant role as a medium of instruction in university. As for the Chinese language, it was used much less than Malay and English language. 21.5% of the respondents used Chinese language as the medium of instruction in primary education and 2.0% of them used it in Form 5 or O level. Only 0.5% of the respondents used it when they were studying at Pre-U, Bachelor, and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) levels. The use of Chinese language as the medium of instruction in tertiary education could be by respondents who studied Chinese language courses. Indian language remains the minority language that was used as medium of instruction. For instance, only 1.5% respondents used Indian language in their primary education and Bachelor while 0.5% used them in Master studies. However, none of them used Indian language in their secondary education, Pre-U, Diploma and PhD. Most preferred to enrol in English-medium schools or Malay-medium schools to get a better education and better chance to advance in their life (H.F. Schiffman, 2002). A small proportion of respondents stated they had been exposed to more than one language as their medium of instruction in schools or universities. For example, they were exposed to Malay and Chinese, Malay and Indian, Malay and English, or Chinese and English language as their medium of instruction. This phenomenon may attribute to the fact that Malaysia is a multilingual country which enables different ethnic groups to choose and use other languages such as Chinese, Indian or English language with Malay language in pursuing their education. Besides, some of the respondents who studied in National-Type schools would learn different ethnic language together with Malay language which caused the medium of instructions to be different from the National schools. 3.3 Language Proficiency of Lecturers The information on the language proficiency of the respondents is important in providing an overview of the respondents’ competencies in different languages (e.g., Malay, Chinese, Indian and English) that may influence the respondents’ language choice and use in different domains. The language proficiency was measured using 5-point Likert scale in four language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing). Based on the scale, each of the skill listed a maximum score of five points and a minimum score of one point. Those who are very proficient in all of the four language skills obtained a total of twenty points. The points from the questionnaire are categorised into high (H), medium (M) and low (L) proficient. Those who obtained 0.0 to 6.7 points are considered as having low proficiency level while respondents’ obtained 6.8 to 13.3 points are considered as having medium proficiency level. Those who have obtained 13.4 to 20 points will be considered as having high proficiency level. Table 3 illustrates the language proficiency of the three ethnic groups of lecturers (Malay, Chinese and Indian) in four languages (Malay, Chinese Indian and English). The data suggested that all of the Malay respondents identified themselves as highly proficient in Malay language (100.0%). 92.5% of the Chinese respondents identified themselves as highly proficient in Malay language while 7.5% of them felt that their level of proficiency in Malay is medium. 80.0% of the Indian respondents felt that their proficiency in Malay language is high, while 20.0% considered themselves to be relatively proficient (medium) in Malay language. Table 3. Language Proficiency of Respondents Language(s) Language Ethnicity (%) Proficiency Malay Chinese Indian High 100.0 92.5 80.0 Mid 0.0 7.5 20.0 Malay Low 0.0 0.0 0.0 High 0.0 53.8 0.0 Mid 4.0 37.5 0.0 Chinese Low 96.0 8.8 100.0 High 0.0 0.0 40.0 Mid 0.0 0.0 30.0 Indian Low 100.0 100.0 30.0 High 85.0 93.8 95.0 Mid 15.0 6.3 5.0 English Low 0.0 0.0 0.0 Notes: High = High proficiency level, Mid = Medium proficiency level, Low = Low proficiency level 53.8% of the Chinese respondents felt that they are highly proficient in Chinese language and 37.5% felt that their proficiency in Chinese language is at medium level. Only 8.8% of the Chinese respondents felt that they are having low proficiency in Chinese language. It is interesting to note that 4.0% of the Malay respondents considered themselves as quite proficient (medium) in Chinese language while 96.0% of them are having low proficiency in Chinese language. In addition, as expected, all of the Indian respondents felt that their proficiency in Chinese language is low. ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 26 Only 40.0% of the Indian respondents claimed that their proficiency in Indian language is high and 30.0% of them felt that their proficiency in Indian language is at medium level. However, all of the Malay and Chinese respondents felt that their proficiency in Indian language is low. From the table, we observed that all of the respondents are proficient in English language and none of them claimed themselves as having low proficiency in that language. The Indian respondents claimed the highest proficiency in English (95.0%H, 5.0%M) while Chinese respondents are ranked second (93.8%H, 6.3%M). Even though Malay respondents were ranked last in English language proficiency; all of them however said that they were proficient (85.0%H, 15.0%M) in English. This seemed to indicate that generally all of the lecturers who participated in this research have a good command in English language. This may due to the fact that English language is the language of higher education and it is compulsory for professionals such as lecturers to be proficient in it. Besides, English language is the global language and it is important for the lecturers to keep pace with the global advancement and new knowledge. 3.4 Language Choice and Use in Education Domain The data in this section depict the language choice and use among the lecturers with different interlocutors, settings and topics. Interlocutors refer to the lecturers and their students, supervisees or colleagues while settings refer to the place where the conversations take place and topics refer to the subject matters being discussed. For example, a Malay lecturer who chose and used English language when giving lectures in the class may choose and use Malay language in meetings. We also wanted to identify the frequency of use in each situation i.e. Rarely (R), Sometimes (S), and Frequently (F). For example, a Malay respondent may choose and use Malay language with other Malay interlocutors in the education domain but he may choose and use English language with non-Malay respondents (such as Chinese or Indian respondents) in the same domain (Burhanudeen, 2006). Such comparisons lend support to the conviction that the subjects’ language choices in a given situation are not arbitrary, but governed by certain norms of appropriate language choice and use that are governed by situations as described in domain analysis. Thirty-four education sub-domains that are further sub-categorised into formal and informal education domains have been identified. There are twenty-nine formal and five informal sub-domains within the education domain. The formal education domain refers to the domain where official communication takes place such as in lectures or for the writing of test and examination questions. On the other hand, the informal domains refer to informal or casual activities such as discussing personal matters with colleagues or students. All of the data analysed as followed were summarised in Table 4 (See Appendix). The formal education domain consisted of the following situations: 1. Speaking to Malay Students 2. Speaking to Chinese Students 3. Speaking to Indian Students 4. Speaking to Malay Supervisees 5. Speaking to Chinese Supervisees 6. Speaking to Indian Supervisees 7. Speaking to Malay Colleagues 8. Speaking to Chinese Colleagues 9. Speaking to Indian Colleagues 10. Speaking to Malay Local Visitor(s) on Academic Matters 11. Speaking to Chinese Local Visitor(s) on Academic Matters 12. Speaking to Indian Local Visitor(s) on Academic Matters 13. Speaking to Foreign Visitor(s) 14. Giving Lectures 15. Conducting classroom Discussions 16. Talking to Students on Academic Matters 17. Writing Test Questions 18. Attending Meetings 19. Presenting Conference Papers 20. Doing Consultancy Work 21. Writing Journal Articles 22. Doing Research by Writing a Research Report 23. Doing Research by Gathering Data 24. Doing Research by Writing Literature Review ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 25. Discussing Academic Matters with Colleagues 26. Using Computer Applications 27. Corresponding Through Email 28. Corresponding Through SMS 29. Corresponding Through Letter 27 The informal education domains consisted of the following situations: 30. Speaking to Malay Local Visitor(s) on Non-academic Matters 31. Speaking to Chinese Local Visitor(s) on Non-academic Matters 32. Speaking to Indian Local Visitor(s) on Non-academic Matters 33. Talking to Students on Personal Matters 34. Discussing Personal Matters with Colleagues 3.5 Formal Education Domain In the formal education domain, more than three quarter of Malay respondents preferred the English language more than the Malay language in all of the formal sub-domains. However, a significant percentage of the Malay respondents chose and used their own ethnic (Malay) language more frequently than the English language when they speak to their Malay colleagues (79.0%F, 12.0%S), Malay students (75.0%F, 15.0%S), Malay supervisees (73.0%F, 11.0%S) and Malay local visitor(s) on academic matters (65.0%F, 18.0%S). It is also interesting that some of them chose and used the Chinese language when they speak to their Chinese supervisees (3.2%), Chinese colleagues (3.1%), Chinese students (3.0%); Malay (3.0%) and Chinese local visitor(s) on academic matters (3.1%). However, the Malay respondents rarely chose and used Indian and Chinese language in all of the sub-domains. The patterns of language choice and use of the Chinese respondents were similar to the Malay respondents in the formal education domain. Both of the Malay and Chinese respondents chose and used the English language very frequently and occasionally the Malay and Chinese languages in all of the sub-domains. It is interesting to find that the Chinese respondents indicated that they also chose and used Chinese language occasionally when they speak to Malay students (1.3%S), Malay supervisees (1.3%S), and Malay local visitor(s) on academic matters (1.3%S). All of them rarely chose and used the Indian language. As for the Indian respondents, they also chose and used English language more frequently than Malay language in all of the formal education sub-domains. In addition, they resorted to Indian language when they speak to Indian colleagues (15.0%), Indian students, Indian supervisees and Indian local visitor(s) on academic matters (5.0%). In contrast, all of the Indian respondents rarely chose and used Chinese language. From the data analysis for the formal education sub-domains, all of the respondents chose and used English language more frequently than other languages. Compared to the Malay respondents, the Indian and Chinese respondents chose and used English language much more frequently than the Malay respondents. Besides, the Indian and Chinese respondents stated that they chose and used Malay language too although the frequency is not as high as Malay respondents. In addition, they also chose and used a negligible amount of the ethnic languages in the formal education sub-domains. Since all of the respondents were mostly educated in Malay or English medium schools and universities, they would be more likely to be more proficient in both English and Malay languages. The respondents also chose and used their own ethnic language when they communicate with the same ethnic as to establish a better rapport with their colleagues, students or visitors. The high frequent use of English and Malay languages could be due to the fact that the respondents felt that it is appropriate to choose and use those languages since tertiary education in formal level requires formal varieties. Besides, it signifies the respondents’ respect for their education and authority as well as to indicate their respect to the national (Malay) and official (English) language. The ethnic languages appeared to be much less frequently used in the formal education domain. It is not surprising since in the formal domain, the standard variety (English and Malay) should be used more. A negligible amount of Chinese and Malay respondents claimed that they also chose and used Chinese language in the formal education domain. The use of Chinese language by the Chinese respondents in the education domain could be because some of the courses in the programme such as Chinese language or Chinese literature programme are taught in Chinese language. However, the use of Chinese language by Malay respondents seemed to imply that they either have learned the Chinese language in their primary education or one of their parents is of Chinese-descent. 3.6 Informal Education Domain As far as the informal education domain is concerned, more than half of the Malay respondents chose and used English language frequently when they speak to Chinese (63.9%F, 21.6%S) and Indian local visitor(s) on non-academic matters (64.9%F, 20.6%S), and talk to students on personal matters (69.0%F, 10.0%S). However, they chose and used Malay ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 28 language more than English language when they speak to Malay local visitor(s) on non-academic matters (81.0%F, 9.0%S) and discuss personal matters with colleagues (74.0%F, 12.0%S). It is somewhat interesting to find that some Malay respondents chose and used Chinese language when they speak to Chinese local visitor(s) on non-academic matters (3.1%) and talk to students on personal matters (3.0%). In contrast, the Malay respondents rarely chose and used Indian language in the informal education domain. As for Chinese respondents, they chose and used English language most of the time in the informal education domain and occasionally the Malay language. In addition, they chose and used some Chinese language when they speak to Chinese local visitor(s) on non-academic matters (35.0%F, 11.3%S), talk to students on personal matters (81.0%F, 9.0%S) and discuss personal matters with colleagues (81.0%F, 9.0%S). 2.5% of the Chinese respondents even claimed that they chose and used Chinese language when they speak to Malay local visitor(s) on non-academic matters. On the other hand, they rarely chose and used Indian language. Similar patterns were found between the Chinese respondents and Indian respondents in the language choice and use in the informal education domain. Both of the ethnic groups chose and used English language more frequently than Malay language. The Indian respondents also chose and used a negligible amount of Indian language when they speak with Indian local visitor(s) on non-academic matters (10.5%F, 10.5%S), talk to students on personal matters (5.0%S) and discuss personal matters with colleagues (5.0%F, 5.0%S). For Malay respondents, even though they frequently chose and used their ethnic language (Malay) in the informal education domain, the usage was less frequent than the use of English language. The Chinese and Indian respondents also chose and used Malay language but it was lesser than the Malay respondents. The Indian and Chinese respondents chose and used English language very frequently and occasionally Malay language in their interactions. However, they also chose and used their respective ethnic languages as it is not a formal setting that required the use of either Malay or English language. Overall, the majority of the Malay respondents chose and used Malay language with other Malay respondents in the informal education domain. With the Chinese and Indian respondents, English language was chosen and used much more frequently than other languages although the Chinese and Indian languages are their ethnic languages. 3.7 Language Choice and Use of English Language according to Ethnicity A one-way ANOVA is conducted to determine if there are any significant differences between three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian) in the dependent variables (their language choice and use of English language). A post-hoc analysis using Tukey HSD test was performed to examine which pairs of groups (Malay and Chinese, Chinese and Indian, Indian and Malay) that are significantly different from each other. Table 5 displays the means and standard deviation for language choice and use of Malay, Chinese and Indian respondents in education domain. Malay respondents (M = 3.63, SD = 0.51) scored the lowest mean score whereas Indian respondents (M = 3.92, SD = 0.24) scored the highest. As for the Chinese respondents (M = 3.86, SD = 0.27), the mean score did not differ significantly from either Malay or Indian respondents. Table 5. Means and Standard Deviation N Mean Std. Deviation Malay 100 3.63 .51 Chinese 80 3.86 .27 Indian 20 3.92 .24 Total 200 3.75 .42 Std. Error .05 .03 .05 .03 Table 6 demonstrates the result of one-way ANOVA for language choice and use among the three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian). The table revealed that the between-group mean square was 1.43 (2.87 / 2); and the within-group mean square was 0.17 (32.6 / 197). The F-ratio was (2, 197) = 8.66, and p = 0.00 stated that the differences in the mean scores of the three ethnic groups were statistically significant. Table 6. ANOVA Result for Language Use and Choice of English among Three Ethnic Groups Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 2.87 2 1.43 8.66 .00 Within Groups 32.60 197 .17 Total 35.46 199 Table 7 illustrates the Tukey HSD post-hoc analysis test to show which of the three ethnic groups’ language choice and use of English language differ from each other. The mean difference between groups of Malay and Chinese = - 0.22, Chinese and Indian = - 0.06, and Indian and Malay = 0.29. The post-hoc analysis found that significant differences in language choice and use of the English language in groups of Malay and Chinese (p = 0.00) as well as Indian and Malay (p = 0.00). However, no significant differences was found between the Chinese and Indian group (p = 0.80) at p < 0.05. ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 29 In general, Indian respondents chose and used English language more frequently than Chinese and Malay respondents. However, Malay respondents chose and used less English than Indian and Chinese respondents. The Indian respondents chose and used English more frequently than the Chinese respondents but the difference was found not to be significant. Table 7. Tukey HSD Test Comparisons Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. Malay Chinese -.22* .06 .00 Chinese Indian -.06 .10 .80 Indian Malay .29* .01 .01 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound -.37 -.08 -.30 .18 .053 .52 3.8 Language Choice and Use of English Language according to Field of Study An independent sample t-test was performed to determine whether there are any significant differences in language choice and use of English language between Social Sciences and Sciences lecturers in education domain. Table 8 illustrates the means and standard deviations of Social Sciences and Sciences lecturers. The Sciences lecturers attained higher mean scores (M = 3.90, SD = 0.16) than Social Sciences lecturers. The results suggested that the Sciences lecturers chose and used English language more frequently than those in Social Sciences. Conversely, the Social Sciences lecturers scored lower mean scores than Sciences lecturers (M = 3.60, SD = 0.54). Table 8. Means and Standard Deviation of Social Sciences and Sciences Lecturers Domain(s) F.S N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Education SS 100 3.60 .54 .05 S 100 3.90 .16 .01 Notes: FS = Field of Study, SS= Social Sciences, S = Sciences Table 9 presents the results of independent sample t-test for Social Sciences and Sciences lecturers. The two-tailed significance test was used to determine the significant difference. The results were between Social Sciences and Sciences lecturers in language choice and use of English language in domains of education, t (198) = - 5.44, p < 0.05. The result suggests that the two groups of lecturers used English significantly different in the domains education. In the Sciences, more English is significantly used compared to the Social Sciences. This could be a result of the courses themselves, meaning that more sciences are taught in English. Table 9. Independent Sample T-Test Results for Social Sciences and Sciences Lecturers t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence t df Sig. (2Interval of the tailed) Difference Lower Upper Equal variances assumed -5.44 198 .00 -.41 -.19 Education Equal variances not assumed -5.44 116.43 .00 -.41 -.19 4. Conclusion The study has shown the language choice and use of a particular professional group of Malaysians who are lecturers in a Malaysian public university. The findings revealed that in the formal education domain, it is observed that the English and Malay languages have been chosen and used by all of the Malay, Chinese and Indian respondents. English and Malay languages are the medium of instruction in Malaysian higher education. However, there were some Chinese respondents who stated that they chose and used Chinese language in the formal education domain. The reason is that the Chinese respondents were teaching Chinese courses such as Chinese language or Chinese literature, which required Chinese language to be the medium of instruction. In the informal education domain, all of the respondents chose and used English language most frequently although they also chose and used their own ethnic languages. The one-way ANOVA results revealed that the language choice and use of the English language differed significantly across three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian). The results were subject to Tukey HSD post-hoc analysis whereby significant differences were found in group between Malay and Chinese. This means that the Chinese group chose and used English language more frequently than the Malay group. Besides, significant differences were found in Indian and Malay group as the Indian group chose and used English language more frequently than the Malay group. However, the language choice and use of English language did not differ significantly between Chinese and Indian ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 30 groups. It implies that the Indian and Chinese group chose and used English language almost equally. However, groups between Malay and Chinese; and Indian and Malay showed the most significant differences as Malay respondents chose and used less English language compared to Chinese and Indian respondents. In terms of field of study, the independent sample t-test discovered that significant differences were identified between Sciences and Social Sciences lecturers in language choice and use of English language. There was a significant difference whereby Sciences lecturers appear to choose and use English more. All in all, the findings have contributed to an insightful understanding of language choice and use in a multilingual setting with a complementary focus on the use of English which is not considered as an ethnic language for Malaysian communities. Nonetheless, the findings showed that this global language has gained significant grounds as a language that has become a firm choice of use among the respondents. The language choice and use of the lecturers have been impacted by the language policies that spelt out the role and status of both Bahasa Malaysia (BM) and English language. 4.1 Recommendation of Further Studies Future studies can be conducted with different universities in Malaysia and differentiated between governmental universities and private universities in order for the findings of the research to be generalized to all of the lecturers in Malaysia. 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M C I M C I M C I Formal Domain R 10.0 18.8 30.0 100.0 98.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 S 15.0 26.3 40.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 75.0 55.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 23.2 50.0 60.0 97.0 61.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 2 S 20.2 22.5 20.0 3.0 23.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 56.6 27.5 20.0 0.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 24.2 46.3 65.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.0 3 S 19.2 21.3 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 F 56.6 32.5 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 16.0 23.4 40.0 100.0 98.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 4 S 11.0 22.1 35.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 73.0 54.5 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 32.6 61.5 70.0 96.8 64.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 5 S 10.5 16.7 20.0 3.2 17.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 56.8 21.8 10.0 0.0 17.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 32.6 55.8 75.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.0 6 S 10.5 18.2 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 F 56.8 26.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 9.0 13.9 25.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 7 S 12.0 24.1 50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 79.0 62.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 25.3 61.3 75.0 96.9 46.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 8 S 22.2 18.8 25.0 3.1 23.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 52.5 20.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 24.7 50.6 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 80.0 9 S 22.7 19.5 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.0 F 52.6 29.9 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 R 17.0 25.0 40.0 97.0 98.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 18.0 22.5 40.0 3.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10 S F 65.0 52.5 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 35.7 66.3 75.0 96.9 72.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 11 S 14.3 13.8 20.0 3.1 11.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 50.0 20.0 5.0 0.0 16.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 35.7 56.3 75.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.0 12 S 14.3 17.5 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 F 50.0 26.3 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 R 91.0 95.0 100.0 100.0 91.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 13 S 1.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 8.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 36.0 51.3 50.0 100.0 91.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 14 S 30.0 23.8 30.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 34.0 25.0 20.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 R 35.0 56.3 45.0 100.0 91.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 15 S 21.0 18.8 35.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F 44.0 25.0 20.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ENGLISH M C I 20.0 18.0 62.0 5.1 20.2 74.7 5.1 20.2 74.7 18.0 15.0 67.0 7.4 10.5 82.1 7.4 10.5 82.1 28.0 12.0 60.0 5.2 10.3 84.5 6.2 11.3 82.5 21.0 15.0 64.0 6.1 13.3 80.6 6.1 13.3 80.6 0.0 1.0 99.0 13.0 5.0 82.0 13.0 5.0 82.0 8.8 12.5 78.8 2.5 10.0 87.5 1.3 8.8 90.0 9.1 10.4 80.5 2.6 5.1 92.3 0.0 3.9 96.1 10.1 7.6 82.3 0.0 6.3 93.8 0.0 2.6 97.4 7.5 13.8 78.8 0.0 6.3 93.7 0.0 5.0 95.0 0.0 1.3 98.8 5.0 7.5 87.5 5.0 7.5 87.5 5.0 10.0 85.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 5.0 5.0 90.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 0.0 5.0 95.0 5.0 10.0 85.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 5.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 5.0 5.0 90.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 ALLS 7(1):21-32, 2016 16 17 18 19 32 R S F R S F R S F R S F 33.0 22.0 45.0 44.0 14.0 42.0 25.0 20.0 55.0 56.0 7.0 46.3 27.5 26.3 61.3 13.8 25.0 28.8 27.5 43.8 72.5 13.8 40.0 35.0 25.0 55.0 30.0 15.0 35.0 50.0 15.0 72.5 13.8 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 91.3 2.5 6.3 91.3 1.3 7.5 92.5 1.3 6.3 92.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 12.0 10.0 78.0 15.0 5.0 80.0 19.0 14.0 67.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 7.5 87.5 8.8 6.3 85.0 0.0 5.0 95.0 5.0 2.5 37.0 R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F R S F 47.4 9.3 43.3 67.0 0.0 33.0 66.0 1.0 33.0 57.0 4.0 39.0 65.0 1.0 34.0 22.0 10.0 68.0 71.0 9.0 20.0 24.0 13.0 63.0 20.0 16.0 64.0 20.0 12.0 68.0 13.8 13.8 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 87.0 92.5 59.5 15.2 25.3 80.0 3.8 16.3 76.3 10.0 13.8 68.8 12.5 18.8 81.3 5.0 13.8 32.5 27.5 40.0 70.0 13.8 16.3 51.3 17.5 31.3 60.0 13.8 26.3 37.5 16.3 46.3 60.0 35.0 5.0 75.0 20.0 5.0 75.0 20.0 5.0 70.0 25.0 5.0 75.0 20.0 5.0 35.0 55.0 10.0 70.0 25.0 5.0 50.0 40.0 10.0 50.0 45.0 5.0 30.0 45.0 25.0 5.0 10.0 85.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 95.0 100.0 91.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 6.2 2.5 5.0 20 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.2 6.3 0.0 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.6 91.1 95.0 100.0 92.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 11.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.8 0.0 21 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 86.0 92.5 100.0 100.0 92.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 12.0 5.0 5.0 22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 86.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 88.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 12.0 5.0 5.0 23 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.0 88.8 95.0 100.0 92.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 12.0 6.3 5.0 24 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 25 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 13.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 78.0 92.5 100.0 100.0 86.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 26 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 11.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 91.0 97.5 100.0 100.0 81.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 27 0.0 11.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 80.0 95.0 100.0 100.0 77.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 9.0 1.3 0.0 28 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 16.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 72.0 95.0 100.0 100.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 9.0 0.0 0.0 29 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.0 13.8 5.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 76.0 86.3 95.0 Informal Education Domain R 10.0 20.0 31.6 100.0 97.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 30.0 8.8 0.0 30 S 9.0 16.3 52.6 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.0 15.0 5.3 F 81.0 63.8 15.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 49.0 76.3 94.7 R 30.9 67.5 63.2 96.9 53.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 14.4 2.5 0.0 31 S 10.3 20.0 36.8 3.1 11.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.6 8.8 0.0 F 58.8 12.5 0.0 0.0 35.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 63.9 88.8 100.0 R 30.9 53.8 68.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 78.9 14.4 0.0 0.0 32 S 10.3 13.8 31.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.5 20.6 8.8 0.0 F 58.8 32.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.5 64.9 91.3 100.0 R 17.0 35.0 30.0 97.0 81.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 95.0 21.0 3.8 5.0 S 25.0 35.0 50.0 3.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 12.5 10.0 33 F 58.0 30.0 20.0 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 69.0 83.8 85.0 R 14.0 25.0 45.0 100.0 56.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 S 12.0 31.3 45.0 0.0 27.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 24.0 12.5 0.0 34 F 74.0 43.8 10.0 0.0 16.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 57.0 87.5 100.0 Notes: Sd. = Sub-domain, F. = Frequency of Use, M= Malay Respondents, C= Chinese Respondents, I= Indian Respondents, R= Rarely, S= Sometimes, F= Frequently Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia The Acquisition of English Restrictive Relative Clauses by Arab Adult EFL Learners Hayat Eid Alroudhan (Corresponding author) Al-Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University College of Languages and Translation Department of English Language and Literature E-mail: hayat.alroudhan@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.33 Received: 23/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.33 Accepted: 01/11/2015 Abstract This study investigates the challenges faced by Arab adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in acquiring English restrictive relative clauses (RRCs), as well as the factors that affect the process of acquisition. This issue has received considerable attention in second language (L2) research. The present study discusses the syntactic structure of RRCs in English and Arabic with regard to the use of resumptive pronouns and the use of overt versus covert relative markers as related to the definiteness of the head noun. This study is carried out using an acceptability judgment test as the tool for data collection. A sample of 100 male and female adult Arabic speakers is used with the aim of identifying potential acquisition problems. The results obtained provide further support for first language (L1) transfer. This study concludes that participants accepted the use of resumptive pronouns and preferred the overt relative markers determined by definiteness. It is further discovered that certain factors influenced the acquisition process such as age of learning, and age of immersion. The current study has some pedagogical implications for the teaching of relative clauses in the EFL context. Keywords: English Relative Clauses, Restrictive Relative Clauses, Relative pronoun, Arab Learners of English 1. Introduction f factors. The most common factor is generally the cross-linguistic influence of the first language (L1). Cross-linguistic transfer is a widely identified phenomenon in second language research. Many studies have provided evidence that the structural distinction structure. For example, researchers such as Shaheen (2013), Algady (2013) and Zagood and Juma (2012) have examined the influence of cross-linguistic transfer between Arabic and English on the acquisition of L2 relative clauses. In other words, the previous studies have shown that Arab adult EFL learners made errors when forming relative clauses. Such repeated errors when using relative clauses to form complex sentences have led to their becoming a common issue among learners. Therefore, there is a need to conduct research in order to investigate the causes of the serious errors that hinder the ability of learners to master the complex structures of the English language generally and English restrictive relative clauses in particular. On the other hand, over the last few decades, there has been little research on the acquisition of RRCs in English. Hence, the current study was conducted to investigate the acquisition of English restrictive relative clauses (RRCs) by adult English learners with regard to the use of resumptive pronouns and the use of overt versus covert relative markers as related to the definiteness of the head noun (antecedent) as well as the different factors that may result in difficulty in that acquisition. In order to meet the purpose of this study, the following research questions were formulated: Q1- What are the most common mistakes made by Arab adult EFL learners in acquiring English RRCs? Q2- What are the main factors affecting the acquisition of English RRCs by Arab adult EFL learners? 2. Literture Review 2.1 Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses Relative clauses generally act as subordinate clauses in complex sentences. There are two types of relative clauses: defining and non-defining. The defining relative clause is also know relative clause functions as a definition for the head noun, which can be the subject or object, and such clauses are ne the meaning and modify the head noun by limiting the range of possible referents. Therefore, restrictive relative clauses are considered to be defining relative clauses due to their semantic function. Consequently, these clauses should not be removed or enclosed by commas, as shown in (1) below. ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 34 1) The book that you bought is very expensive. The other type of clause is the nonadditional information is presented about the head noun. However, this type of relative clause is not necessary and that explains why it is located after or in-between comma(s), as given in (2) below. 2) This book, which is a gift from my friend, is very interesting. 2.2 The Notion of Restrictive Relative Clauses restricts or helps to define the meaning of the noun. It usually begins with who, which, whom, whose, or that, [also it] is ed defining relative clauses, or identifying relative clauses as they identify the another noun preceding it in the sentence [and] it connects a dependent clause to an antecedent (a head noun that 2003, p. 3). He also says that there are alternative options for relative pronouns, such as a wh- word, that, or zero; the choice depends on the nature of the antecedent and its relation to the dependent clause in terms of essential information. 2.3 Restrictive Relative Clauses in English English RRCs are placed after the head noun (post-nominal). Accordingly, they function as an adjectival clause that modifies the preceding head noun. Meanwhile, English RRCs are introduced by a relative marker or an optional gap in object positons. According to Algady (2013), there are three cases of English RRCs that are either introduced with a wh-word, such as who, which, whom, and whose as shown in (3a) and (4a), with the complementizer that as in (3b) and (4b), or with none as in (3c). However, the omission of the relative marker takes place when the relativization is in the object position. This indicates why, when we use a sentence with a zero-relative marker as in (4c), it becomes ungrammatical because the relativization is in the subject position. 3) a) I saw the man whom you know. b) I saw the man that you know. c) I saw the man you know. 4) a) I saw a man who asked for help. b) I saw a man that asked for help. c) *I saw a man asked for help.1 Relative markers agree with the head noun in number but not in gender. Most relative markers do not show case endings, except for whom and whose, which are marked for accusative and genitive respectively. These relative pronouns are used as markers to differentiate between subject and object as in who and whom, and they also distinguish human from non-human as in who and which. Another feature that needs to be noted is that the head noun in RRCs can be a word or a phrase. It also can be definite as in (3 a-c) or indefinite as in (4 a-c). A further fact noted by Al-Washali and Hasnain (2013) is the general tendency to use the relative marker that in all cases. Several researchers, such as Amer (2003), support this view because that can be used for all relativization positions as well as for people, animals and things. 2.4 Restrictive Relative Clauses in MSA Relative clauses in Arabic are similar to those in English as they both follow and modify the head noun. As stated by Algady (2013), the types of relative clauses under discussion in MSA are those introduced by the equivalent of the English complementizer that ( allaðii ) forms. These relative pronouns have similar phonological stems but different endings with regard to the number, gender and case endings. Also, relative pronouns in Arabic are referred to as which means that they are connecting pronouns. The basic feature of MSA relativization that distinguishes it from English is that it contains a resumptive pronoun in certain cases and/or a gap in others. Unlike the English whose and whom, the relativization system in MSA has no possessive relative marker, as discussed by Al-Washali and Hasnain (2013). Additionally, unlike the English that, no relative marker can be used in all cases. Indeed, as a result, there is a general tendency in Arabic dialects to use allii ), which is equivalent to that; it is used as a relative marker for all cases. 1 The * symbol indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical. ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 35 Agreement in the gender and number of relative markers with the head noun in MSA can be seen in singular, dual, and plural cases. However, the case agreement only happens in dual cases (Amer, 2003; Algady, 2013; Al-Washali & Hasnain, 2013). The sentences in (5) below show the difference for each case. 5) a) masculine singular: knew-1Sng b) the-student-M that -3MSng talked-3MSng in-Prep the-party feminine singular: knew-1Sng c) the-student-F that -3FSng talked-3FSng in-Prep the-party masculine dual: knew-1Sng d) the-students-M that -3MD talked-3MD in-Prep the-party feminine dual: knew-1Sng e) the-students-F that -3FD talked-3FD in-Prep the-party masculine plural: knew-1Sng f) the-students-M that -3MPlr talked-3MPlr in-Prep the-party feminine plural: knew-1Sng the-students-F that -3FPlr talked-3FPlr in-Prep the-party 2.4.1 Definiteness in MSA restrictive relative clauses Definiteness is an essential feature in MSA relativization. Algady (2013) pointed out that the use of relative markers is entirely based on the definiteness of the head noun. So, relative markers only follow the definite head noun as presented in (6a). For that reason, the indefinite head noun in (6b) is not followed by any relative marker. 6) a) came-1Sng the-man who-3MSng talked-3MSng in-Prep the-party came-1Sng man-Indef. talked-3MSng in-Prep the-party b) 2.4.2 Resumptive pronoun in MSA restrictive relative clauses ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 36 Resumptive pronouns are considered to be a major feature in Arabic relative clauses. The Longman Dictionary of behind when forming a wh-phra amiru in Arabic, which means the pronoun returns because its function is to return the meaning to the head noun in order to fill the gap. In the literature, it is often referred to as a clitic pronoun. This resumptive pronoun in MSA functions as a referent for the head noun and is usually attached to a verb as in (7a) and (7b) or to a preposition as in (7c) in RRCs. 7) a) Optional resumptive pronoun in the direct object position. saw-1Sng b) the-message that-3FSng wrote.3MSng-it the-student Obligatory resumptive pronoun in the indirect object position. saw-1Sng the-teacher that-3FSng delivered.3MSng-him the-student the-message c) Obligatory resumptive pronoun in the oblique position. saw-1Sng the-teacher that-3MSng sent.3MSng the-student to-him the-message The resumptive pronoun agrees with the head noun in number, gender and case. Its use is compulsory when the positions being relativized are indirect objects as shown in (7b) or obliques as in (7c). On the other hand, resumptive pronouns are optional in the direct object position as given in (7a). However, the one that occupies the subject position comes as a free subject pronoun. (For more detail regarding resumptive pronouns in MSA, see Amer (2003) and Algady (2013).) 2.5 Similarities and Differences between English and Arabic RRCs As mentioned above, RRCs are practically identical in English and Arabic in their right branching, function, and the use of a relative marker at the beginning or the fact that they sometimes have a gap in certain cases. Therefore, it may be possible that learners become confused as they mix the two and produce redundant or ungrammatical English sentences, often with an overlap of the two forms. Despite several decades of research into the acquisition of English RRCs, there is still little definitive knowledge as to why these difficulties arise. On the other hand, two major differences were noted. The first one is that the use of the relative markers in MSA RRCs depends on the definiteness of the head noun; accordingly, it is omitted after an indefinite head noun. However, the absence of relative markers in English RRCs only occurs when the relativization is in the object position. The second distinction is that English RRCs do not include a resumptive pronoun, which is considered to be the main difference between Arabic and English RRCs. In MSA, the use of a resumptive pronoun is optional in subject and direct object positions, despite being obligatory in indirect object and oblique positions as shown above in (7 a-c). 2.6 Recent Empirical Studies on Relative Clauses In viewing L1 transfer from a linguistic perspective, Shaheen (2013) argued that L1 transfer is a key concern because transferred to the way they approach L2 data. Therefore, it might be assumed that L1 transfer is a crucial issue when the L1and L2 have distinct universal parameters. Similarly, Zagood and Juma (2012) concluded with proof that some Libyan university students faced difficulty when translating RRCs from and into English and Arabic. This indication refers to a negative transfer of L1 since the participants displayed a general weakness regarding relative clauses in both English and Arabic. In the case of the role of syntactic distinction, Shaheen (2013) used acceptability judgment, gap filling, and translation tasks to examine how Syrian learners acquire English RRCs. The result was that certain tested properties seem to be transferred from the L1, so there is no dominance of interference from L1. Shaheen (2013) concluded that L1 interference alone particularly in the case of the persistent use of RPs. This appears to suggest that the instantiations of RRCs are still the biggest issue. Where trace and movement are no ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 37 onoun may refer to the optionality of using it in certain contexts. This agrees with what we are saying since resumptive pronouns do not exist in English RRCs. Arabic learners cannot separate the parameters of the two languages from each other most of the time, whereas it is supposed that they are able to reset the parameters in order to acquire English RRCs competently. In the same vein, (2012) study examined the structural distinction between RRCs in Greek and English. The study investigated the acquisition of English RRCs by advanced Greek learners. Despite showing that Greek and English parameters are experiment questioned the possibility of parameter resetting in adult L2 acquisition. The findings revealed that advanced Greek learners could not acquire the features of the English RRCs. Therefore, the results of the experiment long-term problems of L2 acquisition due to the syntactic distinction between L1 and L2. In the case of the language proficiency level, in a recent study, Zhu (2014) discussed the existence of differences or similarities regarding the syntactic transfer of English RCs by Chinese learners whose levels of proficiency varied. The study revealed that the syntactic transfer amount is larger for complex L2 structures in learners at a lower proficiency level, although those at a higher proficiency level tended to rely on their Chinese L1 syntactic structures. 3. Methodology 3.1 Subjects A total of 123 subjects initially took the test. However, 23 participants were excluded. This is because two were aged 18 and the other 21 rated the same repeated item differently. The ultimate study sample therefore consisted of 100 participants, 78 females and 22 males, as shown in Table 1. All the subjects were native speakers of Arabic and they were either advanced EFL learners or English teachers. The targeted participants all specialized in the English language. The study included questions regarding background variables such as gender, age, age at first exposure to formal English instruction, and childhood immersion in English-speaking environments. Descriptions of the parti distribution according to these variables are listed below. Table. 1 Gender distribution of the sample (N = 100) Category Frequency Percentage Male 22 22% Female 78 78% Total number 100% 3.1.1 Age The ages of the participants ranged from 20 to 51 years; frequencies and percentages are used to show the distribution of participants within the age categories in Table 2. Table 2. Age distribution (N = 100) Age Category Frequency 20 - 29 53 30 - 39 36 40 and above 11 Total number Percentage 53% 36% 11% % 3.1.2 Age at first exposure to formal English instruction The participants varied in terms of their age at their first exposure to the English language through instruction. A total of (n = 44) participants started studying English in intermediate school, (n = 26) started in primary school, and (n = 26) started trying to learn English outside the classroom by watching English TV shows or that their parents tried to teach them English at home before kindergarten. The participants were divided into four categories according to when they started learning English. The frequency and percentage in each group are given in Table 3. Table 3. Age at first exposure to formal English instruction (N = 100) Category Frequency Percentage Kindergarten 26 26.0% Primary school 26 26.0% Intermediate school 44 44.0% Other 4 4.0% Total number % ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 38 3.1.3 Childhood immersion in English-speaking environments The participants had similar English learning experiences, except for the 16 participants who lived in English-speaking countries at ages ranging from 1-12 years during their childhood. This factor may affect their learning of English since they were exposed to the language early in life, before the critical period, and were immersed in the English language environment. Table 4 shows the frequencies and percentages of responses to this question. Table 4. Childhood immersion in English-speaking environments (N = 100) Category Frequency Yes 16 No 84 Total number The last two variables were used to test the difference between the performance of early and late learners, as well as the influence of early immersion in English environments on the acquisition of syntactic competence. Several researchers backgrounds to their English language ability. 3.2 Instrumentation An acceptability judgment test (AJT) adapted from Shaheen (2013) was used for data collection in order to investigate E -formedness by getting them to give spontaneous reactions to sentences that have RRCs. The test was selected based on the fact that it has less bias when measuring cognitive competence, and it is the preferred method for investigating questions of syntax according to Gibson and Fedorenko (2013). In the present study, the test consisted of 45 items including 10 distractors. There were 34 main test items: 24 grammatical items to test the level of English RRC acquisition and 10 ungrammatical items, which aimed to examine repeated item and this was supposed to ch asked to rate the sentences from 1-10, where 1 meant the sentence seemed totally unacceptable and 10 meant it looked totally acceptable. The order of the AJT items was randomized (see Appendices A and B). 3.2.1 The basic principles of the AJ T In the construction of the AJT, all items had the same tense (simple past). All vocabularies used are considered common among English speakers. Simple RRCs were used in order to avoid any possible ambiguity in the sentences. The basic aspects are: 1. The use of resumptive pronouns in subject, object, and object of preposition positions. Unlike English, in Arabic these positions involve an obligatory resumptive pronoun except for the S position, which is optional. For this reason, the sentences tested for extraction of subject (S), object (O), and object of preposition (OP) positions as a means for investigating L1 transfer. These sentences are considered ungrammatical in English because they involve the use of a resumptive pronoun, although participants may tend to think that they are acceptable in all positions and particularly in place of the object. The sentences appear in questions 12, 25, 26, 30, 39, and 40 in the test. 2. The use of overt versus covert relative markers and definiteness. Definite and indefinite heads of RRCs were used in all positions (i.e., S, O, and OP). This is because in MSA indefinite RRC heads disallow overt relative markers regardless of their positions. Thus, this is a potential measure of L1 influence since relative markers in English RRCs are deleted only when the relativization position is in the object position, irrespective of the definiteness of the head noun. As a result, covert and overt relative markers were included English sentence to be unacceptable, while they may think an ungrammatical sentence is acceptable. The sentences with definite heads appear in 3, 5, 8, 11, 17, 18, 24, 32, 35, 36, 37, and 44 in the test. The indefinite ones also appear in questions 2, 4, 10, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23, 28, 31, 41, and 42. 3. A scale was included to test whether there is a preference for that, since there is a general tendency in almost all Arabic dialects to use the relative marker allii ), which might be equivalent to that. There may be a corresponding relationship between these two aspects. The sentences that belong to this aspect appear in 9, 15, 29, and 38. A pilot study was carried out before the final AJT in order to identify potential practical problems. The aim of the pilot study was to examine the validity, adequacy, and reliability of the instrument used in the study, as well as the administrative procedure. Some properties were restructured to avoid ambiguity on the basis of the responses from participants in the pilot study (e.g. wh- RRCs and Ø RRCs). The AJT was carefully designed to ensure the accuracy of the results and the appropriate layout. For illustration, the distribution of the RRC types and how many items were used to represent each aspect are summarized in Table 5 (see ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 39 Appendices A and B for the test items). The symbol * is used before an RRC construction to identify an ungrammatical structure. When no sign is used, the RRC construction is grammatical. It should be noted here that the test did not include items involving whose because this word does not have an Arabic equivalent and it was considered important to limit the number of items tested. Table 5. Distribution of items tested in the AJT and the items involved in each aspect Tested aspect RRC positions No. of items in each position No. of items in each aspect Resumptive pronoun *S 2 6 2 12 2 12 2 4 *O *OP Definite RRCs with overt and covert relative markers S overt O overt OP overt *S (Ø) covert O (Ø) covert OP (Ø) covert Indefinite RRCs with overt and covert relative markers S overt O overt OP overt *S (Ø) covert O (Ø) covert OP (Ø) covert S+ that O+ that S+ wh- marker O+ wh- marker 3.3 Reliability related the items in the set were as a group to the AJT as a whole. Table 6. Scales Split half Resumptive pronoun in simple RRCs Definite RRCs to test the use of overt versus covert relative markers Indefinite RRCs to test the use of overt versus covert relative markers Preference for The alpha coefficient value for four sets of items is illustrated in Table 6. These values suggest fairly high reliability, which refers to the high reliability of the test tool used in the study. 4.4. Validity It was necessary to re-establish the validity of the instrument as some items were modified and some were added for the present study. The procedure for validation involved obtaining specialized expert judgment on the suitability and clarity of the instrument so as to establish the face and content validity. Assessing the internal validity included testing the Pearson correlation value of the AJT items. Each set of items is presented in a single table to show the average inter-correlation among the items. The correlation between each pair of items in the set was calculated as shown below. ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 40 Table 7. The correlation between the item and the total scores for the resumptive pronoun dimension Item Correlation Value Item Correlation Value S30 0.672** O40 0.907** S26 0.777** OP39 0.819** O12 0.686** OP25 0.630** Note. The items consist of letters referring to the relativized positions and numbers of their order in the test. Table 8. The correlation between the item and the total scores for the definite RRCs dimension Item Correlation Value Item Correlation Value S44 0.513** OØ37 0.758** S35 0.774** OØ3 0.731** SØ24 0.238* Op32 0.797** SØ36 0.296* Op11 0.415** O8 0.776** OpØ5 0.767** O18 0.782** OpØ17 0.589** Table 9. The correlation between the item and the total scores for the indefinite RRCs dimension Item Correlation Value Item Correlation Value S14 0.568** OØ28 0.556** S31 0.643** OØ13 0.649** SØ4 0.395** Op23 0.703** SØ41 0.342** Op10 0.720** O19 0.543** OpØ42 0.507** O2 0.495** OpØ21 0.639** Table 10. Item Correlation Value Item Correlation Value A29 0.715** A15 0.728** A38 0.836** A9 0.812** It can be noted that the correlation values for all the four dimensions in Tables 7, 8, 9, and 10 are high, which means that all the items in the AJT have relatively high internal consistency and validity. 3.5 Procedure After ensuring that the AJT questions were carefully planned and piloted, the test was designed online using Google forms. The purpose of this choice was that the test could be easily distributed to participants, and it was accessible to avoidance of ethical issues. At first, a brief description of the test with a link to the test website was sent to selected participants so that they could complete the test. They were informed that participation was voluntary. At the end of the test, participants were then asked to give their permission to be part of the study by clicking the submit button. A duration of two weeks was allocated for data collection to allow for reasonable flexibility. Data was collected electronically by the researcher for analysis. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Results 4.1.1 Resumptive Pronoun Use in RRCs The results for RRCs that involved a resumptive pronoun are presented in this section. The mean ratings and standard deviations of each item are displayed below in Table 11 (see Appendix C, Table C1 for individual results). ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 41 Table11. The mean ratings for resumptive pronoun items Item M SD S30 7.33 3.24 S26 6.50 3.47 O12 6.71 3.42 O40 5.50 3.68 OP39 5.29 3.75 OP25 5.21 3.47 As can be seen in Table 11, the mean scores show that resumptive pronoun items were highly rated. Even the individual results show that only very few participants within each item rejected the resumptive pronoun. The mean ratings for the total S, O, and OP positions are shown in Table 12. Table 12. The mean rating for the total resumptive pronoun items for each position Order RRC positions M SD S 13.83 5.71 1 O 12.21 6.14 2 OP 10.50 6.26 3 Comparisons of the mean scores show that a few participants rejected the resumptive pronoun in all three positions. position was significantly the highest in terms of rejecting the resumptive pronoun. However, the participants show acceptance toward using the resumptive pronoun in the O and OP positions, respectively. 4.1.2 Definite RRCs with Overt and Covert Relative Markers This section reports the ratings given by participants for the overt and covert relative markers. The mean ratings and the standard deviations for the three types of RRC positions in both options are provided in Table 13 (see Appendix C, Table C2 for individual results). Table 13. The mean ratings for definite RRC items Item M SD S 44 4.56 3.21 S 35 7.43 3.03 S Ø 24 7.68 2.97 S Ø 36 7.00 3.20 O8 8.16 2.91 O 18 8.30 2.59 O Ø 37 7.76 3.22 OØ3 7.62 3.30 OP 32 7.93 2.79 OP 11 4.75 3.53 OP Ø 5 7.44 5.18 3.13 OP Ø 17 3.33 The mean scores show that L2 learners accepted the overt relative marker more than the covert for the O and OP positions, but not for the S positions. The results of the mean ratings of participants for the total S, O, and OP positions with overt and covert relative marker forms are given in Table 14 below. ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 42 Table 14. The mean rating for the total definite RRC items for each position RRC positions M SD Order S 11.99 5.24 6 SØ 14.68 5.18 3 O 16.46 4.73 1 OØ 15.38 5.68 2 OP 12.68 5.14 4 OP Ø 12.62 5.34 5 A few participants were likely to accept the covert relative marker in the S position, yet the rest tended to highly reject it when the learners could identify and were aware of the English structure. However, the overt relative marker in the S position showed low ratings, so it was not highly accepted. On the contrary, participants showed a high acceptance of the overt relative marker in the O positions. Thus, in the OP positions, participants favored the overt slightly more than the null form. 4.1.3 Indefinite RRCs with Overt and Covert Relative Markers The results of RRCs with indefinite heads for the three positions are displayed in Table 15. The mean ratings and the standard deviations with the two forms of overt and covert relative markers are included (see Appendix C, Table C3 for individual results). Table 15. The mean ratings for indefinite RRC items Item M SD S14 6.69 3.28 S31 7.50 3.05 SØ4 6.12 3.46 S Ø 41 8.22 2.68 O19 6.16 3.65 O2 7.61 2.86 O Ø 28 4.03 3.35 O Ø 13 7.59 3.07 OP23 6.38 3.12 OP10 6.68 3.29 OP Ø 42 4.63 3.16 OP Ø 21 5.58 3.32 In general, the results presented in the above table show a strong tendency towards accepting the S position structure, with just a few exceptions. Moreover, gaps were mostly rejected within the O and OP positions. These results suggest that, as in the case of the O and OP, the overt form is highly rated. This means that it is more highly accepted than the null form, which is not a favored option since it is less accepted. The mean ratings of participants for the total S, O, and OP positions with the two forms are displayed below in Table 16. Table. 16 The mean rating for the total indefinite RRC items for each position RRC positions M SD S 14.19 5.34 Order 2 SØ 14.34 5.06 1 O 13.77 4.92 3 OØ 11.62 5.29 5 OP 13.06 5.26 4 OP Ø 10.21 5.10 6 ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 43 It is clear that, to some extent at least, participants rated the overt form higher than the covert one in the O and OP positions; thus, they favored the overt relative marker in these positions. On the other hand, the Ø form is preferred in the S position more than the overt form, except for a very few participants. 4.1.4 Here, participants were tested regarding their preference for the relative marker that over other markers. That might have been expected to be the favored form because it could be equivalent to allii ) in Arabic dialects. The mean ratings and standard deviations are presented in Table 17 below (see Appendix C, Table C4 for individual results). Item M SD that 29 7.59 3.27 who 9 8.49 2.79 that 38 7.98 2.96 which 15 6.94 3.36 From the results above, almost all participants accepted all instances for the two sentences. In the first sentence, they rated who higher than that, but in the second one that was rated higher than which. The total means of the ratings were calculated as shown in Table 18 below, where that appears to be slightly higher than the other markers; therefore, that is likely the preferred option. Relative marker that who + which M SD Order 15.57 5.25 1 15.43 5.18 2 4.1.5 Gender The results of the t-test found a non-significant effect for differences between males and females in the resumptive pronoun use and the use of overt and the covert relative markers. 4.1.6 Age A one-way ANOVA was used to test the behavior of age groups. Table 19 below shows the results of between and within group differences in order to illustrate how divergent individual behavior within each age group is (see Appendix C, Table C5 for individual results). Table 19. One-way ANOVA to determine the differences between age groups Tested aspects P-value F Resumptive Pronoun Not Sig. Definite RRCs Not Sig. Indefinite RRCs Not Sig. Not Sig. Object The above results show that not all aspects were statistically significant, with the exception that the effect of the object positions shows significant differences at 0.05 between age groups. As a result, the least significant difference (LSD) test was also used to measure the different direction of the object position. Table 20 illustrates the results of this procedure. Table 20. LSD value correlations with age groups for the object position Variables object *Sig. 0.05 M SD 20 29 44.075 7.658 30 39 39.666 8.109 40 and above 43.636 5.352 **0.01 LSD 2 3 4.408* 0.439 3.969 ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 44 The results presented above only show a difference for two groups (20 29 and 30 39) in which the first performed differently with a 0.05 significance and showed better recognition of the English structure in the object position. However, there were no significant differences between the other groups. 4.1.7 Age at First Exposure to Formal English Instruction The Kruskal-Wallis H Test was used to determine whether there are statistically significant differences between the four groups of first exposure to formal instruction. This test suited the nature of the AJT since participants measure a continuous scale from 1 10. The ratings of the groups differed, and these differences were determined as shown in Table 21. Table.21. Kruskal-Wallis for the differences between groups for the age of learning Tested Aspects M SD df Resumptive Pronoun 36.54 16.09 3 13.541 0.004 Definite RRCs 83.81 19.13 3 3.117 Not Sig Indefinite RRCs 77.19 18.10 3 2.776 Not Sig 31.00 9.40 3 1.491 Not Sig 29.02 9.32 3 16.319 0.001 Subject Ø P-value -square The above comparison of the findings shows the differences between the four groups. There was a statistically significant difference at 0.004 in the use of the resumptive pronoun, unlike the other aspects that had no significance. With regards to the relativized positions, only the subject with the null relative marker presented a significant effect. ents. Table 22 below displays the results. Table 22. LSD value correlations between groups for age of learning in resumptive pronoun and null subject position Variables Resumptive Pronoun M SD LSD 2 3 Primary 9.153* 22.384** Intermediate 9.951** 23.181** Kindergarten 13.230 Others Subject Ø Primary Intermediate Kindergarten 1.337 5.653* 9.230 6.991* 10.568* 3.576 Others *Sig. 0.05 **0.01 The test results revealed that the comparison between the primary and the kindergarten groups was significant (p = ), and the distinction indicated that the kindergarten group showed higher rejection of cases that involve a resumptive pronoun in their judgment. However, the results displayed a highly significant distinction between the primary group and the others at p = 0.01, since the others outperformed in their rejection of the resumptive pronoun cases. On the other hand, the intermediate group showed high significance at p = 0.01 when it was compared to the kindergarten group, and the kindergarten group performed better in the resumptive pronoun rejection. Significance was also found in a comparison of the intermediate group with the others at p = 0.01, where the others were significantly higher than the intermediate group in terms of rejecting the resumptive pronoun. rformance in the null subject position. The comparisons showed that the primary group was significantly lower than the kindergarten group in terms of accepting this structure in the case of the null relative marker (p =.005). A significant distinction was also found in which the intermediate group was lower than the kindergarten group and the others at p = .005. Even though these significant distinctions were found, there were no significant differences between the rest of the groups. 4.1.8 Childhood Immersion in English-Speaking Environments A t-test was carried out to compare the judgements of those participants who were immersed in an English-speaking environment during their childhood with those who were not. The mean ratings and standard deviations for both groups with t and p values were measured as displayed in Table 23 below. ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 45 Table.23. The results of the t-test for the age of immersion Tested Aspects Non-immersed (n = 84) Immersed (n = 16) df t P-value M SD M SD Resumptive Pronoun 35.50 16.14 42.00 15.16 98 1.489 Not Sig. Definite RRCs 82.17 19.67 92.37 13.38 98 1.983 0.05 Indefinite RRCs 75.95 18.05 83.68 17.48 98 1.578 Not Sig. 30.73 9.58 32.37 8.55 98 0.636 Not Sig. Object 41.51 7.73 47.31 6.59 98 2.808 0.006 Subject 38.71 8.46 46.81 8.30 98 3.516 0.001 Preference From the table above, the findings present a non-significant effect on the tested aspects, with the exception of definite RRCs. The immersed group score of M = 92.37 was significantly higher than the non-immersed score of M = 82.17, with a significance of p = 0.05. Although both groups highly accepted the subject and object relativization positions, the immersed group seemed to be more aware of the English RRC structure with a high significance of p = 0.006 for the object and p = 0.001 for the subject. 4.1.9 Variables Correlation A regression analysis was also conducted in order to examine the relationship and significant interaction between the dependent and independent variables. The coefficient correlations are displayed below in Table 24. Table 24. Regression analysis for variables coefficient determination Dependent Independent R R2 F & Sig. T & Sig. Beta B Resumptive Pronoun Age 0.371 0.137 3.78** Definite RRCs 2.13* 0.204- -4.794 Gender 0.306 0.03 1.143 Learning Age 2.611 0.259 5.050 Immersion Age 0.835 0.083 3.642 -0.367 -0.037 -1.034 Gender 0.715 0.073 3.340 Learning Age -0.314 -0.033 -0.760 Immersion Age 0.194 0.194 10.062 0.947 0.096 2.537 Gender 0.246 0.025 1.093 Learning Age -0.199 -0.021 -0.458 Immersion Age 1.476 0.156 7.658 0.112 1.544 0.031 0.695 -0.009 -0.107 0.058 1.485 Age Indefinite RRCs Age 0.214 0.188 0.133 *Sig. 0.05 0.046 0.035 0.018 1.139 0.868 0.431 Age 1.100 Gender 0.298 Learning Age -0.089 Immersion Age 0.546 **0.01 significant effect in the resumptive pronoun with the age and the age of learning, where the correlation coefficient value is ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 46 tendency for older participants to use the resumptive pronouns appears to be greater than for those who are younger and vice versa. On the other hand, a positive relationship was found between the age of learning and using the resumptive pronoun, as participants who started learning English later increased their use of the resumptive pronoun, unlike those who started learning earlier. As for the o the correlation rated preference. % and the indefinite RRCs were rated %. However, the lowest rating was % for the that 4.2 Discussion 4.2.1 The most common mistakes made by adult EFL learners when acquiring English restrictive relative clauses are as follows. 1. Participants accepted resumptive pronouns. The results of the between-subject comparisons show that there is an increased acceptance of resumptive pronouns in the cases of S, O, and OP RRCs. One possible explanation for this result is that it is evidence of L1 transfer when participants cannot differentiate between the two RRC structures. Participants could not learn gaps and so, it is here assumed, did not realize that the English language has gaps and does not use resumptives. Accordingly, this result might be explained by the fact that the progressive tendency to use the resumptive pronoun is related to its use in MSA. The reason for this relation might stem from the case of the S position, which has the highest rejection rating because its use is always optional in MSA. The rejection rating of the O position is lower than that of the S position, so the resumptive pronoun has a higher acceptance. This acceptance might be related to its optional use in the direct O position but obligatory use in the indirect O position in MSA. The OP position has the lowest rejection rating and is the most accepted one, which can be accounted for by the obligatory use of the resumptive pronoun in the OP position in MSA. It might also be argued that participants judged the resumptive pronoun cases as acceptable simply because they wanted to make a connection in order to resolve ambiguity by referring to the head noun, not because they have the resumptives in their L1. However, this argument is questionable because there is no evidence proving its applicability in this study. Another possible explanation is that participants need sufficient time and frequency to become familiar with gaps in English. They might eventually realize that English has gaps in these positions and become sensitive to these frequencies. Participants, thus, could arrive at a clear recognition that English favors gaps over resumptives. One can therefore propose that the frequency of this construction in the input might be low and that the participants have not seen enough evidence that resumptives are not allowed in English. These results confirm those observed in earlier st acceptance of resumptives in the S, O, and OP positions unless subjects with low proficiency allowed more resumptives than those in more proficient groups. The results of the present study are also in agreement with the findings of Zagood and Juma (2012) because learners frequently used the resumptive pronoun in translation. This practice could be 2. There was a preference for the overt relative markers in English determined by definiteness. The results of the total mean ratings for both definite and indefinite RRC items are displayed in Table 25. These results show that participants preferred the overt relative markers over the covert relative markers in definite RRCs. As an exception, participants showed no preference for the overt relative markers in the subject position. However, this preference for the overt form was increased in indefinite RRCs, except for the relativized null subject position where it was marginally preferred in indefinite RRCs. Tablen25. Mean ratings distinction for definite and indefinite RRC items Definite Positions M S 11.99 SØ 14.68 O 16.46 OØ 15.38 OP 12.68 OP Ø 12.62 Indefinite Positions S SØ 14.19 14.34 O OØ 13.77 11.62 OP OP Ø M 13.06 10.21 There are a number of possible explanations for these results. First, it can be argued that it is simply an apparent L1 transfer case. In the case of definite RRCs, the findings, to some extent, provide evidence of L1 transfer manifested in the RRC is definite. The second possible explanation is that this preference is the effect of input exposure. The overt form can easily be identified as the default form for relative clauses, so participants show a tendency to prefer this form. However, this explanation assumes that the frequency of the overt form is what led learners to favor it over the covert one. The third possibility is that participants tended to reject the null form because they could not identify it as the ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 47 default form for relatives. This tendency might be due to the overall sequence of syntactic development stages because this particular structural property can here be assumed to be more complex and difficult to acquire. Therefore, there is no clear evidence to support any of these assumptions. One last possibility concerning the high acceptance rate for the covert form in the subject position can be offered here. This result might be explained by the fact that participants came to recognize that the covert form is not common in the subject position in English. These results are consistent with those of Zagood and Juma (2012), who found that learners misused relative pronouns with indefinite antecedents and, consequently, made errors that led to ungrammatical structures. The results of Shaheen (2013) showed that as learners became more proficient, they gradually recognized that the optionality of using the relativizer in English depends on the relativized position, instead of definiteness of the resented here, although the reason for this difference is not clear. 4.2.2. The most common factors involved in the acquisition of English restrictive relative clauses by adult EFL learners are as follows. 1. The age of participants seems to have affected their use of the resumptive pronoun. correlation between older participants and increased acceptance of using resumptives. Younger participants had a lower acceptance of using resumptive pronouns than the older ones. It is difficult to explain this result, but this higher tendency among older participants could be attributed to their relatively late exposure to the English language. Another possible been previously discussed in the literature. 2. The age at first exposure to formal instruction appears to be related to the use of the resumptive pronoun. learning appears to have a positive influence on reducing the use of the resumptive pronoun. Participants who started learning English later are likely to show higher acceptance of using the resumptive pronoun compared to those who started learning earlier. The reason for this difference might stem from parameter resetting because early learning might o distinguish between the L1 and L2 structural properties. These results corroborate the ideas of Shaheen (2013) and Prentza (2012), who both suggested that adult L2 learners could not separate the parameters of the two languages. Accordingly, this possible involvement of parameter resetting in the acquisition of the features of English RRCs might be based on early exposure to the English language, which could enable learners to reset the parameters of syntactic distinction between L1 and L2. 3. Childhood imm The present study found that participants who were immersed in an English-speaking environment during their the non-immersed. This result could be structure and the ability of parameter resetting. This factor has apparently not been examined in earlier research. 5. Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications This study examined the problems that Arab adult EFL learners encounter during the acquisition of English RRCs. It also attempted to identify the factors affecting the acquisition process. The conclusion reached in this study is that learners seem to be troubled by L1 negative transfer. It is evident from the findings that the learners made some common mistakes, including the acceptance of using resumptive pronouns and a preference for the overt relative age, age of learning, and age of immersion. These factors are performance. These findings increase the understanding of the problems adult EFL learners face and add to the growing Some pedagogical implications for the teaching of relative clauses in the EFL context are discussed in the following lines: 5.1 Integration of communicative teaching with form-focused instruction. ed by types. Then, the use of instruction is assumed to facilitate the comprehension process. This practical recommendation was supported by previous research, which dealt with different treatment types. For example, Ammar and Lightbown (2004) focused primarily on L2 acquisition through the instruction targeting marked relative clauses. Their study involved three experimental groups of Arabic speakers in Tunisia who were learning acquiring an English relativization system. In fact, this instructed learning helped the learners to differentiate between the Arabic and the English relativization systems. In a study on teaching English RRCs, Cheng (2007) investigated the effects of integrating form-focused instruction with communicative teaching. The study suggested that the integration of ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 48 5.2 Implementation of various communicative tasks in the classroom to enhance the learning process English RC acquisition is considered a common L2 difficulty faced by speakers of several first languages, so Izumi and Izumi (2004) attempted to identify a helpful solution. They tested the effects of an instructional technique by investigating the possibility of allowing participants with different native languages (Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Turkish, Japanese, Korean, and Thai) to produce oral output as a means of acquiring ERCs (Izumi & Izumi, 2004). The oral output tasks took the form of oral descriptions of 24 pictures after their appearance on a screen. The non-oral output group arranged the pictures into a particular order and then answered questions about them instead of describing them. Contrary to expectations, Izumi and Izumi (2004) concluded that the oral output -output group. Although, the treatment in this study failed, it may work under different circumstances or with modification. 6. Suggestions for Future Research Based on the above conclusion, some recommendati structure are made. This structure has been the subject of interest in research studies over the past few years, although almost none have considered the influence of the critical period on the acquisition process. The findings of the present study provide the following insights for future research. 1. The preference for overt relative markers with definite heads is an important issue that needs further exploration. 2. It is suggested that future studies investigate the association of RRC acquisition with the factors of age of learning and age of immersion. 3. In future work, this study could be replicated with a wider scope to explore whether these findings are applicable across nations. 4. This study focused on Arabic-speaking, adult EFL learners. Additional studies should be conducted to explore whether these factors affect speakers of other L1 languages. References Alrashed, M. (2007). Ultimate Attainment of Pronunciation after Puberty in Second Language (Unpublished master's thesis). Arizona State University, Arizona, United States Al-Washali, I. H. N. M., & Hasnain, S. I. (2013). A comparative study on relative clause structure in English and Arabic. Language in India, 13(3), 1. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA323349798&v=2.1&u=sdl&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=4c3fc4bfce b10e580dc3ef0e5089d433 Amer, W. M. (2003). On the Syntactic and Semantic Structure of Relative Clauses in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. Unpublished manuscript, Islamic University of Gaza. Ammar, A., & Lightbown, P. (2004) Teaching marked linguistics structures: More about the acquisition of relative clauses by Arab learners of English. In A. Housen & M. Pierrard (Eds.), Studies on Language Acquisition: Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition. Berlin, DEU: Walter de Gruyter. Cheng, Y. C. (2007). The Effects of Two Teaching Methodologies on the Hierarchy of Difficulty of Restrictive Relative Clauses among Taiwanese Tenth Graders. Linguistics Journal, 2(3), 72-107. El-Badarin, M. N. (1982). Transfer, strategies, and structural complexity in the acquisition of English syntax by Arabic speakers. Gibson, E., & Fedorenko, E. (2013). The need for quantitative methods in syntax and semantics research. Language and Cognitive Processes, 28(1-2), 88-124. doi:10.1080/01690965.2010.515080 Izumi, S. (2003). Processing difficulty in comprehension and production of relative clauses by learners of English as a second language. Language Learning, 53(2), 285-323. Izumi, Y., & Izumi, S. (2004). Investigating the effects of oral output on the learning of relative clauses in English: Issues in the psycholinguistic requirements for effective output tasks. Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 60(5), 587-609. Noor, H. (1996). English Syntactic Errors by Arabic Speaking Learners: Reviewed. Scientific Publishing Centre, 14411465. Prentza, A. I. (2012). Second language acquisition of complex structures: The case of English restrictive relative clauses. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(7), 1330-1340. Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. W. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books?id=886CPgAACAAJ Shaheen, B. (2013). A comparative study of restrictive relative clauses in Latakian Syrian Arabic and English restrictive relative clauses by first language speakers of Latakian Syrian Arabic. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Essex. Retrieved from http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/001769 ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 49 Zagood, M., & Juma, M. (2012). A contrastive study of relativization in English and Arabic with reference to translation pedagogy (Doctoral dissertation). Durham University. Retrieved from http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3402/ Zhu, L. (2014). A study of syntactic transfer in relative clause learning of Chinese college English majors. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(3), 613-617. Appendix A Acceptability Judgment Test Sentences Acceptability Judgment Test Sentences 23. I invited to my house a friend who I met few months ago. (O) ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 50 Appendix B The Acceptability Judgment Test Sample Dear participant, Your participation in this study is highly appreciated. I am collecting information about the kinds of sentences that second language learners of English find acceptable and those that they do not. The results from this study should help me to better understand how people learn English. I am NOT assessing your knowledge of English. Responses will be collected to discover how people rate the acceptability of English sentences. * Required Name: (optional) Age: * Gender: * o Male o Female Age at first exposure to English language through instruction? * o Kindergarten o Primary school o Intermediate school o Other: Have you been exposed to English language through an immersion-type environment (living in an Englishspeaking country)? * If yes, please mention your age and for how long. For the following sentences, please tell us whether you feel they sound like acceptable English sentences to you, or whether they sound like unacceptable English sentences. Do not think too hard about your decision, and do not go back and change your initial decision. Please rate them from (1-10), where (1) means the sentence seems totally unacceptable and (10) means it looks totally acceptable. 1. I did know the reason why so many people in the world learning English. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Unacceptable Totally Acceptable 2. Sarah was reading a book that she expected to be amusing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Unacceptable Totally Acceptable 3. John emailed the woman he met in the conference. 1 Totally Unacceptable 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Acceptable ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 51 4. The scientist discovered an invention saved the country. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Unacceptable Totally Acceptable 5. I lost the card you wrote your number on. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Unacceptable Totally Acceptable 6. He was not left a car on the street that he had just bought. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Totally Unacceptable Totally Acceptable Appendix C Results of the Acceptability Judgment Test Resumptive Pronoun Use in RRCs Table C1. The frequencies, percentages, and mean ratings for resumptive pronoun items (N = 100) Item S30 S26 O12 O40 OP39 OP25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD F 11 4 3 4 4 8 6 6 9 45 7.33 3.24 % 11 4 3 4 4 8 6 6 9 45 F 15 8 4 5 5 6 4 13 6 34 6.50 3.47 % 15 8 4 5 5 6 4 13 6 34 F 17 4 4 2 6 4 8 12 10 33 6.71 3.42 % 17 4 4 2 6 4 8 12 10 33 F 25 11 4 2 7 7 6 6 4 28 5.50 3.68 % 25 11 4 2 7 7 6 6 4 28 F 28 12 6 2 2 5 6 5 11 23 5.29 3.75 % 28 12 6 2 2 5 6 5 11 23 F 23 10 10 4 9 2 6 8 11 17 5.21 3.47 % 23 10 10 4 9 2 6 8 11 17 Definite RRCs with Overt and Covert Relative Markers Table C2The frequencies, percentages, and mean ratings for definite RRC items (N = 100) Item S 44 S 35 S Ø 24 S Ø 36 O8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD F 20 17 11 11 9 4 2 6 6 14 4.56 3.21 % 20 17 11 11 9 4 2 6 6 14 F 6 5 6 5 4 7 2 11 15 39 7.43 3.03 % 6 5 6 5 4 7 2 11 15 39 F 7 6 2 4 1 5 5 14 15 41 7.68 2.97 % 7 6 2 4 1 5 5 14 15 41 F 10 8 3 3 2 12 4 14 9 35 7.00 3.20 % 10 8 3 3 2 12 4 14 9 35 F 5 4 3 4 4 5 2 7 2 64 8.16 2.91 ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 O 18 O Ø 37 OØ3 OP 32 OP 11 OP Ø 5 OP Ø 17 52 % 5 4 3 4 4 5 2 7 2 64 F 3 3 4 2 3 6 4 8 12 55 % 3 3 4 2 3 6 4 8 12 55 F 9 5 3 5 3 2 1 7 12 53 % 9 5 3 5 3 2 1 7 12 53 F 8 4 9 3 4 3 3 3 6 57 % 8 4 9 3 4 3 3 3 6 57 F 3 4 5 5 5 5 3 8 13 49 % 3 4 5 5 5 5 3 8 13 49 F 27 12 10 6 9 4 3 2 6 21 % 27 12 10 6 9 4 3 2 6 21 F 5 9 5 3 4 7 5 7 9 46 % 5 9 5 3 4 7 5 7 9 46 F 19 9 11 11 10 4 2 10 4 20 % 19 9 11 11 10 4 2 10 4 20 8.30 2.59 7.76 3.22 7.62 3.30 7.93 2.79 4.75 3.53 7.44 3.13 5.18 3.33 Indefinite RRCs with Overt and Covert Relative Markers Table C3. The frequencies, percentages, and mean ratings for indefinite RRC items (N = 100) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD F 11 8 3 8 6 4 6 12 11 31 6.69 3.28 % 11 8 3 8 6 4 6 12 11 31 F 6 3 7 5 8 6 1 8 10 46 7.50 3.05 % 6 3 7 5 8 6 1 8 10 46 F 16 8 5 10 3 7 6 8 8 29 6.12 3.46 % 16 8 5 10 3 7 6 8 8 29 F 16 8 5 10 3 7 6 8 8 29 8.22 2.68 % 16 8 5 10 3 7 6 8 8 29 F 22 3 5 7 10 1 4 4 11 33 6.16 3.65 % 22 3 5 7 10 1 4 4 11 33 F 4 3 9 3 5 5 7 10 12 42 7.61 2.86 % 4 3 9 3 5 5 7 10 12 42 F 37 14 7 5 6 2 4 11 1 13 4.03 3.35 % 37 14 7 5 6 2 4 11 1 13 F 5 6 6 6 4 1 8 5 12 47 7.59 3.07 % 5 6 6 6 4 1 8 5 12 47 F 4 11 11 7 10 7 7 8 4 31 6.38 3.12 % 4 11 11 7 10 7 7 8 4 31 F 12 5 4 11 4 5 8 8 10 33 6.68 3.29 % 12 5 4 11 4 5 8 8 10 33 F 21 11 16 9 9 3 6 7 5 13 4.63 3.16 % 21 11 16 9 9 3 6 7 5 13 F 15 10 11 7 9 4 8 8 7 21 5.58 3.32 % 15 10 11 7 9 4 8 8 7 21 Item S14 S31 SØ4 S Ø 41 O19 O2 O Ø 28 O Ø 13 OP23 OP10 OP Ø 42 OP Ø 21 ALLS 7(1):33-53, 2016 53 Item that 29 who 9 that 38 which 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M SD F 11 3 4 4 3 6 2 6 9 52 7.59 3.27 % 11 3 4 4 3 6 2 6 9 52 F 4 3 5 3 2 3 2 3 4 71 8.49 2.79 % 4 3 5 3 2 3 2 3 4 71 F 7 3 4 2 5 3 5 6 11 54 7.98 2.96 % 7 3 4 2 5 3 5 6 11 54 F 10 8 5 4 8 5 2 10 7 41 6.94 3.36 % 10 8 5 4 8 5 2 10 7 41 Age Table C5. One-way ANOVA to determine the differences between age groups Tested Aspects Source of Variation Resumptive Between group Pronoun Within group Definite RRCs Between group Sum of Squares df Mean Square F P-value Not Sig. Not Sig. Within group Indefinite RRCs Between group Not Sig. Within group Between group Preference Within group Object Between group Within group Not Sig. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Correlation between Picture Use in Test Format and Students’ Vocabulary Achievement Vedyanto English Teacher Training and Education Faculty, Tanjungpura University Prof. Dr. Haji Hadari Nawawi Street, Pontianak 78124, Indonesia E-mail: vedy91@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.54 Received: 29/08/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.54 Accepted: 01/11/2015 Abstract This study investigated the correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of 41 male and female seventh graders of Santu Petrus Junior High School. Hence, in this paper, the writer presents how strong the correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the seventh graders, and the students’ attitudes towards picture use in test format. Measurement results or scores obtained from the tests given in this study were used in order to find the coefficient through Pearson product moment correlation. On the other hand, observations were applied to know the students’ attitudes towards the assessment tool. The research resulted in a positive, very good correlation (r = .84) between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the students. Furthermore, the study found that stimulating students’ vocabulary achievement through picture use in the test format is effective. Behaviourally, the students showed their focus, confidence, and enjoyment while doing the test with picture format as the test items were uncomplicated to understand. Keywords: Correlation, Pictures, Test format, Vocabulary achievement 1. Background Mastering English vocabulary is the sine qua non of learning English language. To give clarification, Zahedi & Abdi (2012) claim, ‘vocabulary plays an important role in English language skills. The greater vocabulary the students master, the better they perform their language’ (p. 2264). Also, vocabulary is of great importance in communication because the communication will be unfeasible and discontinued if people hear or read words that they cannot understand (Abebe & Davidson, 2012; Barani, Mazandarani, & Rezaie, 2010; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Scott, Jamieson-Noel, & Asselin, 2003). The increasing complexity in learning vocabulary is faced by a number of students particularly the ones studying in junior high schools. English is introduced to the students initially by learning vocabulary since it is a principal element that serves as a basis for other language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Vocabulary becomes the core component of language proficiency (Richards & Renandya, 2002, p. 255). Therefore, vocabulary fundamentally enables teaching and learning English. This idea is encouraged by Allen & Valette (1994) that vocabulary is one of the important factors in all language teaching. Students must continually learn words as they learn structure and practice sound system (p. 149). Regarding a success on learning vocabulary, apart from teaching approaches, test medium and format turn out to be factors that contribute essentially to the ability of the students to master vocabulary as they may have an effect on the students’ achievement. To offer an unfavourable case in point, the students attempt to learn hard and understand the meanings of words in general; however, as the testing medium is poor and incapable to serve understanding, the students, as a straightforward result, encounter difficulties to do the tests. Allen (1983) affirms that in classes where there is not any language that is known by the entire students, the teacher needs a particular teaching skill (p. 12). Agreeing with Allen (1983), Rokni & Karimi (2013) elaborate, ‘visual materials like pictures have an important role for improving vocabulary knowledge and learning process’ (p. 237). Accordingly, teaching vocabulary by using pictures is worthy for both providing the learning inputs and testing instruments or media. Considering that using picture test format is an important instrument to support students’ achievement, the teacher, consequently, should provide pictures in the teaching process and use relevant test media and format to assess the learning outcome. In accordance with learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Pontianak, Indonesia, students, especially the seventh graders of Santu Petrus Junior High School experientially encounter a number of vocabulary learning troubles. Based on the researcher’s experience and observation, they are indicated by the little interest and motivation in studying English and inability to grasp the English teachers’ explanations commonly due to the lack of vocabulary mastery. A large number of researchers (e.g. Abebe & Davidson, 2012; Ahmadi, 2014; Baleghizadeh & Ashoori, 2011; Konomi, 2014; McLean, Hogg, & Rush, 2013; Mohammadnejad, Nikdel, & Oroujlou, 2012; Nemati, 2009; Rokni & Karimi, 2013; Sitompul, 2013) bolster visual techniques as solutions to the obstacles of learning and conveying vocabulary; ALLS 7(1):54-59, 2016 55 nonetheless, it is scarce to trace the ones dealing with pictures in test format correlating to vocabulary achievement. Therefore, filling in the research space is indispensable. This research attempts to seek out the correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the seventh graders studying at Santu Petrus Junior High School in academic year 2014/2015. While the test is in progress, their attitudes are also in a careful observation. As the nature suggests, a correlational study is decided to be performed and its result is statistically interpreted based on the degree of correlation coefficient. 2. Research Question The questions that the researcher focuses on to solve were: ‘Is there any correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the seventh graders studying at Santu Petrus Junior High School in academic year 2014/2015?’, ‘What is the correlation?’, and ‘What are the students’ attitudes towards picture use in vocabulary test format?’. 3. Literature Review Concerning the details of some prominent areas that frame this study (e.g. vocabulary, picture, and the benefits of picture in learning vocabulary), the literature is reviewed in advance. To unite words, people need a lot of collections of vocabularies. They express what people are going to say. Bachman & Palmer (1996) elucidate vocabulary as ‘the meaning and the usage of a set of words’ (p. 12). Another definition proposed by Doff (1988) is that vocabulary is an important element systematically taught when it is linked with important grammar (e.g. attitudes, verbs, and adjectives) and a major topic area (e.g. names of facial feature character), and is specially practised in the units of a work book (p. 7). On the other hand, Scrivener (1994) explains, ‘vocabulary is a powerful carrier of meaning. Beginners often manage to communicate in English by using the accumulative effect of individual words’ (p. 43). Hackman (2008) further states, ‘vocabulary is more than a list of words, and the size of one’s vocabulary matters, especially in knowing how to use it’ (p. 3). To exemplify the case, a student who says, ‘Yesterday, go disco, and friends dancing.’ tends to transform word by word from his source language to the target language without considering the grammar. In a winning comparison to grammar, Wilkins (2002) reveals, ‘vocabulary has to be equipped. Without grammar, very little thing can be conveyed; but without vocabulary, nothing can be applied, used, and conveyed’ (p. 13). Hence, vocabulary ensures learners to deal with communication effectively since it includes the meaningful messages. Moreover, vocabulary proves to be in a wide usage amongst students in a learning community to activate the language. In a classroom context, it is undeniable that getting familiar with vocabulary is absolutely indispensable for the students. However, the limitation on word memorisation occurs to hinder their vocabulary acquisition, and further to transfer information and give responses smoothly when having interactions with others. Moreover, Thornbury (2002) supportively points out that finding the right word to fit the intended meaning is frustrating when learners’ store of words is limited (p. 2). To give solution to this case, the teacher should concern the materials with pictures. They are visual images representing objects, people, places or scenes produced on a flat surface, especially by painting, drawing, or photography. They also become a method and carry out the overall experiences (Gerlach & Elly, 1971; Wright, 1989). Hill (2001) clarifies that pictures meet a wide range of uses not only in acquiring vocabulary, but also in many other aspects of foreign language teaching and learning (p. 1). Considering their uses, pictures boost students’ motivation to pay attention and participate at a classroom, contribute to the context of currently used language, provide information of a thing in a clear way, and properly stimulate students to speak, read, and write well. Enormous existing advantages of pictures can be realised when the attention comes to Abebe & Davidson (2012), Duke & Moses (2003), and Silberman’s (2007) elaboration that pictures yield the effectiveness of raising words consciousness, encourage the new words recognition, notice the special characteristics of words, attractively motivate, and create positive feelings like happiness and enjoyment towards learning in the educational context. Believably, the use of visual materials is a crucial way that makes the learners’ memory immensely reliable of vocabulary learning (Gairns & Redman, 1998; Rokni & Karimi, 2013). 4. Methodology This mixed quantitative and qualitative descriptive study was conducted to the seventh graders of Santu Petrus Junior High School, one of the private junior high schools in Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. English is a foreign language used in this school. The researcher’s roles were as an observer and an examiner. Collecting and analysing the gathered data, making the interpretation, and drawing the conclusion on the findings were all activities in this research accomplishment. There were 41 male and female seventh graders of classroom 7B actively participating in the observation. They were all randomly selected through a lottery procedure. This class consisted of the biggest number amongst the other 6 classes. Another English teacher was involved as a collaborator between the researcher and the students in this study. To initially collect the data of this research, observations and techniques of measurement were employed. Observations were held in the aforementioned site in a one-teaching-hour session lasting for 20 minutes by using field notes. For the measurement approach, however, two formats of test items (ten pictures and ten Indonesian vocabularies) were used as tools to collect the quantitative data in this research. These test items make efficient use of testing time (Read, 2000, p. 2). The materials of the test comprised things in the classroom, things in the bag, things in the house, animals, and public places in the city. Upon the conduct, each test took ten minutes. The two formats of the test were enhanced ALLS 7(1):54-59, 2016 56 with and without pictures. The one with pictures required the students to complete the missing letters and then to match the pictures with the related target language, i.e. English words by drawing the lines, whereas the one without pictures were simply coped with through the translation of Indonesian vocabulary into English vocabulary by completing the missing letters. In order to analyse the data found through the observations, the researcher used description and interpretation by grouping the collections of information. On the other hand, Pearson product moment correlation was applied for the data which were gathered through the measurement. It is a very useful statistic that indicates both the direction and the magnitude of the relationship between two variables without needing a scatterplot to show it (Ary, Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2010, p. 129). SPSS version 22 was utilised to statistically compute the quantitative data and to find out the magnitude of the correlation result. 5. Findings and Discussion 5.1 Quantitative Data Finding The quantitative data obtained from the test given were analysed with an obvious objective (i.e. to find out the correlation between picture use in test format and students’ vocabulary achievement). Table 1. Pearson Product Moment Correlation between Picture Use in Test Format and Students’ Vocabulary Achievement X Y X Pearson Correlation 1 .840** Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 41 41 Y Pearson Correlation .840** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 41 41 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). where: X = picture use in test format Y = students’ vocabulary achievement As shown in Table 1, concerning the correlation result, the coefficient is regarded to be very good (r = .84) and gains the significance at the .01 level. When the correlations fall into the range from .66 to .85, the coefficients would be considered very good (Creswell, 2012, p. 347). As a result, there is a very good correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the seventh graders studying at Santu Petrus Junior High School in academic year 2014/2015. 5.2 Qualitative Data Finding The observations were divided into two circumstances, specifically when the students were given the test with and without clues (i.e. pictures). The researcher found out that the majority of the students could easily do the test format with pictures. Emphasising and clarifying how the students behaved during the test conduct, they looked relaxed as they dealt with the test format with pictures; therefore, they relished doing it. On the contrary, when they filled in the missing letters by referring to the incomplete words without any pictures, they seemed very slow in answering the questions and looked anxious and perplexed. What the researcher observed during these two activities was obvious that they encountered a difficulty to think abstractly due to the absence of visual supports when doing the vocabulary test. While doing the one with visual supports, nevertheless, they seemed relaxed and found the test easy. The following two photographs show the students’ activities while doing the test. Figure 1. The Students’ Activities while Doing the Test Formats with and without Pictures: Filling in the Missing Letters ALLS 7(1):54-59, 2016 57 During the test, the collaborator of the researcher took field notes. The report of the testing process is divided into three sequences, such as before, during, and after the test. It is shown in Table 2: Table 2. Field Notes Test Sequences Before the test During the test After the test Notice of Observations · The students gave greetings and the researcher replied them back. · Three students looked ready. · The researcher drew the students’ attention. · Some students assumed that there would be a difficult test for them. · The researcher asked the students to keep their books in their bags and they did it. · The researcher distributed the pieces of test paper to all the students. · The researcher explained the test procedures and gave examples on the blackboard. · The researcher asked each student to write down his/her name, number, and class. · The researcher said ‘start’ and the test started. · The condition was conducive. · The students did the test with their full concentration and confidence. · The researcher walked around inside the classroom to see the students’ working process. · The majority of the students completed the missing letters before drawing the lines. · Three students finished the test in ten minutes and sat in a relaxed manner. · Two students thought deeply when dealing with the second part of the test. · When the time was over, all the students stopped doing the test and submitted it. · Several students talked to each other and checked the answers they previously gave. · The researcher asked the students to raise their hands to check the part bringing the complexity to them. · Twenty-five out of forty-one students considered that the test with pictures was easier than the one without them. The researcher’s interpretation was that the whole students were carefully managed and directed to have vocabulary test. Also, complete instructions and understandable examples were given before the test was conducted. During the test, particular attention came to the students as they intensely and tranquilly did the test. Most of them filled in the missing letters before drawing lines. In the end, after the test was over, sixty-one per cent of the students considered that the one with pictures was easy, while the other thirty-nine per cent represented those who difficultly did it. Above all, the findings imply that it is recognised that the two variables are in the coefficient ranging from .66 to .85. In this positive way, correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement of the seventh graders studying at Santu Petrus Junior High School in academic year 2014/2015 exists. The result of the correlation coefficient ALLS 7(1):54-59, 2016 58 that was calculated using Pearson product moment formula through SPSS version 22 shows that the correlation coefficient between picture use and vocabulary mastery is .84 and is significant at the .01 level. Based on the analyses, the correlation between picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement is very good. This finding confirms Abebe & Davidson (2012), Gairns & Redman (1998), and Rokni & Karimi’s (2013) statements that the use of visual aids truly enables the language learning of vocabulary and boosts the students’ motivation to have a fine achievement. In other comprehensible words, picture use in test format and vocabulary achievement are correlated each other. Moreover on the evidence, through the observations during the testing process, it was discovered that the students showed their positive attitudes such as concentration, confidence, and enjoyment in doing the test format with pictures more greatly than with the one without pictures. Abebe & Davidson (2012) supportively elucidate that the visual materials have the power to create a pleasant and enjoyable condition (p. 528). In the following sequence, i.e. after the test was over, most of the students admitted that the test format with pictures was easier than the one without pictures. As a result, the quantitative data findings strongly agree with the qualitative ones. This shows the clarity that using pictures in test format is a good way to assess the students’ vocabulary achievement. Coming along with these findings, some of the teaching experts (e.g. Gerlach & Elly, 1971) also believe that using pictures in test format can well support, motivate, and stimulate the students to do the test. 6. Conclusions and Suggestions This study with a mixed method particularly examined the correlation between picture use in test format and seventh graders’ vocabulary achievement, as well as their attitudes. The test and field notes became supporting instruments used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Through the analyses and discussions, it could be summed up that there is a positive correlation resulting with a positive coefficient (r = .84), being significant at the .01 level and reflecting a very good correlation. Consequently, it is obvious that positive attitudes appeared as pictures were dealt with. Realising the benefits of visual supports on the students’ vocabulary achievement, it is intensely recommended that the English teachers ought to employ the visual method, and continue applying and improving it for teaching-learning and testing activities. 6.1 Study Weakness and Limitation This research may still lack its strength. A further study pertaining to its topic, thus, is inevitably needed for the advanced findings and benefits of vocabulary learning and assessment. Acknowledgement I specially appreciated Kristina Sutiah and Ardi Marwan whose valuable guidance cleared the matters while accomplishing this correlational study. References Abebe, T. T., & Davidson, L. M. (2012). Assessing the Role of Visual Teaching Materials in Teaching English Vocabulary. Language in India, 12, 524-552. Ahmadi, M. (2014). Semantic and Structural Elaboration in L2 Vocabulary Learning and Retention. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98(0), 109-115. Allen, E. D., & Valette, R. M. (1994). Classroom Techniques: Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language. Springfield: Waveland Press. Allen, V. F. (1983). Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education (Eighth ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (1996). Assessing Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Baleghizadeh, S., & Ashoori, A. (2011). The Impact of Two Instructional Techniques on EFL Learners' Vocabulary Knowledge: Flash Cards versus Word Lists. MEXTESOL Journal, 35(2), 1-9. Barani, G., Mazandarani, O., & Rezaie, S. H. S. (2010). The effect of application of picture into picture audio-visual aids on vocabulary learning of young Iranian ELF learners. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 53625369. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (Fourth ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Doff, A. (1988). Teach English: A Training Course for Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Duke, N. K., & Moses, A. M. (2003). 10 Research-Tested Ways to Build Children's Vocabulary. New York: Scholastic Inc. Gairns, R., & Redman, S. (1998). Working with Words: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ALLS 7(1):54-59, 2016 59 Gerlach, V. S., & Elly, D. P. (1971). Teaching and Media: A Systematic Approach (Second ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hackman, S. (2008). Teaching Effective Vocabulary. Nottingham: Department for Children, Schools and Families. Hill, D. A. (2001). Visual Impact: Creative Language Learning through Pictures. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited. Konomi, D. K. (2014). Using Visual Materials in Teaching Vocabulary in English as a Foreign Language Classroom with Young Learners. Paper presented at the International Conference. McLean, S., Hogg, N., & Rush, T. W. (2013). Vocabulary Learning through an Online Computerized Flashcard Site. The JALT CALL Journal, 9(1), 79-98. Mohammadnejad, S., Nikdel, H., & Oroujlou, N. (2012). Reactivating EFL Learners' Word Knowledge by Means of Two Techniques: Flashcards versus Wordlists. International Journal of Linguistics, 4(4), 393-406. Nemati, A. (2009). Memory Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Long-Term Retention. International Journal of Technical Education, 1(2), 14-24. Read, J. (2000). Assessing Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rokni, S. J. A., & Karimi, N. (2013). Visual Instruction: An Advantage or A Disadvantage? What about Its Effect on EFL Learners' Vocabulary Learning? Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(4), 236-243. Scott, J. A., Jamieson-Noel, D., & Asselin, M. (2003). Vocabulary Instruction throughout the Day in Twenty-Three Canadian Upper-Elementary Classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 103(3), 269-286. Scrivener, J. (1994). Learning Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann. Silberman, M. L. (2007). The Handbook of Experiential Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Sitompul, E. Y. (2013). Teaching Vocabulary Using Flashcards and Wordlist. Journal of English and Education, 1(1), 52-58. Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Wilkins, D. (2002). Linguistics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Wright, A. (1989). Pictures for Language Learning: Cambridge Handbook for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zahedi, Y., & Abdi, M. (2012). The Impact of Imagery Strategy on EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Learning. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69(0), 2264-2272. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Relationship between Gender and Vocabulary Teaching Methodology among Iranian EFL Children: A Comparison of TPR and Direct Method Nazgol Nekoui Naeini Department of English, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: nekoui.n@gmail.com Mohsen Shahrokhi (Corresponding author) Department of English, Shahreza Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahreza, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: shahrokhi1651@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.60 Received: 03/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.60 Accepted: 02/11/2015 Abstract The present study intended to examine the impact of methodology on EFL vocabulary learning of elementary school boys and girls. To achieve this end, 40 elementary female and male students aged 9-10 were selected from among 60 students studying at a language institute in Isfahan, Iran. The students were selected based on the results of an overall language proficiency test as a placement test that had been prepared by the institute that identified students' level of proficiency. They were further divided into two experimental groups. Next, a pretest was used to identify the number of words students knew before treatment. The experimental group A learned vocabulary through Direct Method and in the experimental group B students learned vocabulary through Total Physical Response. After 12 weeks of instruction a post-test was administrated to measure and compare the results of vocabulary learning of two groups after treatment. The data collected were put to statistical analysis using SPSS. The results of t-test showed the positive effect of TPR on learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge. With regard to the impact of gender on learners’ L2 vocabulary knowledge, findings revealed that there were not any statistically significant differences between the male and female learners’ vocabulary score. Keywords: Total physical response, direct method, gender, vocabulary, Iranian EFL learners 1. Introduction Since the English language has become the dominant international language, the importance of learning English has become more evident and hence teaching English has become more important. In the same way, teaching English to young learners (TEYL) has attracted many people in the last decades around the world, and therefore, English education has been increasingly practiced at the primary levels. Learning is among everyday experiences for everyone, but it is most obvious for young learners who acquire new behaviors, facts, languages, ideas and concepts very rapidly (Bartsch, Horvath, & Estes, 2003). Therefore, considering the young learners' characteristics and also the language instruction are of utmost importance. Young learners tend to learn language more implicitly rather than explicitly (Cameron, 2001; Pinter, 2006; Slatterly & Willis, 2001). Recognizing meaningful messages is easy for them, but they cannot analyze the language as a system. Thus, presenting the language within 'meaningful contexts' is crucial while teaching English to young learners. In this way, language use will be reflected authentically (Cameron, 2001; Halliwell, 1992). While the experience of language learning is something interesting and attractive for some learners, for some others it is a boring activity that makes them wish to get away from it. Teacher domination over the classroom, having learners to do what they are told to, lack of creativity, learners not having any room for their saying and being bound by their benches for over an hour, and following a monotonous schedule are some of the factors augmenting this boredom. The problem with traditional monotonous schedule is the assumption that what goes on in the classroom is appropriate for all learners while there are so many varieties among the students in terms of their personal characteristics, learning styles, and foreign language learning needs. Besides that, the activities that learners are engaged in traditional classrooms are not authentic because they are specifically designed for teaching purposes, so they don’t have any similarity to their real life situations (Safdarian, 2012). In contrast, recent research on young learners' course-books and materials used in foreign language classes shows the implementation of a variety of methodologies and teaching strategies that focus specifically on the acquisition of particular grammatical structures and sets of vocabulary items (Cameron, 2003). This goes back in the history to around 50 years ago, from the time that Grammar-translation method was introduced, to Direct method, after that to Audiolingual method, to Cognitive code and a host of variations in each. Other methods have also been introduced to ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 61 the field such as Silent way, Total Physical Response, Suggestopedia, Natural approach, etc. So, the problem is which of these methods is more beneficial in teaching English to young learners and which one motivates the learners more in their learning of English (Rahimi Tehrani, Barati, & Youhanaee, 2013). Among many techniques and strategies available for foreign language educators to encourage students and help the acquisition of a language, the enormous benefits and applicability of language literature in foreign language learning have distinguished it from the other techniques that can be used in a language classroom. Literature in the language classroom can change the monotonous schedule, create a much more motivating environment and provide wide variety of language input which is adaptable to every learning style (Safdarian, 2012). The use of suitable method would make the young learners more interested in studying. Total Physical Response (TPR) is one of methods commonly used in language learning. Total Physical Response is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity. TPR makes learning become enjoyable and less stressful. The principal feature of the direct method is characterized, above all, by the use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the language classroom, and by the avoidance of the use of the first language and of the translation as a technique. Richards and Rodgers (1986, p. 38), list the principles of Direct Method as follows: · “Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language; · Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught; · Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and answer exchanges between teachers and student in small intensive class; · Grammar taught inductively; · New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice; · Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught through association of ideas; · Both speech and listening comprehension are taught; · Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.” 2. Statement of the Problem Teaching young learners English is completely different from teaching adults, for they have peculiar physical and behavioral characteristics. Young learners need to be provided with an atmosphere that is suitable to their imagination through different activities appropriate to their own world. In this sense, teachers should modify their teaching techniques and strategies in a way that appeal to students’ abilities, aptitudes and modalities and create that promising classroom environment where students learn English language through amusement and enjoyment (Cakir, 2004). Ilham (2009) said that, “vocabulary is the main point to learn English. It is the first step to learn English because without knowing a lot of vocabulary in English, the children will get difficulties in mastering English. Moreover, teaching vocabulary in elementary schools, especially for children, was not an easy way” (pp. 2-3). McCarthy (1990) stated that, “it was the experience of most language teachers that the single, biggest component of any language course was vocabulary. No matter how well the student learned grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of a foreign language were mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in a foreign language, could not happen in any meaningful way” (p. 9). Having limited vocabulary is also a barrier that prevents students from learning a language. If learners do not know how to expand their vocabulary, they gradually lose interest in learning. Many students consider learning vocabulary a tedious job. Generally, they have lack of interests in learning English language as they find it a dry and difficult subject to learn. As a result, most students dislike learning English and although they attend English lessons, they are not interested in learning English properly. Consequently, the teacher should be creative and be a good model in teaching English for their students. Students could become bored by repeatedly listening to a narration or dialog as they attempted to understand the meaning of new words or phrases in context (Purcell, 1992). It means that vocabulary must be learned in the class and must be organized in a good teaching learning process. Therefore, language teachers are required to employ a way to make learning vocabulary easier for children and use effective and appropriate methods. Consequently, one of the challenges that language teachers encounter with regard to the variety of teaching methods is which of method, among teaching methods, is beneficial in teaching English to young learners best, and which one motivates the learners more in their learning of English (Rahimi Tehrani, Barati, & Youhanaee, 2013). 3. Objectives of the Study This research compared student’s vocabulary learning through the implementation of TPR and Direct method to investigate the effect of two methods, namely Direct method and Total Physical Response on the progress of Iranian EFL young learners in learning English vocabulary. In this regard, the study also explored whether the gender of young learners might influence vocabulary learning outcomes in relation to TPR and Direct method. ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 62 3.1 Research Questions The present study was interested in answers to the following questions: 1) Does the application of Total Physical Response Method have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement? 2) Does the application of Direct Method have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement? 3) Is there any significant difference between the effects of TPR and DM on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement? 4) Does gender have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning? 3.2 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were designed based on research questions: 1) The application of Total Physical Response Method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. 2) The application of Direct Method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. 3) There is not any significant difference between the effects of TPR and DM on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. 4) Gender does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. 4. Methodology 4.1 Participants Forty elementary female and male students aged 9-10 were selected from among 60 students studying at a language institute in Isfahan, Iran. The students were selected based on the result of the overall proficiency test as a placement test prepared by the institute that classified the students into the same level of proficiency. The selected participants were divided into two groups. Group A (20 students) consisting of ten boys and ten girls who learned vocabularies through Direct method; and group B (20 students) consisting of ten boys and ten girls who learned vocabularies through TPR approach. The researchers taught each group three times a week for thirty minutes a day. 4.2 Instruments and Materials 4.2.1 Overall Proficiency Test The overall proficiency test was administered to the participants for the purpose of determining that they were at the same level of English proficiency and ensuring their homogeneity. The reliability and validity of the test have been established by the institute authorities. 4.2.2 Pre-test In order to indicate number of words students knew before and learned after treatment the researchers gave an oral vocabulary test. The actual pictures from the book (Back Pack1) were shown one at a time to each student in order of their appearance in the book. Students were asked to answer the questions of each picture from this book. The questions asked for each picture were, “What is this?”, “What is s/he doing?” “What is she wearing?”. Then each student's responses were recorded on their own individual recording sheet, one for each unit; and were measured as their prior knowledge of vocabulary. 4.2.3 Post-test The post-test was administrated to measure and compare the results of vocabulary learning of two groups after the treatment. The students were assessed on the new targeted vocabulary items after the treatment. For group B, the researchers asked some questions including, “What is this?”, “What is s/he doing?”, “What is your teacher wearing?”, “Is he jumping?”, “Can you jump?” and so on. Then the researchers gave commands to students one by one and they acted out the commands and answered the questions. For group A, the researchers asked some questions including, “What are they?”, “What is s/he doing?” “What do you have in your bag?” “Is she dancing?” “Can you touch your toes?” and so on. Then each student's responses were recorded on their own individual recording sheet. The students' scores on post tests were used for data analysis and answering the research questions consequently. 4.2.4 Field notes Field notes were used to record the situation and the activities during the teaching and learning process, such as how the teacher carried out the material and the students’ responded (Octavian, 2007). The researchers used field note to know what happens during the process of implementing Total Physical Response and Direct method in improving vocabulary. This field note helped record the students’ activities and the researchers could check the progress and consider what to do in the next meeting. 4.2.5 Book For the purpose of this study, the researchers taught four units of a book (Back Pack1) including Unit 1 Celebrations, Unit 2 Head to toes, Unit 3 Ready for school, and Unit 4 Things I Wear. ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 63 4.2.6. Flash card Flash card can be an excellent learning and teaching tool especially when introducing new vocabulary or drilling familiar words. Besides being used by the teacher, they can also be used in a variety of activities. Flash cards are very versatile teaching resource especially for ESL and language teaching. They can be used virtually in any lesson and at every level of teaching ESL. In fact flash cards are indispensable for the beginner and elementary level as at these stages the learners are engaged in developing their vocabulary. Therefore, the researchers used some flash cards, where they wanted to teach new words or reviewed the vocabularies in both groups. The researchers showed the flash cards to students and asked some questions. In group B when the researchers taught verbs, showed flash cards to each student and asked her or him to act out. On the other hand, in group B the researchers showed flash cards to each student and asked “what is s/he doing?” 4.2.7 Picture Language teachers use different types of teaching materials to explain the meaning of new words. The use of visual materials is useful and it is an important way of vocabulary learning. Visual things make the learning process easier, and they are used by teachers for better learning. English teachers feel that using visual materials such as pictures, real objects, etc. in teaching new words makes the learning process enjoyable and memorable. Teacher also found that visual elements can motivate students for better learning. Therefore, picture was one of the educational aids for researchers to teach vocabularies to both groups. In both groups the researchers hanged the related picture on the board and pointed to picture and simultaneously repeated the words, or drew new words on the board and repeated. 4.2.8 Song One advantage of using songs in the young learner classroom is their flexibility. Songs can be used for a number of purposes and there are many reasons why songs can be considered a valuable pedagogical tool. Songs can help young learners improve their listening skills and pronunciation, therefore potentially helping them to improve their speaking skills (Murphey, 1992). Songs can also be useful tools in the learning of vocabulary, sentence structures, and sentence patterns, not to mention their reflectivity of the mother tongue culture (Murphey, 1992). Perhaps the greatest benefit of using songs in the classroom is that they can be fun. In group B, the researchers sang the song and at the same time all students sang with them and they acted out the commands along with the researchers and pointed to any word or flash card that they had. In group A, the researchers played the related CD of the lesson two or three times then said the new words and the students repeated after them. Therefore, song was one of the educational aids for researchers to teach vocabularies to both groups. 4.3 Procedure The present study had a quasi-experimental research design. Based on the result of the Institute placement test 40 students were selected. Students were divided into two groups. All students were similarly at the same level of language proficiency. Group A (20 students) learned vocabularies through Direct method and group B (20 students) learned vocabularies through TPR. Students in the study were assessed on vocabulary knowledge by the pretest, the researchers worked with each student individually to collect the data. The actual pictures from the book were shown one at a time to each student in order of their appearance in the book. Students were asked to name each of pictures from Back Pack1 and answer the questions. . The questions asked for each picture were, “What is this?” “What is s/he doing?” “what are there in this picture? ” as the picture in the book was pointed to. Each student’s responses were recorded on their own individual recording sheet; one for each story. For the group taught through TPR the following steps were followed. The topic of the first unit was Celebration. The researchers entered the class and greeted the students. Then they arranged the students' seat in a circle because the pattern of this method (TPR) is U-shape or circle. The teacher stood up in the middle of the circle. She asked the students whether they were hungry or not? All of them answered in choirs, “yes” “ok, we will go home after we study about food and drinks”. They were curious with dinning set brought by the researchers. They played the song and sung and performed the actions and showed the objects or pointed to them. Then, the researchers showed the students the dinning set and said their names: cake, ice-cream, lemonade, juice, salad, pour the water, drink milk, take some rice. The teacher repeated the words and commands for two or three times and she performed and showed them simultaneously. The researchers asked who wants to be volunteer. Some students raised their hands while standing up. The researchers said that all of students would get their turn in order to be quite. Then, the students sat and the teacher chose some who were less active than others. After that, the volunteers did the teacher’s instruction. Following it, each volunteer gave instructions to the students who were sitting. They might sit after giving all of instructions as the teacher did. Then, the researchers asked more volunteers to come to the front. The researchers said, “drink the water”. Then, they encouraged the students to make different sentences. One student, for example replied, “drink the milk”. The other students made different sentences using the words given. Then, the researchers said, “eat”. One student in the left side answered, “eat rice”. Good, “eat the rice”, the teacher replied. This way the teacher checked students' pronunciation and using word in the sentences. The researchers gave a summary of the lesson by asking the students to do some instructions in turn. Then, the teacher closed the meeting. The topic of the second unit was Body parts. The researchers entered the class and she greeted the students. The researchers asked them whether they ever heard the song: · Head, shoulder, knees, and toes ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 · Knees and toes · And ears, and eyes, and nose, and cheek, · Head, shoulder, knees, and toes · Knees and toes 64 All of them answered that they never heard the song before. Then, the researchers asked students to listen to the song while watching the movement of the researchers. The researchers sang and touched the parts of body based on the song. Then, they asked volunteers to sing in front with her. The researchers asked all students to sing along with her and the volunteers. They sung twice, and the researchers let the volunteers sing. Then, the researchers asked them to act out each command that they said: touch your ears, close your eyes, bend your knees, wiggle your nose and shake your hand. There were still some mistakes because they did not know the meaning of touch, bend and shake. After the same verbs were given for different parts of the body and researchers acted out the commands, the students understood the meaning. In improving the students’ ability to pronounce the new words related to parts of the body, the researchers asked a student to be the instructor. Then, the first student who became instructor gave instructions to the second student. From the first student, researchers checked the pronunciation, and from the second student, researchers checked whether the meaning is correct. Then, the researchers asked the students to make new imperative sentences using the words open, close, touch, shake, bend and wiggle and at the same time they performed the actions. The researchers gave a conclusion of the material given. The researchers asked them to practice some instruction and closed the meeting. The topic of the third unit was Ready for School. In the beginning, the researchers greeted the students. They asked “what objects they can find in the classroom?”. The students answered, “board, table, chair”. Then, the researchers asked “what they have got in their bag?”. All students opened their bag in a hurry and answered, “book, bag, pencil, pen”. The researchers asked some volunteers to come in front of the class and they immediately raised their hands. Three volunteers came in front and brought their bags. Then the teacher gave commands, “open your bag”, “take your pencil”, “take your pen”, and “close your bag”, “read a book”, “sit down”, “stand up”. At the same time she did the actions with students. After they mastered the vocabularies, then they gave instruction to the other students. Then, the researchers asked a student to be the instructor. The first student who became instructor gave instructions to the second student. Then the researchers asked them to make new sentences based on the words given. The researchers asked the students to make new imperative sentences by using words open, close, sit, stand, write and read. The researchers gave a summary of the lesson by asking the students to do some instructions in turn. Then, the teacher closed the meeting. The topic of the forth unit was Things I Wear. In the beginning, the researchers greeted the students. The teacher said, “Good afternoon students”. Students replied, “Good afternoon, Ms. How are you today?” I’m fine. Ok, today we will study about clothes you wear. The researchers began to mention the names of clothes: hat, skirt, shirt, pants, dress, sneakers, socks, and shoes. Then, they asked, “what is it?” She asked while holding a hat. There was no answer. This is a hat. Ok, now please all of you repeat after me. The researchers asked the students to touch the clothes they wore and said the names along with them. The researchers asked the students to touch the correct name of clothes they were wearing. One by one the researchers asked two boys to be volunteers and did instructions along with them, touch your hat, put your hat off, put your hat on, put your left shoe off, and put your right shoe off. When the teacher found out that the instructions were sufficient, she asked the first boy to give commands to the second boy. Next, a girl gave instructions to the rest students. The researchers pronounced the words and repeated by the students, they were: put on, put off, shirt, dress, pants, socks, and shoes, sneakers. Then, she asked all of the students to pronounce the words. Then, she asked the students randomly to pronounce sneakers. By doing so, the researchers and the other students could check whether the pronunciation was correct or incorrect. It was repeated for all words. The researchers gave the students a clue, “touch” and asked them to make new sentence with the vocabularies they had learnt before. The boy in front of the teacher answered, “touch your shirt”. Then, the teacher asked one student to give a clue and the other students made different sentences. Most of students made a sentence that was slightly different from the example given. The teacher asked the students to stand up and did her instructions in series. Then, she summarized the lesson by reviewing some instructions and closed the meeting. The experimental group A was taught through Direct method. The arrangement of the class was the same as regular classes. For the first unit the researchers entered the class and greeted the students. She stood in front of the class and placed a big picture of the new lesson in the front of the classroom. Then she asked the students to close their books and listened to the song and at the same time she pointed to the part of the picture which song described. Then the researchers started to talk about the picture and told a short story with new words; simultaneously she repeated new words two or three times. Then, the students asked if they had any questions. For example a boy raised his hand and asked “what is the meaning of drink?”. The researchers gave examples “I'm drinking water, I'm drinking milk”. The researchers asked whether he understood the meaning or not. He said “No”. The researchers brought verbs flash cards and said “look at the flash card. He is drinking water” and acted out at the same time. The boy nodded and said that he understood the meaning. Then she asked the students to make a sentence with “drink” and she called on one by one, they read their sentences. After all of the students' questions had been answered, the researchers asked some of their own. The students were required to answer together in harmony. She pointed to the picture and asked “Is he drinking water?” and the class replied in chorus, “No”. The researchers reminded the class to answer in a full sentence and said “No, he isn't. He is eating rice”. Then, the researchers asked, “Is it a cake?”. They replied, “No, it isn't. It is salad”. The researchers asked, “Is he drinking juice?” and they replied, “No, he isn't. He is eating rice”. The question and answer session continued for a few more minutes. Finally, the teacher invited the students to ask questions. The ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 65 researchers called on students to pose questions one at a time to which the class replied. The researchers gave flash cards to the students and they started to pose questions. After several questions had been posed, a girl asked, “Is she drinking lemonade?”. Before the students had a chance to respond, the researchers worked with the students on the pronunciation of “lemonade”, because the girl pronounced it incorrectly. Then, she included the rest of the class in this practice as well and they repeated after her. After she insured that the students' pronunciation was correct, she allowed them to answer the question. By the time that the students posed their questions if they pronounced any words incorrectly the researchers interrupted them and correct their pronunciation. The teacher pointed to the picture or flash card and said the word and students repeated after her. Then, the researchers gave a summary of the lesson by asking the students to play the game Hang Man. This game helped students to memorize the new words. For the second unit the researchers taught body parts. She entered the class and greeted the students. First she asked some questions, for example, she asked “What color is your hair? ”. Just two or three students answered her question. Then, she asked the students to listen to the song while looking at the picture of the lesson which the researchers placed on the board and she pointed to every word that song described. Then, she pointed to her body parts and also she acted out the verbs and repeated their names or sentences and the students repeated after her. This way, the researchers worked on students' pronunciation and helped the students to learn more. After that, the researchers asked if they had any question and nobody raised her/his hand. The researchers asked some questions for example, “Are your eyes brown?” and a girl replied “No”. The researchers reminded her to answer in a full sentence and she helped her to complete her answer, “No, they aren't. They are black. ” Then she asked, “Is your hair yellow?” and a boy replied, “No, it isn't. It's black”. Then, she called on their names one by one and every one that she called her name should point to her body parts that the researchers said and repeated after her. This way, she checked the students' pronunciation and she knew how much they learned the new word. If they pronounced any words incorrect the researchers immediately correct them. Finally, the researchers invited volunteers to come in front of the class and do pantomime and the students should guess which verb was it. The topic of third unit was Ready for school. In the beginning, the researchers greeted the students and she asked “What objects they can see in the class room?” some of the students answered “book, chair, table”. Then, she showed the objects in the class and said their names and the students repeated after her. The researchers opened her book and pointed to the pictures and told some sentences. For example she pointed to the picture and said, “She is reading a book. He is writing on the board”. After that the researchers asked the students “open their bags and tell what they have got in their bags”. They opened their bags one by one and told the class, name of objects that they had in it. The researchers helped students if they didn't know meaning of the objects or she correct students' pronunciation immediately if they had any problem. At the end of the class, the researchers asked students to look at objects in the class and made some sentences with new words that they learned that day. The topic of forth unit was Things I Wear. In the beginning, the researchers greeted the students. She brought clothes flash cards and showed each flash card to the students and the researchers began to mention the names of clothes: hat, skirt, shirt, pants, dress, sneakers, and socks. Then, she asked, “What is it?” She asked while holding a flash card. There was no answer. The researchers said, “This is a hat. Ok, now please all of you repeat after me. ” Then she took another flash card and asked “What is this?” The students answered and the researchers repeated after them and then the students repeated the words two or three times after the researchers. The researchers herself acted out the verbs and showed the flash cards for example she said, look at me I'm putting my hat off, I'm touching my hat, I'm putting off my left shoe. When the researchers found out that the instructions were sufficient, she invited the students to come in front of the class one by one and gave flash card to each student and s/he asked some questions and the other students answered. This way the researchers checked the students' pronunciation and if they have any problem she immediately corrected their pronunciation or if they didn't know the meaning of any word or didn't know the meaning of any word or did not know the name of any word the researchers helped them. 4.4 Data Analysis After collecting the required data, a number of statistical tests were performed to check the research hypotheses. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) Version 22 was used to perform all the statistical analyses in this study. To examine the first hypothesis, a paired samples t-test was run on the pretest and posttest scores for the TPR group to examine the effect of teaching English vocabularies through TPR approach. Moreover, to investigate the second hypothesis, another paired samples t-test was conducted in order to examine the difference between the participants' scores on the pretest and posttest in the direct method group. Additionally, to examine hypothesis three, an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was carried out to compare the effects of TPR and DM on EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. Afterwards, in order to examine the fourth hypothesis, independent samples t-tests were carried out on male and female learners’ vocabulary scores to study the effect of gender on learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. 5. Results 5.1 First research question The first research question tried to examine if teaching English vocabularies through TPR approach had any significant effect on improving Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. Subsequently, the first null hypothesis was made in reply to this question. Hypothesis 1: The application of Total Physical Response Method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 66 In order to investigate the first research question, a paired samples t-test was run on the pretest and posttest scores in the TPR group. The minimum alpha for confirmation of the research hypothesis was .05. At first the descriptive data for L2 vocabulary pretest and posttest are displayed in Table 1. Similarly, the results from the paired samples t-tests are reported in Table 2. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for TPR pretest and posttest scores Pair 1 Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Mean Pretest 10.10 20 2.732 .611 Posttest 15.30 20 2.203 .493 Error As reported in Table 1, the mean score of vocabulary posttest (M = 15.30) is higher than the mean score of pretest (M = 10.10) in the TPR group. Although the mean score of the two tests are different, it is not clear whether these differences are significant or not. Therefore, paired samples t-tests were carried out on pretest and posttest scores. Table 2. Paired samples t-test for TPR pretest and posttest scores Paired Differences Mean Std. Deviation Pair 1 Pretest Posttest - 5.200 2.802 Std. Mean Error .627 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -6.511 -3.889 t df Sig. tailed) 8.299 19 .000 (2- The results of the paired sample t-test in Table 4.2 reveal that the differences between pretest and posttest scores are statistically significant (P < .05) for the TPR group. Therefore, students’ L2 vocabulary knowledge has improved significantly after receiving instruction following the TPR approach. Based on these results, therefore, deductions can be made that EFL learners' vocabulary scores in the TPR group increased significantly from pretest to posttest, suggesting that teaching English vocabularies through TPR approach can lead to L2 vocabulary learning improvement. Consequently, the first null hypothesis predicting that the application of TPR method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement is rejected. 5.2 Second research question The second research question tried to investigate if teaching English vocabularies using the direct method had any effects on EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. Subsequently, hypothesis two was formulated to answer this question. Hypothesis 2: The application of Direct Method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. A paired samples t-test was conducted in order to examine the difference between the participants' scores on the pretest and posttest in the direct method group. Table 3 shows the descriptive data and t-test results are demonstrated in Table 4. Table 3. Descriptive statistics for DM pretest and posttest scores Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pair 1 Pretest 8.10 20 3.655 .817 Posttest 11.10 20 3.508 .784 Table 3 shows that the mean score of the posttest (M = 11.10) is greater than the mean score of pretest (M = 8.10) in the direct method group. However, the significance of this difference should be checked in the paired samples t-test table below. Table 4. Paired samples t-test for DM pretest and posttest scores Pai r1 Pretest Posttest - Paired Differences Mean Std. Std. Error Deviati Mean on 1.777 .397 3.000 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -3.832 -2.168 t d f Sig. (2tailed) 7.550 1 9 .000 ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 67 The results of the t-test, illustrated in Table 4.4, reveal that there are statistically significant differences (p < .05) between the two sets of scores in the direct method group. That is, the mean score of the posttest is significantly larger than the pretest mean score. This finding indicates that applying the direct method has promoted EFL learners L2 vocabulary learning. On the whole, these results showed that teaching English vocabularies using the direct method had a positive effect on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning improvement. Therefore, the second hypothesis as the application of Direct Method does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement is rejected. 5.3 Third research question The third research question addressed the difference between L2 vocabulary learning improvement of learners in the TPR and DM groups. As mentioned in chapter one hypothesis three was formulated in response to this research question. Hypothesis 3: There is not any significant difference between the effects of TPR and DM on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. In order to investigate the third hypothesis, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was carried out. Pallant (2011) stated that ANCOVA can be used when there is a two-group pretest/posttest design. The scores on the pretest are treated as a covariate to control for pre-existing differences between the groups. This makes ANCOVA very useful in situations when sample sizes are quite small. The major assumption associated with ANCOVA is that the relationship between the dependent variable and each of the covariates should be linear (straight-line). One of the reasons for including covariates is to increase the power of the analysis of variance test and violation of this assumption is likely to reduce the power (sensitivity) of the test. Therefore, in the current study scatterplots are used to check for the assumption of linear relationship between the dependent variable (posttests) and the covariates (pretests) for both groups. Figure 1 below displayed the distribution of the vocabulary scores for each of the groups. Figure 1. Distribution of the vocabulary scores in TPR and DM groups As illustrated in Figure 1, there was no curvilinear relationship for any of the groups. Owing to the fact that the relationship was clearly linear, the assumption of a linear relationship was not violated and it was acceptable to run the ANCOVA. Another assumption which was required to be checked before running ANCOVA was the homogeneity of variance. To make sure that vocabulary scores had similar variances across both groups Levene’s test of equality of variance was run. Levene’s test of equality of error variance checks the assumption that each dependent variable will have similar variances for all groups (all cells in the factor design matrix). The result of the Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance is reported in Table 5. Table 5. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances F df1 df2 Sig. .396 1 38 .533 a. Design: Intercept + Pretest + Group Levene tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. As Table 5 depicts, the Levene’s statistics is .533. Thus, the variance is equal and there is no significant difference between the variance of groups. In this case we have not violated the assumption because our Sig. value is larger than the cut-off of .05. ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 68 All in all, none of the assumptions were violated and it was safe to conduct the ANCOVA. Tables 6 and 7 report the descriptive data of vocabulary pretest and posttest scores with regard to TPR and DM group. Additionally, ANCOVA results are demonstrated in Table 4.8. Table 6. Descriptive statistics of TPR and DM groups Pretest Posttest N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Minimum Maximum TPR 20 10.10 2.732 .611 5 14 Direct Method 20 8.10 3.655 .817 3 14 Total 40 9.10 3.342 .528 3 14 TPR 20 15.30 2.203 .493 10 19 Direct Method 20 11.10 3.508 .784 5 18 Total 40 13.20 3.589 .567 5 19 Considering the pretest scores, illustrated in Table 6, the mean score of the pretest in the TPR group (M = 10.10) is higher than the mean score of the pretest in the DM group (M = 8.10). Although the mean score of the posttests for the TPR group (M = 15.30) is larger than the mean score of the posttests for the DM group (M = 11.10), it is not clear to what extent that difference is because of the pretest score variations. Therefore, ANCOVA is carried out to examine if there was a significant difference between the posttest scores while pretest scores are hold constant. Adjusted means of posttests are reported in Table 7. Table 7. Descriptive statistics of adjusted posttests in TPR and DM groups Group TPR Direct Method Mean Std. Error a a 14.652 11.748 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound .477 13.686 15.618 .477 10.782 12.714 a. Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: Pretest = 9.10. Table 7 shows that the adjusted mean of posttest scores are greater in the TPR group than in the DM group, suggesting that the application of TPR approach resulted in better vocabulary knowledge improvement than the DM. Table 8 checks the significance of these differences using the ANCOVA. Table 8. ANCOVA across TPR and DM groups Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Squared Corrected Model 342.321a 2 171.161 39.561 .000 .681 Intercept 227.829 1 227.829 52.660 .000 .587 Pretest 165.921 1 165.921 38.350 .000 .509 Group 76.628 1 76.628 17.711 .000 .324 Error 160.079 37 4.326 Total 7472.000 40 Corrected Total 502.400 39 Eta a. R Squared = .681 (Adjusted R Squared = .664) The results of the ANCOVA in Table 8 reveal that, after adjusting for pretest scores, there is a statistically significant difference between the TPR and DM groups regarding the vocabulary posttest scores, F = 17.71, p = .000. Moreover, Table 8 shows that there is a small relationship between the pretest and posttest scores, as indicated by a partial eta squared value of .324. All in all, based on these findings, it could be concluded that teaching English vocabularies using the TPR approach led to better L2 vocabulary knowledge ability than did the application of the DM. Thus, the third null hypothesis predicting ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 69 that there is not any significant difference between the effects of TPR and DM on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement is rejected. 5.4 Forth research question The last research question examined the difference between vocabulary learning of male and female learners in both groups. As mentioned in chapter one hypothesis four was formulated in response to this research question. Hypothesis 4: Gender does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. In order to examine the last hypothesis, independent samples t-tests were carried out on male and female learners’ vocabulary scores. At first the descriptive data are displayed in Table 9; similarly, results from the t-tests are displayed in Table 10. Table 9. Descriptive statistics for male and female learners Group TPR Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Mean Female 10 10.50 2.550 .806 Male 10 9.70 2.983 .943 Posttest Female 10 16.10 2.025 .640 Male 10 14.50 2.173 .687 Pretest Female 10 8.50 3.536 1.118 Male 10 7.70 3.917 1.239 Female 10 11.50 2.799 .885 Male 10 10.70 4.218 1.334 Pretest Direct Method Posttest Error Table 9 shows that the mean scores of female learners are slightly higher than the mean scores of male learners in all of the 8 sets of scores. As for the posttests in the TPR group, the difference between the mean score of female (M = 16.10) and male (M = 14.50) leaners is the largest. However, as for the other 6 sets of scores, differences between female and male learners are smaller than 1. Although the mean scores are different, it is not clear whether these differences are significant or not. Therefore, independent samples t-tests were carried out (see Table 10). Table 10. Independent samples t-tests across gender Group TPR Pretest Posttest Direct Pretest Method Posttest Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t-test for Equality of Means t df .407 .645 18 .645 17.573 .527 .159 .355 .532 .694 .559 1.560 .228 .800 Std. 95%Confidence Error Interval of the Diff. Difference Lower Upper 1.241 -1.807 3.407 .800 1.241 -1.812 3.412 .106 1.600 .939 -.373 3.573 1.703 17.911 .106 1.600 .939 -.374 3.574 .479 18 .637 .800 1.669 -2.706 4.306 .479 17.814 .637 .800 1.669 -2.708 4.308 .500 18 .623 .800 1.601 -2.563 4.163 .500 15.639 .624 .800 1.601 -2.600 4.200 1.703 18 Sig. (2taile d) .527 Mean Diff. The results of independent samples t-tests, reported in Table 10, show that there is not any statistically significant ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 70 differences (p > .05) between the male and female learners regarding their L2 vocabulary scores in any of the TPR and DM groups. Therefore, the differences in Table 9 are found to be not statistically significant after conducting independent samples t-tests. Base on the observed results deductions could be made that gender did not play any role in learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. Thus, the fourth null hypothesis stating that gender does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning is confirmed. 6. Discussion The first research question tried to examine whether teaching English vocabularies through TPR approach had any significant effect on improving Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. Subsequently, the first null hypothesis was made in reply to this question. Findings suggested that the implementation of TPR method resulted in better L2 vocabulary learning ability. Therefore, the first null hypothesis was rejected. The findings of the present study are in line with those of previous studies (e.g., Hsu & Lin, 2014; Li, 2010; Machova, 2009; Oktiana, 2013; Pujiningsih, 2010; Sariyati, 2013) in revealing a positive impact of TPR method on improving EFL learners L2 vocabulary learning. Hsu and Lin (2014) purpose was to investigate the effects of TPR on English vocabulary learning for resource classroom students. A multiple probe design across subjects of single-subject experimental design was used to evaluate the effects. The data collected from the students during the baseline, intervention, maintenance phases were analyzed by using visual inspection techniques, time-series C statistic. Findings showed that students learned the expressing abilities of English functional vocabulary immediately through TPR. The issue of vocabulary understanding through TPR was also highlighted by Li (2010) who found that students demonstrate their understanding through actions. Children associate the vocabulary with the actions; Li (2010) argues that “students can establish the connection between the target language with the action and understand the target language by themselves; consequently, students will remember the meaning of the vocabulary unconsciously” (p 1-2). As for the current study, therefore, it was indispensable to support the words with actions, to facilitate the children’s understanding of the vocabulary. In addition, Machova (2009) stated that TPR is a good method for teaching English vocabulary to young language learners because TPR would make the long term recall easier for learners. The data of Oktiana (2013) was collected by giving the pretest and posttest to the second grade students of Bandungkulon. The collected data was analyzed by conducting t-tests. The results of data analysis showed that teaching vocabulary to young learners using TPR was effective to improve student’s vocabulary mastery. In an action research, Pujiningsih (2010) aimed to know whether TPR can improve students’ English vocabulary. The participants of research were the students of the sixth grade. In collecting the data the researchers used observation notes, diaries, video recording, interview, and tests. Findings showed that TPR can improve the students’ English vocabulary including the meaning, spelling, pronunciation, and using of words and the most significant improvement was the aspect of meaning and spelling. In addition, Sariyati’s (2013) findings revealed that after conducting the experimental research to investigate whether TPR method was effective in vocabulary mastery of elementary school children, Total Physical Response method had high effect in improving vocabulary mastery of the students. Levine (2005) stated that the characteristics of young learners are physically moving about while acquiring and learning languages and they engage in enjoyable activities with language. In addition, Hewitt and Linares (1999) found that the activities involving physical movement in English language teaching are fun and stimulating for younger students. Therefore, this method is best used with children or beginners. Moreover, according to Li (2010) TPR is best suited for beginning language learners. Overall, from the findings gained on this research regarding the first research question, it can be inferred that the TPR is effective and suitable to be used for children to learn English vocabulary. The second research question addressed the effect of implementing the DM on learners’ L2 vocabulary development. As mentioned in chapter one, null hypothesis two was formulated in response to this research question. Null hypothesis two mentioned that the application of DM does not have any significant effect on learners’ L2 vocabulary learning improvement. Results revealed that this method played a significant role in improving learners’ L2 vocabulary and therefore the second null hypothesis was rejected. The findings of the present study mentioned above were in congruence with Wanzek (2014), Coyne, et al. (2009), Coyne, et al. (2010), Handayani’s (2012), Silverman and Hines (2009), Silverman (2007), and Crevecoeur, Coyne and Mccoach (2014) who came to the point that students’ L2 vocabulary learning would improve when it was thought using the DM. There is comparatively little research to report on methods of presenting and practicing vocabulary in the classroom. According to Wanzek (2014), Direct vocabulary instruction, in which the teacher intentionally focuses instruction on developing students’ knowledge of word meanings by targeting specific words, has been recommended as one important means of improving vocabulary learning (e.g., Biemiller, 2001; Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe, 2006; Robbins & Ehri, 1994). In fact, increasing the amount of direct vocabulary instruction results in more word meanings being acquired by students (Beck & McKeown, 2007; Biemiller & Boote, 2006). Coyne, et al. (2009) found that there were statistically significant differences at posttest favoring words taught with ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 71 direct method over words receiving through only incidental exposure. These findings are consistent with a growing body of research documenting the efficacy of directly teaching word meanings to young students within oral language activities such as storybook readings (Justice, Meier & Walpole, 2005; Penno, Wilkinson & Moore, 2002; Walsh & Blewitt, 2006). Moderate to large effect sizes for these comparisons indicate that direct instruction of vocabulary results in reliably greater word learning in kindergarten students than does incidental exposure by itself. In another study, Coyne, et al.’s (2010) findings indicated that kindergarten students who received direct vocabulary instruction demonstrated greater knowledge of target words at posttest compared with students who did not receive vocabulary instruction. Differences in target word learning between treatment and control students were characterized by large effect sizes. This finding is consistent with a growing body of research that suggests that young students can learn the meanings of sophisticated vocabulary through instruction that is direct (e.g., Beck & McKeown, 2007; Biemiller & Boote, 2006). The objective of Handayani’s (2012) study was to find out whether or not DM can improve students’ vocabulary mastery. This research applied a quantitative method and one group pretest-posttest design. The result of data analysis showed that teaching English vocabulary using DM was effective to increase student’s teaching English vocabulary mastery. Some other studies that explored the rate of vocabulary learning indicated that teaching English vocabulary through direct instruction can be effective across participants (Silverman, 2007) and that augmenting an English vocabulary intervention with multimedia enhancements in direct teaching can increase English language learners’ word learning (Silverman & Hines, 2009). The findings from the Crevecoeur, Coyne and Mccoach’s (2014) study provided additional support for the efficacy of directly teaching English vocabularies to children. The third research question tried to investigate the difference between L2 vocabulary learning improvement of learners in the TPR and DM groups. Based on this question, null hypothesis 3 was formulated. Findings related to the third research question suggested that learners’ L2 vocabulary scores were significantly larger when the TPR approach was used than when the DM was employed. Thus, null hypothesis three was rejected. No other studied has been done so far to compare the differences between the efficacy of these two methods for L2 vocabulary development. Concerning L2 vocabulary teaching, there are two studies which compared these methods of teaching with Grammar Translation method. Abdullah (2013) conducted a contrastive study of the Grammar Translation and the DM. He mentioned that the direct method sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. In another study, Castro (2010) evaluated the effectiveness of TPR compared to the Grammar-Translation approach for acquiring and retaining new vocabulary in an ESL class. All participants took two written pretests that examined their knowledge of common words. Following each pretest, the instructor taught three classes using the Grammar-Translation approach and three classes using TPR. Following the treatments, all adults took the written vocabulary test. Results indicated that both Grammar-Translation and TPR approaches made an important difference in student retention of vocabulary. The improvements in vocabulary acquisition and retention were 49% using Grammar-Translation and 45% using TPR. One explanation for the results of the current study might be that TPR could develop a high stimulus in children when they start to achieve the goals of the lessons, as a consequence the children generate a good attitude and motivation towards English language learning; in other words, when children are integrated to the activities, and when they are becoming active part of the class through their physical representation of verbal commands, their attitude and motivation increases as their outcomes are successful. Another reason for the superiority of TPR over DM might be related to the issue of children’s integration and attention in a free-stress class environment. When children are learning in a friendly atmosphere in which the opportunities to be involved in the activities are plentiful, children can be better integrated to the class. Similarly, Li (2010) reported Asher (1997) when he states that the TPR method is stress-free because it is brain compatible. Therefore, children’s attention is improved as they become the center of the class and their performance is not predetermined by a dominant guider. This way the students can take part in the teaching activity but generally they experience less stress because children are involved in fun activities at the time (Li, 2010). The current study found that the TPR is different from DM in that TPR did not include explicit instruction, and the children learned at their own pace. Li (2010) reported Asher (1997) when he states that the TPR method goes in contradiction to traditional approaches which start with production memorization or explicit instructions. Overall, results with regard to the third research question demonstrated that children can develop better L2 vocabulary knowledge when they are involved in physical movement than when they are taught via the DM. The fourth research question sought to investigate if gender had any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. Therefore, null hypothesis four was formulated to answer this question. Results indicated that there were not any statistically significant differences between male and female learners regarding their L2 vocabulary scores in any of the TPR and DM groups. This study runs counter to previous research which demonstrate gender differences in several areas of vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Jiménez, 1992, 1997; Jiménez & Moreno, 2004; Jiménez & Ojeda, 2008, 2009; Meara & Fitzpatrick, 2000; Nyikos, 1990). Nonetheless, other studies on vocabulary learning concluded that there were no gender differences ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 72 (Llach & Gallego, 2012; Grace, 2000; Jiménez & Terrazas, 2008). One may reasonably argue that the uniform teaching methods and materials, the formal context of language acquisition, and the age and language level of the respondents account for the lack of significant gender differences. The participants in the present study make up a very homogeneous sample of students regarding their individual characteristics and those of their learning context. Sunderland (2010) claims that the FL context, in which the FL is just another school subject and identity issues are not salient, waters down any possible gender differences. As Sunderland (2010) indicates, this type of quantitative study is prone to show inter-group similarities (between girls and boys) and intra-group differences (among girls and among boys). This point suggests that these are tendencies rather than straightforward, definitive conclusions. It is widely accepted that promoting right to equality between sexes is very positive because this affects students’ learning results directly. This aspect of language learning should be very carefully supervised, just in case practical constraints imposed on L2 students end up preventing either males or females or both from accelerating their natural EFL learning process. Results are inconclusive within this area, with variability depending on the aspect examined. Boyle (1987) determined that, exceptionally, boys are superior to girls in the comprehension of heard vocabulary. Similarly, Scarcella and Zimmerman (1998) found that men performed significantly better than women in a test of academic vocabulary recognition, understanding, and use. In Lin and Wu (2003), Lynn, Fergusson and Horwood (2005), and Edelen-bos and Vinjé (2000) males also outperformed females in vocabulary knowledge in foreign languages. Nevertheless, Jiménez and Terrazas (2008) discovered no significant gender differences in performance in a receptive vocabulary test. Meara and Fitzpatrick (2000) and Jiménez and Moreno (2004) also pointed out that female learners performed better than males in productive vocabulary. Additionally, highly significant differences were found in favor of females in the mean number of words produced in response to the 15 cues of a lexical availability test (Jiménez & Ojeda, 2009). Based on these inconclusive results with regard to gender differences, the non-significant finding of the current study is hardly surprising. Therefore, future research needs to be done with regard to this point. 7. Conclusions Based on the reported results and the discussion conducted in the previous sections, several conclusions can be drawn. First, it can be concluded that EFL learners' vocabulary scores in the TPR group increased significantly from pretest to posttest, suggesting that teaching English vocabularies through TPR approach can lead to L2 vocabulary learning improvement. Therefore, TPR offers advantages in teaching and learning English vocabularies, especially for children and beginning learners. TPR involves children actively in the classroom activities. It can be effective in introducing English vocabulary and delivering instruction and the usefulness of this method has been proved by many experts in several countries and it has given significant benefits to students’ achievement in learning English vocabulary. As children are physically active by nature, the TPR will make English vocabulary learning more effective since children will feel fun and excitement during the learning process. Second, consistent with the previous literature, deductions can be made that students’ L2 vocabulary knowledge would improve when they were thought using the DM. Findings from this study contribute to the evidence on directly teaching vocabulary to English language learners and provide support for additional research on these students’ response to intervention. Third, considering the difference between the effects of TPR and DM on learners’ L2 vocabulary learning development, results of this study suggested that teaching English vocabularies using the TPR approach led to better L2 vocabulary learning ability than did the application of the DM. One aspect in which the present study agrees with previous studies is in the enthusiasm that the instruction using the TPR approach creates in the students. Most of the participants in the present study enjoyed the TPR approach over the DM. Finally, with regard to the impact of gender on learners’ L2 vocabulary learning, deductions can be made that male and female learners display similar behaviors in L2 vocabulary learning. A lack of gender differences might be the result of homogeneous EFL instruction or the type of task accomplished. 7.1 Implications of the Study The results of the current study can be beneficial for EFL learners and teachers in number of ways. First, the findings obtained have significant implications in designing and implementing TPR activities for children that get involved in physical activity performance. This study proposes the incorporation of TPR activities to introduce English vocabulary to children at early stages of their English language learning process, in order to stimulate children’s foreign language awareness and to activate their involvement in the learning process. Second, TPR is a language teaching method which can help to improve classroom environment in terms of interaction and engagement; and it can also help to improve language and L2 vocabulary development. For that reason it is suggested that children’s English teachers often implement this method on their lessons in order to generate good results in teaching and learning. Third, even though this study has revealed no significant differences in male and female vocabulary learning, these have called for a strong awareness of this matter. For instance, information of male and female learners’ vocabulary at different stages of instruction can show how realistic the expectations of a given lexical syllabus are, or what would constitute an optimal syllabus for each gender group. In this respect, therefore, this finding can have implications for language teachers. Fourth, another point from this study is that children can learn new vocabularies if they were taught as part of playful ALLS 7(1):60-74, 2016 73 and purposeful physical activities i.e., TPR. These strategies must be easily used by all educators, especially those in settings serving children, who have long been considered to be at the highest risk of failure due to a limited vocabulary. Finally, the findings have not only shown several pedagogical implications for the education of primary EFL students, but have also provided information of importance that may be taken into consideration by educational policy-makers. Education should focus on monitoring achievement levels at different learning stages and on vocabulary development, since the level of English of FL learners at Iranian schools are insufficient for the professional requirements that students should fulfill in future. It would be advisable that these results in vocabulary learning and vocabulary growth were not only reflected upon by instructors, researcherss and text designers in the short run, but also converted into effective training and learning. References Abdullah, S. S. (2013). A Contrastive Study of the Grammar Translation and the Direct Methods of Teaching. Retrieved March 18th, 2015, from http://psrcentre.org/images/extraimages/ICECEBE%20113900.pdf Asher, J. (1997). Language by command. The Total Physical Response approach to learning language. Retrieved March 18th, 2015, from http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC06/Asher.htm Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G. (2007). 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Box 179, Tafila 66110, Jordan Email: husseino_z@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.75 Received: 08/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.75 Accepted: 04/11/2015 Abstract This paper explores the conflicting points of view of the narrator and Saeed in Tayyib Salih’s novel. Their conflict emanates from psychological and ideological sources and foreshadows their relations with the western civilization and women. While some scenes and events of the novel introduce Saeed as an alter ego or double of the narrator for their identical social, cultural and educational backgrounds, others represent him as an id that needs to be regulated and controlled by the narrator who plays the role of the ego. The paper further contends that Saeed is neither a nationalist nor assimilationist; rather, he is a culturally hybrid character who equally identifies with the occidental culture of England and the oriental culture of Sudan. His latent hatred, mistrust and enmity towards the occident can be considered ironic or parodic on the ground that he vigorously seeks to import the western values of modernism, urbanization, egalitarianism and enlightenment to Sudan. Keywords: Double, consciousness, unconsciousness, hybridity, mimicry, narcissism 1. Introduction Tayyib Salih’s Season of Migration to the North addresses such postcolonial themes as nostalgia to the pre-colonial era, questioning of orientalism and imperialism, formation of double consciousness and cultural hybridity which the controversial relationship between the narrator and Mustafa Saeed epitomizes. Du Bois (1990) uses the term “double consciousness” to describe the multiple facets of the African American identity. He defines it as “a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others… One ever feels his two-ness, - an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body” (8-9). In the light of this perception, I am going to explore the psychological and cultural borderlands in Season, where incompatible cultural and psychological elements coexist in the characters of Mustafa Saeed and the narrator. A psychoanalytic reading of the novel will make it easier to understand the complex relationships between Saeed and the narrator, Saeed and women, and Saeed and the west. The motives steering a character’s actions or decisions will be diagnosed based on Freud’s concepts of unconsciousness and repression. Because the novel is set in the postcolonial history and culture of Sudan, I will critically analyze it in the light of Homi Bhaba’s postcolonial theory of cultural hybridity, and argue that Saeed is a hybrid rather than a fundamentalist or nationalist. 1.1 Novel Overview Season is a novel Tayyib Salih originally wrote in Arabic and published in 1966. It tells the story of an unnamed narrator who returns to Wad Hamid, a small village in northern Sudan, from Britain where he has studied English poetry for seven years. Among the crowd of villagers who welcome him home is an anonymous middle-aged man named Mustafa Saeed. The narrator asks his grandfather about Saeed; and he tells him that Saeed has moved from Khartoum to the village for five years and married Hosna Bint Mahmoud, a woman from the village. While in a drinking session with his friend, Mahjoub, the narrator meets Saeed who gets drunk and begins to recite English poetry. The narrator gets shocked as he thought he was the only one to speak English and study English poetry in the village. Saeed will tell his life story to nobody but to the narrator who promises not to confide it to anyone. Saeed reveals that he was born to a widowed poor mother in Khartoum, where he grew up and received his elementary education. In reward for his genius and learning potentials, the headmaster of his school enrolled him at a secondary school in Cairo, where he came to know Mr. Robinson and his wife who proved to be loving and generous enough to teach, host and support him financially. As soon as he graduated, he was awarded a scholarship to study English poetry at Oxford. In the meantime, he made up stories about the charms of Sudan and Africa to seduce English women. He caused heart break to his three girl friends – Ann Hammond, Sheila Greenwood and Isabella Seymour – and murdered Jean Morris, his English wife. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to seven years in prison. Then the narrator tells us that Saeed mysteriously disappeared in the Nile River, where he possibly committed suicide during a flood. Following his disappearance, the narrator becomes the guardian of Saeed’s estates, two sons and widow, Hosna, whom he falls in love with but never marries. The narrator will later discover that all of Saeed’s secrets and unanswered mysteries have been locked in the private room of his house, where he finds English books, photographs of ALLS 7(1):75-79, 2016 76 his English girl friends, and a portrait of his English wife. Towards the end of the novel, the narrator contemplates suicide in the Nile River, but he is suddenly held back by a desire for a cigarette. Hence, he swims towards the shore and begins to shout for help. 2. Psychological Borderlands Mustafa Saeed’s psychological identity is so indistinguishable from that of the narrator's that Patricia Geesey (1997) considers Saeed as the narrator’s alter ego or double in her argument that “the narrator is so obsessed with Saeed’s past and distracted by Saeed’s legacy that he can barely distinguish between his own identity and that of Saeed. (129). The similarities in their experiences instantiate that argument because both leave Sudan to England for seven years, speak English and study English poetry; both superficially interact with the western culture as it is suggested by the narrator who admits that “I too had lived with them. But I lived with them superficially, neither loving nor hating them” (49); both undergo the prison experience in England, which the narrator portrays as a physical prison for Saeed and a metaphorical prison for him where he suffered loneliness and endured darkness. In this sense, the narrator recalls that For seven years I had longed for them, had dreamt of them, and it was an extraordinary moment when I at last found myself standing amongst them… and it was not long before I felt as though a piece of ice were melting inside me, as though I were some frozen substance on which the sun had shined. (1) Both seek salvation in the river Nile, where it is thought that Saeed commits suicide and the narrator meets his mysterious fate. The narrator eloquently describes their indistinguishable experiences and wonders “was it likely that what happened to Mustafa Saeed could have happened to me? He had said that he was a lie, so was I also a lie? I am from here – is not this reality enough?” (49). In addition to their shared experiences, the narrator reveals that Saeed “had become an obsession that was ever with me in my comings and goings” (61). Mohammed Siddiq (1978) perceives the narrator’s unconscious attraction to Mustafa Saeed and his inability to forget or stop thinking of him as “characteristics of the double” (86). This explains why Saeed’s silence and smiles do not bewilder the narrator who, in his recollection of the day he arrived the village, notices that “Saeed was silent … He had listened in silence, sometimes smiling; a smile which, I now remember was mysterious, like someone talking to himself” (3-4). Saeed’s silence during the narrator’s discussion of the cultural differences between Europe and Sudan with the villagers shows that he already knows and approves whatever the narrator says to the villagers. That the narrator becomes the guardian of Saeed’s legacy, lover of his widow, provider for his children, and keeper of his secrets defines him as a double. When the narrator unlocks the door and enters the private room, where Saeed has hidden his secrets and life story for a very long time, he momentarily mistakens his own reflection in the mirror for the image of Saeed. He recollects that The light exploded on my eyes and out of the darkness there emerged a frowning face with pursed lips that I knew but could not place. I moved towards it with hate in my heart. It was my adversary Mustafa Saeed. The face grew a neck, the neck two shoulders and a chest, then a trunk and two legs, and I found myself standing face to face with myself. This is not Mustafa Saeed – it is a picture of me frowning at my face from a mirror (135). The narrator’s recollection signifies his identification with Saeed as a double though he sometimes fears and hates him as an id or rival. A number of narrative incidents instantiates their conflicting points of view. First, they debate over what the real needs of Sudan are; and the narrator gets extremely furious when Saeed blames him for studying the life of an obscure English poet instead of "agriculture, engineering or medicine” (9). Second, each refers to the other as being an outsider or stranger to the village in particular and Sudan in general. Because Saeed is native to Khartoum, he remains a stranger in Wad Hamid; and he is not elected as the chairman of the agricultural committee despite the efforts he exerts to develop agriculture there. The narrator’s grandfather still identifies Saeed “not (as) a local man but a stranger who had come here five years ago” (2). It seems that Saeed is destined to be a stranger to the village in life and death because after he dies, he “hadn’t even found himself a grave to rest his body in” (54) but “in the bellies of the crocodiles” (46) in the Nile River. Saeed, conversely, asserts his belonging to the village by using the inclusive pronoun “we”, whereas he in several scenes addresses the narrator by the pronoun “you” to exclude him from the collective identity of the tribe and village. This stirs the narrator to protest “at the way Saeed says “we” and does not include me, though he knows that this is my village and that it is he – not I who is the stranger” (9). Third, the narrator reproaches Saeed’s egocentricity which, according to Tarawneh and Joseph (1988), can be understood in light of Freud’s concept of “narcissism” as the ego takes “itself as object” and behaves “as though it were in love with itself” (331). What reveals Saeed’s narcissistic behaviors and fantasies is his monologic confession that “this is a fact in my life: the way chance has placed in my path people who gave me a helping hand at every stage, people for whom I have no feeling of gratitude. I used to take their help as though it were some duty they were performing for me” (23). In another monologue, he discloses that: “I was wrapped up in myself and paid no attention to ALLS 7(1):75-79, 2016 77 the love they showered upon me” (26). These revelations express his ingratitude to the English people despite the generous love and support he receives from them. The narrator, however, portrays himself as a selfless person who traveled to the West not for selfish gain and glory but for transferring western knowledge and sciences into Sudan. As soon as he graduates, he returns to Sudan with the intention to: give lavishly, I want love to flow from my heart, to ripen and bear fruit. There are many horizons to be visited, fruits that must be plucked, books read, and white pages in the scrolls of life to be inscribed with vivid sentences in a bold hand… I feel a sense of stability, I feel I am important, that I am continuous and integral. No I am not a stone thrown into the water but seed sown in a field (5). That he is a “seed” rather than a “stone” signifies the fertility of his experiences and foretells a promising future for him in Sudan. What appears as an external conflict between Saeed and the narrator can be reconceived as a projection of unconsciousness. Mohammed Siddiq (1978) considers all the characters in the novel as “projections of Mustafa Saeed’s – or, better still, the narrator’s – unconscious and all the events as having been enacted within his own psyche as latent potentialities” (85). Tarawneh and Joseph (1988) follow the same trajectory in his interpretation of Saeed's fantasies as “avenues of escape from his truly degrading present represented by Kitchener in the Sudan or Allenby in Jerusalem, into the golden ages of past Arab glory represented by the conquest of Andalusia” (342). This makes readers very skeptical of the truthfulness of events and the identities of the characters that might have existed only in the narrator’s imagination. Such doubts are cast by Saeed during his trial in London when he stands up and shouts at the court: “This Mustafa Saeed does not exist. He is an illusion, a lie. I ask you to rule a lie be killed” (32). They are also confirmed by the narrator’s disturbing thought that “Mustafa Saeed never happened, that he was in fact a lie, a phantom, a dream or a nightmare that had come to the people of that village one suffocatingly dark night, and when they opened their eyes to the sunlight he was nowhere to be seen” (46). Saeed and all the other characters in the novel are correspondingly mere fantasies which help the narrator avenge his colonial past and get relieved from his present postcolonial miseries. 2.1 Dictates of Consciousness Saeed consciously projects the stereotypical images of meek and docile Arab women on the western women to justify his sadist and misogynist nature. Saeed is brought up in an Islamic conservative society, where women are subjugated, circumcised, veiled and subserviently devoted for satisfying the sexual desires of their husbands. While in England, he meets a different type of women who “knows no fear; they accept life with gaiety and curiosity” (37). As the model of free and autonomous western women poses a threat to his eastern manhood, he decides to avenge it by causing heartbreak to Ann Hammond, Sheila Greenwood and Isabella Seymour. His marriage from Jean Morris is more threatening because of the questions she raises about his jealousy which is widely viewed as the soul of manhood in oriental societies. Her suspicions whether he would feel jealous in case that she betrayed him with another man (162) extremely insulted and offended him. His self-assurance and manliness are also threatened when she contemptuously bares her breast and challenges him to “plunge the knife in” (158). When Saeed presses the dagger down between her breasts, she derives pleasure from it and astonishingly says: “I thought you would never do this. I almost gave up hope of you” (164). Accordingly, Saeed’s sexual violence against western women can be interpreted as a conscious reaction towards the danger they pose to his manhood as an orient rather than a means to avenge the west for its imperial practices against Sudan. 2.2. Dictates of Unconsciousness The oedipal complex appears to have a tremendous effect on Saeed’s sexual and social relations which, according to Mohammed Siddiq (1978), “instead of being controlled by the conscious ego, whose function is to regulate the even flow of psychic energy and to maintain the individual’s psychic balance, the mother complex here has subordinated the ego to its unruly caprices” (77). Unlike the narrator, Saeed fails in that respect due to lacking communication with his mother. What he can still remember about his mother are “her thin lips resolutely closed, with something on her face like a mask, I don’t know a thick mask as though her face were the surface of the sea.” (19). The mother’s closed lips suggest she rarely speaks to him, whereas her masked face betokens their apathetic and dispassionate relationship which the scene of bidding farewell to each other when Saeed was about to leave to Cairo exemplifies. Nevertheless, the oedipal complex provokes his repressed incestuous phantasies and impulses towards his mother as it is denoted in his confession that “at the climax of our (sexual) pain there passed through my head clouds of old far off memories” (44). These clouds imply that Saeed sees the image of his mother in the faces of women he dates, befriends or makes love with. Significantly relevant here is his sexual attraction to Mrs. Robinson who, by paying for his school, travel and living expenses in Cairo, assumes the role of his surrogate or adopted mother. His hug with her at Cairo Railway Station signifies his first experience of hugging a woman, an experience that moved him sexually at an early age of twelve. In his description of the feelings he had at that moment, Saeed reveals that All of a sudden I felt the woman’s arms embracing me and her lips on my cheek. At that moment, as I stood on the station platform amidst a welter of sounds and sensations, with the woman’s arms round my neck, her mouth on my cheek, the smell of her body – a strange ALLS 7(1):75-79, 2016 78 European smell- tickling my nose, her breast touching my chest, I felt- I, a boy of twelve- a vague sexual yearning I have never previously experienced (25). Saeed’s sexual obsession with Mrs. Robinson continues from childhood to adulthood when he smells her odor in the bodies of his three English girl friends: Sheila, Isabella and Ann ( 37). The effect of the oedipal complex continues towards the end of the novel when Saeed views Mrs. Robinson more as a mother than a lover or sexual object. In the court scene after Saeed is sentenced to prison, he weeps on her breast like a baby seeking his mother’s comfort and protection and “she stroked his head, kissed him on the forehead, and said don’t cry, dear child” (112). 3. Cultural Borderlands Cultural hybridity, as Homi Bhabha (1994) constructs it, “unsettles the mimetic demands of colonial power” (154) and uses the very ethos and ideologies of colonial and anticolonial powers to discursively modify their ethnocentric representations of and rhetoric about each other and create a tolerant and pluralist third culture with which diasporic subjects and natives of the colonized nations ambivalently identify. The narrator’s double, Saeed, epitomizes the ambivalence and heterogeneity of the hybrid postcolonial culture because he identifies himself neither as a proponent of the Sudanese culture nor an opponent of the Western imperial culture. On one hand, Saeed criticizes the western imperial culture for using the ideals of enlightenment and modernity as pretexts to “lay waste and plunder” (94) the natural resources of Africa in general and Sudan in particular. In the court scene, he reminds judges and lawyers of the British imperial campaigns which Edmund Allenby led in 1917 to conquer Egypt, Palestine and Jordan. He admonishingly and accusingly said that “the ships at first sailed down the Nile carrying guns not bread, and the railways were originally set up to transport troops; the schools were started so as to teach us how to say “yes” in their language. They imported to us the germ of the greatest European violence” (95). On the other hand, he attacks the patriarchal culture of Sudan which commodifies and objectifies women and engenders tribal hierarchies and dynasties or creates new ones. On this account, Saeed disapproves polygamy, circumcision of women, and men’s overuse of the divorce vow oftentimes for nefarious reasons like “when Mahjoub swore he would divorce if he did not (sit)” (13). Saeed’s attitudes towards both the Sudanese culture and the English culture introduce him as a culturally hybrid person seeking to produce a pluralistic cultural matrix by means of creolization and hybridization, exactly as he does with his double fruit tree whose some branches “produce lemons, others oranges” (15). In the comparison John E. Davidson (1989) conducts between Salih’s Season and other neocolonial African novels, he finds out that “Season goes beyond a simple rejection of the European invasion and legacy. It offers a stunning critique of cultural segregationist moods by exposing in Sudanese culture the oppression that predated the British intrusion” (385). Saeed accordingly asserts his rejection of the essentialist and binary ideologies of nationalism and imperialism and his assumption of a hybrid identity as it is expressed in his autobiography which is ironically dedicated “to those who see with one eye, speak with one tongue and see things as either black or white, either eastern or western” (150-151). This irony apparently shows that Saeed is neither black nor white, neither wholly eastern nor wholly western. Rather, he transcends binary constructions of identity which essentially classify people into black and white, nations into civilized and uncivilized, languages and cultures into developed and developing; and he embraces a hybrid identity that respects and tolerates racial, ethnic and gender differences. His marriage from a white woman, Jean Morris, can be considered one marker of his hybridity, especially that he views himself as the: “South that yearns for the North and the ice” (30). Saeed’s frequent references to Othello is another marker of his hybridity. During his trial for charges related to the murder of Jean Morris, Saeed declares that “I am the desert of thirst. I am no Othello. I am a lie. Why don’t you sentence me to be hanged and so kill the lie?” (33). He also refers to Othello during his game of seduction with Isabella Seymour who asks him “What race are you, are you Arab or African?” Saeed answers her question by assuming both races: “I am like Othello – Arab African” (38). For Patricia Geesey (1997), “Saeed’s invocation of Othello either as a weapon of seduction or as a mental note expressed in his defense is a pivotal concept for understanding the notion of cultural contagion” (134). The balance the narrator and his double seek to maintain between the traditions of a tribal and agricultural society in Sudan and the products of a modern industrial society in England is a third manifestation of their hybridity. In his comparison of the present and past states of the precolonial and postcolonial societies, Saree Makdisi (1992) indicates that While the narrator represses the realization and the knowledge that the precolonial world has been irrevocably changed, Mustafa Saeed acknowledges these changes and incorporates them into himself. If the narrator tries to retrieve the precolonial past while dreaming of the postcolonial future, Mustafa tries to bind together the past and present (811). This suggests that both Saeed and the narrator combine the traditions of the past with the modernity of the present and future. They, for instance, get impressed by the sight of “people on donkeys and others on foot, while out from the bank opposite the landing stage little boats and sailing ships set forth” (62-63). In this scene, modern and traditional elements are concretely merged. They also appreciate the high productivity of modern technology which has led to the replacement of the water wheels on the bank of the Nile “by pumps, each one doing the work of a hundred waterwheels” (4). However, they believe that the Sudanese government should interfere to protect national industries from foreign competition like when: “the market for water-wheels dried up with the coming of pumps” (70). The absence of ALLS 7(1):75-79, 2016 79 such a protective strategy in Sudan results in the bankruptcy of Wad Baseer, who no longer makes water-wheels despite his long experience in that industry. Modernization, urbanization, enlightenment and development are among the ideals of the western civilization which Saeed and the narrator pursue and seek to equip Sudan with. This is why the narrator advises villagers not to destroy the “railways, ships, hospitals, factories and schools” (49) which the colonizer has constructed and left behind. Instead, he encourages them to enroll their children at schools, visit physicians, work for factories and use modern means of transportation; his reference to hospitals suggests his preference of scientific medicine to folk medicine. He preaches that villagers should speak English "without either a sense of guilt or a sense of gratitude” (49) because learning foreign languages is necessary for their cultural, social and economic development. He accentuates that the present culture and history of Sudan are intertwined with the colonial culture and history, so he warns villagers not to let their nostalgic reverence to the past “poison” (49) their present or future. Socially, both the narrator and Saeed believe that women in Sudan are oppressed, subordinated to men, and denied freedoms of expression, choice and thinking, and rights of education, work and equality. Repelled by gender-based violence and discrimination, they commit themselves to reform gender relations and redefine gender roles. Saeed, for instance, sets himself as an example of “a generous husband and a generous father” (90) who helps Hosna produce an “indescribable change” (101). Hosna develops from a traditional village woman into an independent urbanized woman following their marriage. After Saeed dies, Hosna will become an agent of change who existentially resists the constraints of patriarchy and protests against male guardianship and social injustices. When she is forced to marry Wad Rayyes who views women as donkeys, she determines to kill him and commit suicide. Hosna’s tragic death introduces her as an existentialist heroine according to Mona Takieddine (1985) who states that “Season reads as the existential fable of Arab man and woman in search of identity, a place in the universe, a meaning in life” (26). 4. Conclusion Season psychologically examines the conflict between consciousness and unconsciousness which is respectively personified by the characters of the narrator and Saeed. Their identical cultural, social and educational backgrounds account for identifying Saeed as a double or alter ego of the narrator. Yet, they develop discordant attitudes towards the west. Their discord arises from the dictates of consciousness and the drives of unconsciousness. While they consciously view the west as an enemy that needs to be battled and defeated, they unconsciously consider it as a friend or an ally whose knowledge, technologies and sciences should be borrowed and transferred. Though Saeed’s words and deeds introduce him as an invader of the West, he is a cultural hybrid who neither belongs to the east nor to the west. Instead, he seeks to combine both civilizations in his schemes for the reformation, modernization and development of Sudan. References Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Davidson, J. (1989). In Search of a Middle Point: The Origins of Oppression in Tayeb Salih's "Season of Migration to the North". Research in African Literatures, 20(3), 385 – 400. Du Bois, W.E.B. (1990). The Souls of Black Folk. New York: Vintage. Geesey, P. (1997). Cultural Hybridity and Contamination in Tayeb Salih's "Mawsim al-hijra ila al-Shamal (Season of Migration to the North). Research in African Literatures, 28 (3), 128-140. Makdisi, S. S. (1992). The Empire Renarrated: "Season of Migration to the North" and the Reinvention of the Present”. Critical Inquiry, 18(1), 804-820. Salih, T. (1997). Season of Migration to the North. (J. Denys, Trans.). Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Siddiq, M. (1978). The Process of Individuation in Al-Tayyeb Salih's Novel Season of Migration to the North. Journal of Arabic Literature, 9(1), 67-104. Takieddine, M. (1985). Images of Arab Women in Midaq Alley by Naguib Mahfouz, and Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih”. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 17(1), 25-36. Tarawneh, Y. and Joseph J. (1988). Tayeb Salih and Freud: The Impact of Freudian Ideas on Season of Migration to the North. Arabica, 35(3), 328-349. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy A Pragmatic Study of Humor Sura Dhiaa Ibraheem (Corresponding author) College of Education for Women, Baghdad University, Iraq E-mail: Miss.emeralda@yahoo.com Nawal Fadhil Abbas College of Education for Women, Baghdad University, Iraq E-mail: nawal_fa71@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.80 Received: 05/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.80 Accepted: 03/11/2015 Abstract Linguistically speaking, the concept of humor, which seems to be vast for people, has specific dimensions by which it is generated including: puns, irony, sarcasm, wittiness, and contrastive utterances in relation to the speakers of those utterances. It is about how the extra linguistics elements dominate the situation and the delivery of humor. The researchers of the present paper intend to show how the selected literary extract can be subjected to a linguistic pragmatic analysis and then be explained by applying the incongruity theory of humor by Kant (1790) in order to show the ways or the mechanisms that lead to the flouting, infringing and the violation of Gricean maxims can consequently lead to the creation of humor. Despite the fact that the present paper is qualitative in nature, some tables are provided by the researchers in order to reach into a better, deeper and more understandable analysis. Investigating the ways Gricean maxims are flouted, infringed and violated to create humor, and showing how the imperfect use of language sometimes create unintentional humor are the researchers’ aims of this paper. Keywords: pragmatics, humor, implicature, Gricean maxims, Measure for Measure 1. Introduction During the sixteenth century, the idea of humor led to its use to refer to any behavior that may contain any kind of deviation from the social norms. Then, the word ‘humor’ was used to refer to an odd and weird person because such people were often viewed as objects of laughter, or ridicule. Calling people objects of laughter and ridicule is considered the first step to associate the word ‘humor’ with funniness and laughter and by this the word humor entered the field of comedy (Martin, 2007, p.21). Many theories are suggested to analyze and explain the nature of humor like: the incongruity theory, the superiority theory, psycholinguistic theory and the cognitive or semiotic theory. The present paper involves a pragmatic analysis of Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure (1604). The reason behind selecting this play is attributed to two main points: first, the language of this play is very stylish, highly specific and difficult to understand which represents a challenge to the researcher of this study. Second, this play is argued to be a problematic play in which critics neither categorize it as a tragedy nor as a comedy. As such, they prefer to consider it as a tragi-comedy (Hyland, 2011, p.69). Besides, this paper will be different from other studies since humor has not been pragmatically studied to analyze Measure for Measure by Shakespeare using Grecian maxims and one of the most dominant theories of humor which is that of Kant’s incongruity theory. Accordingly, the researchers have the interest to show how humor can be created in its most tragic scenes and how these scenes transform from tragedy to comedy due to the ironic and sarcastic remarks the characters make. While, the researchers of this paper intend to explain the mechanisms of making certain sentences ironic or sarcastic by applying the incongruity theory of humor they choose and examining the flouting, infringing and the violation of Gricean maxims to see what implicature the speaker intends to deliver, as an attempt to answer the research question which state; how do Grecian maxims flouted, infringed and violated to create humor? And how does the imperfect use of language sometimes create unintentional humor. On the whole, his paper is different from other studies, i.e. Conversational Implicature Analysis of Humor in American Situation Comedy Friends by Xiaosu (2008), Pragmatic Analysis of Ironic Humour in Black Books by Savkanicova (2013) and Verbal Humor in TV-Sitcom Blackadder: A Pragmatic and Rhetorical Analysis by Kalliomaki (2005), since, first, humor has not been pragmatically studied to analyze Measure for Measure by Shakespeare using Grecian maxims. Second, all of these studies neither apply the most dominant theory of humor which is that of Kant’s incongruity theory nor the other two; relief and superiority theories in their analyses. 2. An overview of pragmatics Chapman & Clark define pragmatics as “an aspect of the study of language in use. It is concerned with how language users interact, communicate and interpret linguistic behavior” (2014, p.1). In the 1970s, pragmatics was developed as a ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 81 subfield of linguistics. Besides, it encompasses speech act theory, turn taking, presupposition, politeness, implicature, talk in interaction and many other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and linguistics (Blackwell, 2003, p.12). In 1940s and 1950s, H. P. Grice, (a British philosopher) provided and outlined for the first time his famous theory of implicature that is still dominant (a shorter version of which was published in 1975 in a paper entitled 'Logic and Conversation'). In this theory, Grice intended to explain how hearers arrive at the implied meaning, from what is said to what is meant (Davis, 1998, p.1). Implicature has its own field in pragmatics and now it is used in linguistics as part of the study of conversational structure. Grice (1975) used the term “implicature” for the first time to account for what a speaker can suggest, mean, or imply as separate from what a speaker literally says. Two notions of implicature are distinguished by Grice and they both received different treatments; conventional implicature and conversational implicature. Conventional implicature, according to Grice, is determined by the conventional meaning of the words used in a particular context in which the same implicature is always conveyed, regardless of context. Conversational implicature, on the other hand, is defined as “a set of principles that govern cooperative verbal exchange of information” (Brooks & Kempe, 2012, p.147). In (1975), Grice sets four maxims he called the ''conversational maxims.'' Those maxims can be used to describe how implicature can be derived from participants. For Grice, those maxims are only valid for language use that is meant to be informative; for instance, categories such as small talk and snap chat (Renkema, 2004, p.20). Grice summarizes these maxims as follows: 1. Maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative than required. 2. Maxim of quality: do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 3. Maxim of relation: be relevant. 4. Maxim of manner: avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity), and be orderly (Grice, 1975, pp.45-46). When Grice first listed the four famous maxims in 1975, he was aware that there are many occasions when people fail to observe them. Therefore, he also listed five ways in which maxims are not observed (Thomas, 1995, p.64). · · · · · Flouting a maxim. Violating a maxim. Opting out of a maxim. Infringing a maxim. Suspending a maxim. According to these five ways, people may fail to observe a maxim because they chose to cheat others or they chose to lie intentionally or unintentionally. Or maybe they are unable to speak clearly and honestly, or simply they do not want to seem ignorant and try to give false information. 3. What is humor? Humor is defined as “the ability to smile and laugh, and to make others do so…humor takes many forms ranging from the casual level of the joke told to friends to the sophistication of a Shakespearean comedy” (Walker, 1998, p. 3). Humor began as a Latin word “humorem” which means liquid or fluid. In physiology, the word humor is used to refer to the fluids or the liquid of the body for, instance, aquatic and vitreous humors of the eye. Hippocrates, the Greek physician, who said to be the father of medicine, mentioned the four basic fluids, i.e. ‘humors’ of the body; blood, phlegm, black bite, and yellow bite (Martin, 2007, p.20). Later on, the idea that these four basic fluids ‘humors’ owned specific psychological qualities and the access of each one of them created a specific kind of temper or mood. The dominations of blood caused a person to have cheerful temperament (Ibid. p.21). The fluctuations of these bodily fluids have been viewed as the cause of more temporary mood states (joyful mood). Besides, the meaning of humor as a temporary mood still exists nowadays when we speak of others by being “in a bad humor”, or “a good-humored person.” Ultimately, the word ‘humorist’ and ‘the man of humor’ were used to refer to whoever was the object of laughter. Until the mid-nineteenth century, the word humor came to be seen as a talent involving the ability to create humorous situations to make others laugh. Humor also has many other functions besides being a form of playful fun and entertainment. These interpersonal functions can be contradictory and paradoxical. It can be used as a way of improving social cohesion within a group or community, or it can also be a way of excluding a member or members from a group or community. It can be a mean to reduce or reinforce status differences among people, expressing agreement and disagreement. Humor has developed as a universal means of communication and a social influence with various functions (Martin, 2007, p.20). The production of humor varies according to individuals and their interaction with others. Most people value individuals who are especially good at making them laugh because they enjoy so much the positive emotion of fun. This kind of people, who appreciate humor and humorist, we describe them as having ‘a good sense of humor’; the capacity to respond to humorous situations either by laughing or smiling (Morrison, 2012, p. 25). Humor can be divided into three broad categories; jokes, “something said or done to provoke laughter” (Snyder, 2011, p.51), spontaneous conversational humor (intentionally created by individuals during the social interaction of course), ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 82 and the last category is accidental or unintentional humor (utterances or actions which raise laughter but they are not meant to be funny (Morrison, 2012, p. 25). Many definitions are provided to define humor throughout history such as the definition of Montogomery which says “Humor is a perceptual and a cognitive process involving an ability to recognize and appreciate the absurd and incongruous aspects of a situation” (1997, p.170). It was also defined by Langston Hughes as “laughing at what you haven't got when you ought to have it” (As cited in Walker, 1988, p.101). During social interaction, Wayer and Collins (1992) argue that despite the fact that people say and do things to amuse others, yet so much laughter and mirth also may arise from actions or utterances that are not meant to be funny. Nilsen and Nilsen (2000), English literature professors, refer to these utterances and actions as “accidental humor” or “unintentional humor.” Nilsen and Nilsen divide accidental humor into physical and linguistic forms. On the one hand, accidental physical humor involves minor incidents and pratfalls, for instance, a slipping person on a banana peel or spilling juice on someone’s shirt. These types of incidents are considered to be funny only if they occur in surprising and incongruous manner and the person who experiences these events is not seriously hurt or awkwardly embarrassed. On the other hand, accidental linguistic humor originates either from errors in logic or mispronunciation or misspelling. The main difference between the intentional and unintentional humor lies in the fact that in the case of unintentional humor, the humorous effect is achieved without the intent or the knowledge of the speaker. As for the intentional humor, the speaker intends to say or do things to create hilarious situations (As cited in, Martin, 2007, p.14). 4. Methodology The incongruity theory of humor will be followed by the researcher of this paper. The incongruity theory was first introduced by Aristotle, but because it did not fit with the superiority theory, he did not develop it. In Aristotle's recognition of the incongruity as a source of laughter, he mentions that one way of making people or listeners laugh is to leave them make specific expectations and then say or show them something they do not expect (Moreall, 1983, p.16). Then, the incongruity theory remained as it was first introduced by Aristotle. In the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, Kant with Schopenhauer, it’s most famous German proponents, began to work on it and they developed it in their own way separately. In (1790), Kant believed that laughter always arises from “the sudden transformation of strained expectations into nothing”, and focused in his discussion on jokes, emphasizing the physical pleasure we enjoy when the incongruity is perceived (McDonald, 2012, p.51). He also said that humor is composed of a clash of two divergent elements and a resolution in which the surprise is considered as an essential component (Rishal, 2002, p.279). Kant’s theory was extended by William Hazlitt, an English writer, who wrote about the disjunction between what is said and what ought to be, and says “the essence of the laughable [then] is the incongruous, the disconnecting of one idea from another, or the jostling of one feeling against another” (Hazlitt, 1841, p.7). Much like Kant, Schopenhauer proposed an incongruity theory of humor. According to Kant, humor essence is located in the evaporation of an expectation. While according to Schopenhauer, the essence is located in the incompatibility between one's sensory knowledge and ones abstract knowledge of things. Schopenhauer’s version of the incongruity theory suggests that when one is stuck by some kind of clash between a concept and a perception, that are “supposed” to be of the same thing, humor arises. It may be mentioned that Schopenhauer’s theory of humor is considered as a sudden contrast theory of laughter (Roeckelein, 2006, p.540). Philosophers who support the incongruity theory believed that humor and laughter are derived from a surprise, or a sudden shock. They argued that when two incompatible things clash, and the points where we mix the two incongruous planes and the ‘jokes’ spark, we laugh. Whereas some theorists argue that for humor to be present, we only need an incongruity; while others argue that for humor to be present we need an incongruity and a resolution of that incongruity. This second argument is called “configuration theory.” But several theorists suggest that another element should be added for humor to be present, the “intelligent perception”, because humor is said to be based on intellect and one has to understand and comprehend the differences between the inconsistencies before he/she can appreciate the humor. It’s worth to mention that all the incongruity theorists argued that we laugh because our line of thoughts has been surprisingly switched from one context to another (Rishal, 2002, p. 279). Kant’s incongruity theory of humor is best explained and understood in relation to Gricean maxims to see how their violation, infringing and flouting create humor and humorous situations. Both the violation and the flouting with the three other ways of the non-observance of Gricean maxims create two levels of meaning; the speaker meaning and the utterance interpretation meaning. The focus in the first level is on the producer or the initiator of the message. While in the second level, the focus is on the hearer or the receiver of the message. Also, we should not ignore the fact that the process of interpreting any message, in the case of humor, should involve moving between meaning levels: from the first one, the abstract meaning (also called the decontextual meaning) to the second one, the utterance meaning (also called the contextual meaning). The abstract meaning, on the one hand, concerns what a word, a phrase or a sentence could mean. Or simply we can say the dictionary meaning of the words. The contextual meaning, on the other hand, could generate alternative interpretations that may never come across our minds. They are not obvious but they are context depending (Thomas, 1995, pp.2, 3). ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 83 These levels of meanings are explained pragmatically by applying Kant’s incongruity theory of humor to humorous contexts. But, first of all, we should know what “incongruity” means as a term. Drucker (2015) defines the term “incongruity” as “a discrepancy, a dissonance, between what is and what ‘ought’ to be, or between what is and what everybody assumes it to be.” Consider the following conversation, between a lady and a sales clerk, given by Oaks (1994); A lady went into the clothing store and asked: -“May I try on that dress in the window? ” -“Well” replied the sales clerk doubtfully -“Don’t you think it would be better to use the dressing room? ”(As cited in Chiaro, 2010, p.39). This conversation can be analyzed by applying the incongruity theory of Kant in which the lady intends something by saying “in the window”, but the sales clerk surprises her with his hilarious answer. Since he violates the quantity maxim, which states “don’t make your contribution more informative than required”, and gives much more information which confuses the lady, he provokes laughter by his unexpected ironic and sarcastic answer. 5. Data analysis This section is intended to examine an extract from Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure. This examination is based on specific steps; first, identifying the utterances which include the flouting and violation; second; second, investigating how these utterances are flouted and violated by identifying what maxim is flouted, infringed or violated and showing how each maxim generates its own implicature produced by the characters; third, applying the incongruity theory of humor on the flouted and the violated utterances; and the last step is to differentiate between the creation of intentional and unintentional humor produced by the characters. 5.1 Lucio’s conversation with the two gentlemen (I, ii, 1-34) (1) First Gentleman. Well, there went but a pair of shears between (2) us. (3) Lucio. I grant; as there may between the lists and the (4) velvet. Thou art the list. (5) First Gentleman. And thou the velvet; thou are good velvet; thour’t (6) A three-piled piece, I warrant thee. I had as life (7) life be a list of an English kersey, as be piled, (8) as thou art piled, for a French velvet. Do I (9) speak feelingly now? (10) Lucio. I think thou dost; and, indeed, with most paimfull (11) feeling of thy speech. I will, out of thine own (12) confession, learn to begin thy health; but, (13) whilst I live, forget to drink after thee. (14) First Gentleman. I think I have done myself wrong, have I not? (15) Second Gentleman. Yes, that thou hast, whether thou are (16) tainted or free. Enter bawd [Mistress Overdone] (17) Lucio. Behold, behold, where Madam Mitigation (18) comes! I have purchased as many diseases (19) under her roof as come to__ (20) Second Gentleman. To what, I pray? (21) Lucio. Judge. (22) Second Gentleman. To three thousand dolors a year. (23) First Gentleman. Ay, and more. (24) Lucio. A French crown more. (25) First Gentleman. Thou art always figuring diseases in me, but (26) thou art full of error. I am sound. (27) Lucio. Nay, not as one would say, healthy, but so (28) sound as Things that are hollow. thy bones (29) are hollow; impiety has made a feast of thee. ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 84 (30) First Gentleman. How now! Which of your hips has the most (31) profound sciatica? (32) Mistress Overdone. Well, well; there's one yonder arrested and (33) carried to prison, was worth five thousand of (34) you all. (Shakespeare 1964, pp, 39-40). 5.2 Contextualizing the selected extract Lucio, in this extract, is in conversation with two of his friends, the two gentlemen. Lucio’s friends come to Vienna to discuss political and religion business in a public place. Lucio and the gentlemen joke on one another. When the first gentleman is accused by Lucio, by being a “wicked villain”, he says that they are both made from the same fabric (cloth), and they are as bad as one another. While Lucio and the gentlemen continue to joke about diseases that they have acquired by visiting brothels, in specific, Mistress Overdone’s brothel, Mistress Overdone enters to tell them that Claudio has been arrested and sentenced to death, (Lnnes, 2004, pp.6, 7). 5.3 Analyzing the selected extract This extract contains six utterances that reflect the non-observance of Gricean maxims. The first utterance is said by the first gentleman to Lucio in line (6), which says “A three-piled piece,” The second utterance is said by the second gentleman to Lucio in line (22), which says “dolors.” The third utterance is said by Lucio to the first gentleman in line (24), which says “A French crown more.” The fourth utterance is said by Lucio to the first gentleman in line (27-29), which says “Nay, not, as one would say, healthy: but so sound as things that are hollow; thy bones are hollow; impiety has made a feast of thee.” The fifth utterance is said by the first gentleman to Mistress Overdone in line (30-31), which says, “How now, which of your hips has the most profound sciatica?” The last utterance is said by Mistress Overdone to the first gentleman in line (33-34), which says, “Was worth five thousand of you all.” Table 1 clarifies the utterances and their producers: Table 1. Utterances and their producers No. 1. producer The first gentleman Utterance A three-piled piece form phrase 2. Dolors word 3. the second gentleman Lucio A French crown more. sentence 4. Lucio Nay, not, as one would say, healthy: but so sound as things that are hollow; thy bones are hollow; impiety has made a feast of thee. sentence 5. the first gentleman How now, which of your hips has the most profound sciatica? sentence 6. Mistress Overdone Was worth five thousand of you all. sentence 5.4 Examining Flouting, Infringing and the Violation of Gricean maxims in the selected extract The first gentleman, in the first utterance, violates the maxim of relation, which states “be relevant.” This violation occurs when the first gentleman says an irrelevant word, “piled”, that has nothing to do with the subject they are talking about, where he should say “pilled”; the subject is about a comparison of the velvet fabric while the first gentleman mentions the French disease of baldness. Whereas in the second utterance, the second gentleman flouts the maxim of manner, which states “avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief and be orderly”, as well as the maxim of relation, which states “be relevant.” This flouting occurs when the second gentleman says an ambiguous word, “dolors”, which either means coin (dolor), or sorrow (Nagarajan, 1964, p.40). The violation of the relation maxim occurs when Lucio mentions an irrelevant issue, i.e. Money, when he says “A French crown more”, in the third utterance, while the conversation is about diseases. Whereas, in the fourth utterance, he violates the maxim of quality, which states “do not say what you believe to be false.” This violation occurs when Lucio says absolutely false thing that the first gentlemen’s bones are hollow. Scientifically, bones cannot be hollow as Lucio says when he describes the bones of the first gentleman. Once again, the first gentleman violates the maxim of relation in the fifth utterance. This violation occurs when the first gentlemen asks Mistress Overdone an irrelevant question where he should answer Lucio directly. The relation maxim is ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 85 violated by Mistress Overdone, in the last utterance. This violation occurs when Mistress Overdone gives an irrelevant answer to the first gentleman; the first gentleman asks her about her health while she tells him about Claudio’s arrest. 5.5 The different meanings caused by implicature in the selected extract A comparison is made by the first gentleman in which he compares Lucio and himself to the velvet fabric, in the first utterance. He said that they are both made from the same fabric. Lucio does not agree with him and said that he, Lucio, is the velvet while the first gentleman is the border of the velvet. Thus, as a response to Lucio's disrespected attitude, he reacts in a very witty way and says that he would rather be the border of the velvet and be a plain healthy English man than a fine gentleman suffering from the French disease of baldness. Here, Shakespeare through the first gentleman shows how a single word can be manipulated in a way to change the meaning upside down. Normally, it seems that the first gentleman agrees with Lucio, but in fact, he mocks Lucio when he says “A three-piled piece”, which means having no hair on the head (bald), instead of saying “A three-pilled piece”, which means a fabric that consists of three layers. This manipulation is represented by the pun technique that the first gentleman uses to mock Lucio. This technique shows the talent of Shakespeare and the way he deals with language to create such an amusing and humorous situation. The second gentleman’s reply when Lucio asks him to guess how many diseases he has caught in Mistress Overdone’s brothel, in the second utterance when he says “dolors”, is very vague and irrelevant. The second gentleman says “dolors” which means ‘sorrow’ or ‘grief’. Basically, intends to say dollars (which refer to coins) (Nagarajan, 1964, p.40). Yet, in both cases; what he says and what he means, are considered irrelevant and vague because the subject is about diseases. This ambiguity is created due to the pun he uses unintentionally. It seems that Lucio agrees with the first gentleman when the later says “Ay, and more”, in the third utterance, when he hears the second gentleman says “To three thousand dolors a year.” But, in fact, Lucio intends to say “A French crown more”, as a response to the first gentleman when the later calls him bald! This witty answer is meant by Lucio as if he wants to say that the trick that the first gentleman has earlier when he has called him bald, does not fool him and he will reply soon. The first gentleman thinks that Lucio is joking as usual, in the fourth utterance. But in fact, this utterance represents a reaction by Lucio to the first gentleman. Obviously, Lucio insists to respond to the first gentleman’s mocking towards him. In this utterance, Lucio is belittling from the first gentleman by his sarcastic remarks when he says that the first gentleman's bones are hollow and describes his way of living as “sinful” and this sinful manner of living has eaten you up. The question introduced by the first gentleman to Mistress Overdone, in the fifth utterance, asking her about her health, is considered as a normal question. But in fact, this utterance is meant by the first gentleman to respond to Lucio’s disrespect manner towards him. The first gentleman, in this utterance is asking Mistress Overdone which one of her hips is affected with the acutest form of sciatica, but in fact this utterance is actually meant and intended by the first gentleman to Lucio. By doing so, the first gentleman is actually asking Lucio this question. This disease, in the Latin comedy, is known and related only to a woman with bad reputation. But the first gentleman uses it as a response to Lucio’s scathing but in an indirect way to tell Lucio that he is as bad as Mistress Overdone and both of them might be affected with this kind of diseases. In the last utterance, Mistress Overdone feels that she is belittled by both, the first gentleman and Lucio. Thus, despite the fact that Mistress Overdone’s utterance sounds normal, while, actually this utterance is meant to belittle from Lucio and the first gentleman when she says that though Claudio is sentenced to death, but he was worth five thousand men like you! She said this because she thinks that the previous question is meant to mock her not Lucio. The following table (2) clarifies humor types used by the characters, and the non-observance mechanisms: Table 2. Humor types and the non-observance mechanisms No. producer Non-observance mechanism Non-observed maxim Humor type 1. The first gentleman Violation Relation wit 2. The second gentleman Infringing manner, relation pun 3. Lucio Violation Relation wit 4. Lucio Violation Quality sarcasm 5. The first gentleman Violation Relation wit 6. Mistress Overdone Violation Relation wit ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 86 5.6 Applying the incongruity theory of humor in the selected extract In accordance with the incongruity theory of humor, humor is created when one expects something and gets a totally different thing but in a funny way. In particular, this creation is basically a conflict between what is expected and what actually occurs where this conflict should defiantly be humorous and involves humor types. Thus, in the first utterance, humor provokes when Lucio expects that the first gentleman agrees with his saying that he is the velvet and the first gentleman is the border of the velvet. But this expectation is actually faded when Lucio realizes that his friend, the first gentleman, is mocking him by his witty answer, but in an indirect way. While, in the second utterance, Lucio expects that the second gentleman approves with him in that brothels bring many diseases, but this expectation is also vanished when he realizes that the second gentleman actually utters a very confusing and irrelevant word in his reply. Therefore, this confusing reply evokes humor due to the pun the second gentleman uses unintentionally. The first gentleman expects that he fools Lucio when he calls him bald indirectly in the third utterance. Consequently, humor arouses when the first gentleman realizes that Lucio has got the trick he makes and this utterance is meant for him by Lucio as a warning that he is going to be belittled by Lucio sooner or later. While In the fourth utterance, humor provokes when the first gentleman expects that Lucio is joking as usual. However, his expectation is faded when he realizes that Lucio intends to scorn him by his sarcastic remarks. Humor arouses, once again in the fifth utterance, when Lucio expects that his friend, the first gentleman, is satisfied with the fact that he is better, smarter and wittier than him. While in fact, this expectation is vanished when he realizes that the witty question, which is said to Mistress Overdone, is actually meant for him. Whereas In the last utterance, Lucio and the first gentleman expect that Mistress Overdone does not have the audacity to respond to the first gentleman’s scorn to her. While in fact, humor evokes when hearers realize that the last part of this utterance, said by Mistress Overdone, is actually a response to Lucio and the first gentleman. Mistress Overdone responds in a very nice and witty way and the funniest thing is that they, Lucio and the first gentleman, do not even notice that they have been belittled and mocked by her! 6. Conclusion This paper provides a pragmatic and a linguistic analysis of Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure. The analysis is based on the non-observance of the Gricean maxims in relation to the most dominant theory, Kant’s incongruity theory of humor. The researchers of this paper have come up with the following findings: the flouting, infringing and the violation of Gricean maxims have the possibility of creating humorous situations in certain contexts. The analysis has shown that, interestingly, sometimes two maxims can be non-observed at the same time. According to the selected extract, the most violated maxim is the maxim of relation. Consequently, the most frequent humor type used to violate Gricean maxims is that of wit. Besides, the researchers found that shrewd characters, such as Lucio and the first gentleman, always violate Gricean maxims and create intentional humor. While the naïve characters, such as the second gentleman due to his imperfect use of language represented by the pun he uses, tend to flout and infringed the Gricean maxims unintentionally, and creates unintentional humor. Acknowledgements The researchers of the present paper are grateful to the College of Education for Women, University of Baghdad, AlJadiriyya, for conducting this research paper. References Blackwell, E, S. (2003). Implicature in Discourse: The Case of Spanish NP Anaphora.Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamin. Brooks, P. J & Kemp, V. (2012). 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Core Curriculum for Holistic Nursing. Maryland, Md: Aspen Publishers. Martin, R, A. (2007). The Psychology of Humor: An integrative Approach. California, Calif: Academic Press. ALLS 7(1):80-87, 2016 87 Moreal, J. (1983). Taking Laughter Seriously. New York, NY: New York Press. Neergaard, H. & UlhØi, J, P. (2007). Handbook of Qualitative Research Methodin Entrepreneurship. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar publishing. Nagarajan, S. (1964). Measure for Measure. New York, NY: The New American Library. Renkema, J. (2004). Introduction to Discourse Studies. Philadelphia: John Benjamin. Rishal, M, A. (2002). Writing Humor: Creativity and the Comic Mind. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Roeckelein, J, E. (2006). Elsevier’s Dictionary of Psychology Theories. London, LND:Elsevier. Ritchie, G. (2004). Analysis of Jokes. London, LND: Routledge. Snyder, B, M. (2011). Daffy Definitions for Seniors: With a Laugh and Prayer. New London, LND: Twenty-Third Publication. Thomas, J, A. (1995). 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Wilmington:Rowman. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy The Prayers and Tears of Foucault: Panopticism and the Politics of Dissent in An Enemy of the People and Look Back in Anger Mojtaba Jeihouni (Corresponding author) Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Arts, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran E-mail: mojtaba.jeihouni@yahoo.com Pouria Torkamaneh Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty of Arts, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran E-mail: pouriatorkamaneh@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.88 Received: 09/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.88 Accepted: 05/11/2015 Abstract Drawing on the thought of Foucault, this article argues that the anarchistic protagonists of Henrik Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People (1882) and John Osborne’s Look Back in Anger (1956) are engaged in a hegemonic battle which puts their identities at stake and ultimately exiles them to isolation. It points out that the very success of both in renouncing authority’s sovereignty is what actually hastens their failure in the end. The identification of this failure with panopticism, which for Foucault characterizes the modern economy of power, is the primary concern of this article. It is argued that through the subtle process of normalizing subjects the panopticon establishes a disciplinary society where citizens are stripped of their subjective voices. The central characters of both plays are thus easily exposed to panoptic surveillance when they decide to take on the strategies of power. Further, using Foucault’s concept of exclusion, the article proceeds to illustrate how in filtering out these delinquent individuals the hands of power urge them to refine their ways and how, upon failure, they exert the policy of exclusion. Keywords: Foucault, Panopticon, Exclusion, Dr. Stockmann, Jimmy Porter A prison wall was round us both, Two outcast men we were: The world had thrust us from its heart, And God from out His care: And the iron gin that waits for Sin Had caught us in its snare. — Oscar Wilde, The Ballad of Reading Gaol 1. Introduction In his most influential essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus” (1969) Althusser writes that ideology addresses individuals as if they were free subjects, capable of original emotions and thoughts, while in reality they are the products of capitalist practices. The concept of the free subject is thus an ideological construct. The individual is interpellated as subject in a system of exploitation; an obedient, unresisting agent who acts for the interests of the ruling class. In Althusser’s view, interpellation engenders individuals who, carrying the burden of social structures, are channeled through the interpellatory procedure into subjects. These people believe themselves to be autonomous settlers of their own lives when they only perpetuate the ruling ideologies of the bourgeoisie. In an echo of the Althusserian viewpoint, Foucault shrinks from equating the subjection of individuals with autonomy, calling attention to the fact that this is solely conformity to the status quo rather than an expression of the self. However, at the same time, Foucault does not remain adamant on the claim and goes on to argue in Volume I of The History of Sexuality that “where there is power there is resistance” (1978, 95). Taken thus, the power relation is not one of oppressor-victim establishment, and the defining element in the face of power becomes resistance in order to give the whole operation legitimacy. The neutrality of the subject invalidates the power relation in the first place. In Foucault’s canon, power does not imply negativity and oppression; it reveals itself in giving birth to active agents rather than passive objects. For Mills this is Foucault’s point of departure from Marxists: “Foucault, unlike many earlier Marxist theorists, is less concerned with focusing on oppression, but rather in foregrounding resistance to power” (2003, 34). ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 89 Foucault discusses panopticism at length in Discipline and Punish (1977) and in an interview called ‘The Eye of Power’ (1980). He breathes a fresh estimation on the Benthamite conception of disciplinary practice in prison by inferring that the phenomenon is everywhere to be seen without its being actually seen.1 Bodies themselves are trained to survey themselves without external control, the major aftermath of which is that one “inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles: he becomes the principle of his own subjection” (Foucault 1977, 202-203). Foucault intends to lay bare the self-custodial essence of modern world where, to make for the uncontrollability of populations, bio-power is implemented. This power functions as a piece of machinery: an integrated, anonymous, multiple, and automatic system. The knowledge is, then, internalized by bodies that surveillance cannot be toppled but, by taking due measures, to be coped with. In Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People and Osborne’s Look Back in Anger two techniques of domination are exerted over bodies to ensure their conformity. Firstly, the dominant discursive structures sketch sets of norms and overarching principles upon which subjects discipline their behaviors and regulate their actions without needing direct enforcement from the side of government. They come to be “normalized.” But Ibsen’s Dr. Stockmann and Osborne’s Jimmy Porter critically interrogate the currencies. This negation makes way for a tension between the rebel individuals and the totalitarian government. Secondly, then, the established power separates the normal and homogenous from the abnormal and heterogeneous, the latter being labeled as social lepers or “social monsters” in what Foucault calls the game of exclusion. In what follows, we claim that it is extremely difficult—close to impossible—for Ibsen’s and Osborne’s heroes to call the ascendancy of power into question without being banished from the absolutist social order. 2. The Great Eye and the Clash of Voices Dr. Stockmann is vigorously anarchic, unconstrained by the impulse of silence and passivity. Throughout his quest, he possesses enough power and vitality to spare, the power which emanates from his earnestness, and which, even on the observer/reader’s second thoughts, could by no means diminish. He is on the forefront of the Ibsenite camp in battle against mediocrity, hypocrisy, and cupidity without Ibsen’s former and later reserved revolt. As a matter of fact, in An Enemy of the People Ibsen loses his grip on Ghosts’ objective tone, and the play becomes, in Robert Brustein’s terms, “the most straightforwardly polemical work Ibsen ever wrote” (1991, 71).2 What Ibsen loses in theatrical sensation, imposing on the whole play a strongly subjective and humorous form, gives it its essential radicalism as a revolutionary work of art. Dr. Stockmann is the ideal mouthpiece of Ibsen in exposing the untarnished truth to resistant ears. He embodies both absolute devotion to social honesty and absolute antipathy to hypocritical subordination. Yet, if he fails to open new horizons for his citizens, he can at least boast that virtue is its own reward. As a social outcast, Dr. Stockmann is quickly informed that without conformity to the norm of silence and submission his future will be at risk. He is accordingly embroiled in the dynamics of modern power which encroaches upon his selfesteem and responsibility. Living in a city where under the yoke of deception and fraud truth is crushed down, he can no longer place confidence in the naïve optimism that sparkled his motivations at the early stages of his adventure. But this lack of confidence does not signify utter dejection, nor does it grant the oppressors the upper hand for the long run. He can thus retain his inward happiness and remain aloof from political designs. At the basis of this strength lies the belief that those prescriptions that rely on social totalization are open to question and that proper citizenship requires exploration of new horizons of thought, even if they will be ultimately irreconcilable with the logic of domination. The gaze of power as represented by Peter Stockmann, Hovstad, Aslaksen and to some extent Billing exerts an almost insurmountable influence on the public. This implies that the task of overthrowing the self-interested authorities could only prove perilous and quixotic. Dr. Stockmann is not, however, swayed by the impulse of despair and does not even allow his self-denial to thwart his development as an individualistic hero. His regret is that people do not assume accountability for their subjectivity, allowing themselves to be teleologically shaped as meaningful subjects or disciplined bodies. In contrast, Dr. Stockmann himself attains a singular form of self-expression and subjectivity in the face of norms that are anything but liberating. In spite of the occasional breaches in his patience, the apparatuses of power only, and ironically enough, allow him to discover his true self, which bears the least resemblance to the socalled ideal subjectivity hailed by the government. Stockmann’s eradication of surfaces results in the replacement of appearances with reality, something made more impalpable to the eyes of the government by his provocative resistance. As a result, the clash of the intellectual Stockmann and the totalitarian regime leads to the persecution of he and his family, the goal behind which is that he may inevitably adapt himself to the conventions of his community. Plagued by the waves of disagreement, Dr. Stockmann has to come up face to face with his isolation: Peter Stockmann. You will not find any public body in the town that will give you the use of their hall for such a purpose. Aslaksen. Not a single one, I am certain. 1 For a detailed discussion of Jeremy Bentham’s design of the panopticon, see Foucault’s chapter on “Panopticism” in Discipline and Punish, pp. 195-231. 2 In a letter to an acquaintance on 6 January 1882, he tried to ward off the criticism pointed to Ghosts (1881) on account of the authorial interventions: “In none of my plays is the author so extrinsic, so completely absent, as in this last one” (qtd. in Hemmer 2004, 72). But, as Ibsen himself admits, Ghosts stands alone in this regard. Because before it with such Romantic plays as Brand (1866), Peer Gynt (1867), and Emperor and Galilean (1873) Ibsen’s identification with his rebel heroes is rarely disguised, and in his last plays The Master Builder (1892), Little Eyolf (1894), John Gabriel Borkman (1896) and When We Dead Awaken (1899) the personae are openly autobiographical. ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 90 Billing. No, I’m damned if you will find one. Mrs. Stockmann. But this is too shameful! Why should every one turn against you like that? Dr. Stockmann (angrily). I will tell you why. It is because all the men in this town are old women—like you; they all think of nothing but their families, and never of the community. (Ibsen 2014, 63) While for Tomas Stockmann the clash is still ongoing even if the battle is lost, in the case of Jimmy Porter engagement with politics only exposes his weakness both as a man and as an intellectual. Jimmy is, at his best, the vestige of an old heroism stripped of the courage to act. He cannot even live up to his own expectations in a society that has unfalteringly deprived him and the working class of their subjective voices. Yet, in spite of this, he possesses an ardent concern for social infections that are rampant in the body of a retrospective, breathless community. He is, for all his weakness, resistant to the pitch of impossibility, insofar that he courageously defies restraint and docility disregarding the consequences that spring from his rebellion. Osborne’s Look Back in Anger is indeed the death blow to the prophetic optimism of Shavian drama which anticipates Nietzsche’s Superman. Far from believing in Shaw’s notion of Creative Evolution (as expounded in Man and Superman (1903) and Back to Methuselah (1922)), Osborne goes on to undermine even the possibility of normality in an artificial era. The Edwardian glimpse of light is invisible to both Osborne and Jimmy, and both fail of their objects to visualize the final and untranscendable social cohesion in the twilight world of deception. It is the idea of resistance that captivates Osborne, and, contrary to previous playwrights, he feels a nude antagonism to the imminent demise of the English hegemony. For Osborne, it is necessary to “deal with an England whose decline should not be sadly recognized and nobly accepted but be angrily resisted with a range and intensity of response commensurate with the impending loss” (Quigley 2011, 40). To achieve this, Osborne sides with the oppressed unconscious of a generation, producing an archetypal hero who suffers from a shortage of support. Responsibility to oneself, as well as to others, is the simple illustration of this quest, the one thing that in Jimmy Porter’s eyes justifies his exigent task in awakening the souls of the exploited to aspire a better community. Jimmy is at odds with the prevalent norm of quietism—a refusal to participate in the campaign against social and political processes—and distorts the social harmony when the opportunity is offered, which is all the time. Osborne consistently goes on to project the amplified theme of counter-hegemonism in his later plays. In West of Suez (1971) and Watch it Come Down (1975) Osborne takes arms against the uncomprehending society which hunts down meritocracy with the aim of preserving social order in the face of bohemianism. In Look Back in Anger he intends to dismantle the ostentatious empire of deceit that in his view England is founded upon. Jimmy Porter looks askance at the fading vitality of the English society. His mindset tends toward believing that his country refrains from confronting its troubles because it is either unwilling to or unable to. Because of the divided will of the authorities and the individual, Jimmy is driven to isolation for affirming his unconventional position against the untoward forces that are alert to transgressive motives. The outraged Jimmy nonetheless grapples with his responsibility to his wife and his liberal standards without leaving either out of his meager account. Jimmy Porter turns the existing social order on its head to offer a fresh microcosm not conceived under the oppressive measures of the ruling class. Foucault ennobles such subjectivity to ultimately justify the need for a purifying pilgrimage. What he calls the “care of the self” (souci de soi) thus constitutes two important implications: our readymade personalities do not correspond with our own conceptualizations of the self, and our lives as the referent objects of power are in dire need of reconceptualizations. 3 For these reasons, his program is to bring people up to the knowledge that “they are much freer than they feel, that people accept as truth, as evidence, some themes which have been built up at a certain moment during history, and that this so-called evidence can be criticized and destroyed” (Foucault 1988a, 10). Jimmy Porter recognizes his subjectification and, by applying techniques of the self, progressively seeks balance between his inner struggles and outside reality. He admires the impulse of liberation regretting that his generation lives in an abyss, the abyss of complacency and fragility: “Nobody can be bothered. No one can raise themselves out of their delicious sloth” (Osborne 2002, 59). Jimmy suggests that the spreading web of power has robbed people of their identities, turning them into objectified subjects who are exceedingly pleased with their present selves to venture a change. In disciplinary societies, argues Foucault, bodies are viewed as objects to be analyzed and consequently to be subjugated. Human beings are objects to be shaped not subjects to be heeded. In Discipline and Punish he pinpoints the operation of discipline as a combination of hierarchal observation, normalizing judgment, and examination. Within the architectural networks of society, bodies are visible by the gaze that stands at the top of the pyramid of power, and this eye implements systems of network among groups of individuals within various social architectures to make up for its lack of precision. But Foucault specifies that observation is not enough. The behaviors must be judged. Punishment and reward are the means to classify good and bad subjects. Ultimately, what emerges as the dominant discourse is the discourse of norm. In the ritual of examination, subjects are objectified through constant observation, and the 3 For Foucault, power does not pose a limit to one’s liberty; it molds him to become a particular individual. This is carried out on two levels. First, bodies are trained to tend toward specific forms of behavior. Second, and conceivably of greater significance, bodies are made to regard themselves in certain ways. Hence it is a disciplinary power and operates at the level of individuals. Foucault believes this operation of self-surveillance is accomplished by the “micro-physics of power” (1977, 26) whose aim is disciplinary. ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 91 disciplinary power now forms disciplinary knowledge. This constitutes the reality of an “individual as a describable, analyzable object […] in order to maintain him in his individual features, in his particular evolution, in his own aptitudes or abilities, under the gaze of a permanent corpus of knowledge” (Foucault 1977, 190). O’Farrell argues that panopticon “is about preventing people from doing wrong and indeed taking away their very will to do wrong” (2005, 104). In both plays, subjects are under the ‘gaze’ of a harnessing system of manipulation that curbs their will to do the supposedly wrong. As rebellious antagonists in opposition with the a priori institutionalized norms, Dr. Stockmann and Jimmy Porter, however, unmask the lack of correlation between social constraints and individual freedom. Thus, to tackle the increasing threat of this desubjugation their activities are monitored. They are quickly distinguished from others by their anomalies. A simple logic of binary distinction is enforced, whereby they are classified as ‘them’ and the rest as ‘us’. This technique of othering or partitioning by the gaze of power though meant for their reformation actually causes their insubordination in the end and both mercilessly wage war on the institution of politics. Stockmann’s and Jimmy’s weapon of choice is verbal revolt when they make their stand. At this point, we see their departure from optimism to contemptuous irritation. The awareness of both is followed by rebellious remarks to substantiate their heterodox views. Dr. Stockmann resolves to fight back the static political set-up in defense of which Peter Stockmann and other authorities have recourse to the policy of secrecy: “I want to lay bare the defects that sooner or later must come to the light of day. I will show whether I love my native town” (Ibsen 40). Jimmy also tired of political propagandaism escapes from the panoptic clutches of coercion by his verbal virtuosity: “Nobody thinks, nobody cares. No beliefs, no convictions and no enthusiasm” (Osborne 61). All attempts of both, if via direct political action (for Dr. Stockmann) or if grounded on ceaseless complaints (for Jimmy), target the body of society. The sudden fits of hysteria in both are responses to the escalating threats of a corrupt society, and they grow as the threats grow. The hegemonic commonsense constitutes a sense of differentiation among people to recognize the collective will and reach a consensus about its finality and totality. Not surprisingly, within the uniform culture which hegemony idealizes—fulfilled by a continual modification of the diverse forms of power mechanisms—notions of toleration and democracy could not be easily disseminated and embedded, as the oppressed classes oscillate between the two poles of consent and dissent. In both plays, what is seen as deviation from hegemony is also a break of alliance between the intellectual elite and the subaltern class, which often passively, if not always actively, surrenders to its leaders.4 Dr. Stockmann does not wish to be grouped with his fellow-citizens. He has a mission and his mission is to expose the hollowness of superficial social integrity by holding an unfathomable contempt at philistinism. In this regard, not only is it hard for him to convince people that they are pitifully mistaken in their estimations of political justice, but that they have wrongly resorted to the irritating way of labeling him the public enemy and treating his theories accordingly. Hence his discovery that “all the sources of our moral life are poisoned and that the whole fabric of our civic community is founded on the pestiferous soil of falsehood” (Ibsen 69) can only be received with scorn. The loathsome realities which bulk so hugely before his red, critical eyes weigh dearly upon him. He gratifies his anger before long both against the conservative minority and the manipulated populace: Dr. Stockmann. […] It is the majority in our community that denies me my freedom and seeks to prevent my speaking the truth. Hovstad. The majority always has right on its side. Billing. And truth too, by God! Dr. Stockmann. The majority never has right on its side. Never, I say! That is one of these social lies against which an independent, intelligent men must wage war. (Ibsen 71) Just as powerful and even more blatant, perhaps, is Jimmy’s perpetuated and unmediated restlessness, which, as the completion of a failed object, boldly takes on the welfare state without avail. To Jimmy, Alison and her family deserve the bitterest of reproaches because of their aloofness. Unlike Alison and Cliff, he dares to think for himself, to distance himself from the lucrative games of politics, and to be alone for his outrageousness. Thus, Jimmy disdainfully questions Cliff’s conservatism adopted for the sake of complacent preservation. His anarchy is in this way the mirror of Foucauldian resistance: “Why don’t we brawl? It’s the only thing left I’m any good at” (Osborne 98). Jimmy, however, does not share Dr. Stockmann’s optimism when challenging the Establishment, and the latter seems to enjoy a versatility, expressiveness, and distinction after which Jimmy can only hanker. Yet, for all their differences and although hovering on the brink of ruin, both accept suffering with grandeur without ennobling passivity. Throughout the play, Jimmy fruitlessly gives other characters scope for a freer use of their critical faculty than they have hitherto employed. For this reason, Helena and Alison struggle with the implications of Jimmy’s ferocious tongue: HELENA: You think the world’s treated you pretty badly, don’t you? ALISON: (Turning her face away L.) Oh, don’t try and take his suffering away from him – he’d be lost without it. (Osborne 100) 4 Non-hegemonic groups or ruled classes are called by Antonio Gramsci “subaltern,” “subordinate”, or sometimes “instrumental”. See Gramsci (1971). ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 92 Helena and Alison are drawn to the ideology which interpellates them as subjects. In the Althusserian sense, they have submitted to the higher authority as unresisting agents within the frame of ISA. Althusser sums up the consequence of interpellation: “The individual is interpellated as a (free) subject in order that he shall submit freely to the commandments of the Subject, i.e. in order that he shall (freely) accept his subjection” (2012, 136). Needless to say, Jimmy absorbs his intellectual nourishment from a source other than that provided for Helenas and Alisons. His source is a reality ripped down of all its façades, and this nakedness of vision is the anchoring point of his anger. As Ronald Bryden points out: “Deeper than all the other grounds of Jimmy Porter’s anger with his country and his countrymen is his sense of having been lied to, of having being fobbed of with an inauthentic inheritance” (2011, 15). Not merely for the sake of iconoclasm or the limelight, his withdrawal from his community is a sign of his repudiating the political narratives that ceaselessly form the face of social justice. Naturally, his micronarrative is not on equal footing with these principles, and, to his great dismay, he is “denied political opportunities for changing the world around him” (Innes 2002, 86). Repelled by the grotesque spectacle of British barrenness, Jimmy carries his life in his own hands, being aware that in his life fighting must hold the chief place even if that would mean entanglement with myriads of risks. Simply put, he cannot accept his fate without objection. We may also venture to affirm that the panoptic system of surveillance cannot accordingly attend to his requirements as a citizen, let alone, as an intellectual. This occurs when Jimmy and his friend Hugh are turned out of upper-class parties for their outrageousness, and Alison tells Helena after that “they both came to regard me as a sort of hostage from those sections of society they had declared war on” (Osborne 89). Afterwards, they find no proper opportunity for active employment. Hugh leaves England out of despair, and Jimmy finds his safe haven at home beside Alison and Cliff, who are passive recipients of his restlessness. Given the measures he takes to exculpate himself, Osborne’s Jimmy bears indirect resemblances to Bernard Shaw’s Joan in Saint Joan (1923) and Arthur Miller’s John Proctor in The Crucible (1953), and confession is elicited from the three by their superiors: Osborne’s by recognizing him a social deviant, Shaw’s by tagging her a Protestant heretic or passionate lunatic, and Miller’s by introducing him a devil-associate. Unlike the other two, however, Jimmy is not brought to justice in a formal court, and that contributes a lot to the issue of his persecution which goes on even as the play ends. To be sure, Jimmy is the lonely bear he proclaims himself to be, and, as the play advances, the ardent expression of rebellion is translated into utter abandonment until he and Alison are driven at the end of the play into irretrievable exile. The moral languor that has overwhelmed his morale emanates partly from the knowledge that he is a stray guest at the large party of a degenerate culture and partly from his own admission that, however erect he seems to stand in the conflict, he cannot make an impact. That he knows at the end of the play he is still “a lost cause” (Osborne 141) bears witness to this helplessness. Even the arrival of the energetic, responsive, and affectionate Helena who contrasts Alison to a large extent fails to impress him for long. Jimmy is aware, as Osborne is aware, the defiance of society does not attract steadfast supporters. Masses tend to altogether dispense with the ‘antisocial’ behavior which inevitably arises from an anarchic morality. Hence the dubious nature of rebellion causes the collective will to cut itself adrift from the notoriety that ensues to secure a future for itself. Alison and Helena, regardless of the seas of differences that separate them, are true to their beliefs that association with Jimmy is tiresome if not perilous. In act 2, scene 2 Helena makes a revelation on Jimmy which is traceable to his alien position in society: HELENA: Do you know – I have discovered what is wrong with Jimmy? It’s very simple really. He was born out of his time. ALISON: Yes. I know. HELENA: There’s no place for people like that any longer – in sex, or politics, or anything. That’s why he’s so futile. Sometimes, when I listen to him, I feel he thinks he’s still in the middle of the French Revolution. And that’s where he ought to be, of course. He doesn’t know where he is, or where he’s going. He’ll never do anything, and he’ll never amount to anything. (Osborne 136) In the eyes of Foucault, uncritical submission to the present order of things as natural or ineluctable is problematic. He says it allows bio-politics to operate in the form of domination, where only the presence of a limited range of discourses are accepted as valid, necessitating the eradication and sanctioning of many other modes of existence deemed deviant or invalid. Thus, Helena’s description of Jimmy as an outmoded individual negates the possibility of his subjectivity, because she is resolute in her opinion that he must, due to the constraints of his time, inculcate the idea of resiliency in himself, albeit it may not serve his own ends. Foucault posits that subjection is not simply exerted by an external force. People themselves take up subject identities their sociohistorical context provides for them: they are not only turned into subjects, they fashion themselves. In this way, everyone abides by the norms and values not moving a step further. That is why Foucault believes to gain ourselves we have to cut loose from the calculability imposed by the disciplinary power. “Maybe the target nowadays is not to discover what we are,” he maintains, “but to refuse what we are.” Concurrently, a new identity has to be born to contend with “this kind of political ‘double-blind,’ which is the simultaneous individualization and totalization of modern power structures” (Foucault 1982, 785). When Helena describes Jimmy as a relic, she not only shrinks away from the “refusal” of her disciplined self but nurtures the hope that Jimmy will take the same path. Nevertheless, Jimmy finds his truth discordant with the dictates put forth under the banner of propriety and decorum. The tyranny of conventionality is the object of his keenest invective. Acting in compliance with the veracity of his intent, he is an Olympian who wishes to overthrow the Titans of normalization and subjectification. The response he receives does not count much. ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 93 It is the permeation of the panoptic surveillance that bestows meaning on the lives of Alison, Helena, and Cliff. By becoming the cause of fear, the visibility leads to their self-reformation. What Simon (2005) conceives of panopticism is a reminder that we cannot escape from the social prison, because the purpose of the gaze is well beyond simple observation: “The Panopticon is not a vision machine so much as an ordering machine; a kind of sociomaterial assemblage for sorting and arranging social categories and individual persons so that they can be seen and understood” (Simon 4). Surprisingly, in Look Back in Anger the warders of the prison – as appointed by the warden – are his wife, friend, and mistress. They unknowingly take him to his limits by their occasional silence and utter indifference to elicit confession from him: ALISON: (Softly) All I want is a little peace. JIMMY: Peace! God! She wants peace! (Hardly able to get his words out.) My heart is so full, I feel ill – and she wants peace! … I rage, and shout my head off, and everyone thinks ‘poor chap!’ or ‘what an objectionable young man!’ But that girl there can twist your arm off with her silence. I’ve sat in this chair in the dark for hours. And, although she knows I’m feeling as I feel now, she’s turned over, and gone to sleep. (Osborne 105) As soon as power is efficiently wielded over Jimmy, home is easily equated with prison, regularity with surveillance. Under the confining gaze, it is little wonder that the rebellious Jimmy would try to escape from his domestic isolation. He resolutely refuses his subjection to comprehensive regulations, and his incorrigibility evokes the attention of society to apply techniques of exclusion in order to ensure organization. The means for its accomplishment, according to Foucault, is not to engage directly but to perpetuate a law that “operates more and more as a norm” (1978, 144), a law that exceeds the juridico-political measures of the society. This points to the immediate connection of panopticism and Look Back in Anger. Bodies integrate themselves into the society, confirming the continuation of demands indirectly coerced upon them and disqualifying the practices of liberals who pursue their solitary paths. Jimmy Porter is thus opposed by the capitalist discourse and kept under control by the panopticon. “Truth” is the maxim of Dr. Stockmann’s life. His rule echoes that of Ibsen’s early hero Brand that ‘everything or nothing’, and this leads him to an adventure replete with heroic struggle and sublime loss. Miller argues An Enemy of the People carries “Ibsen’s belief that there is such a thing as a truth and that it bears something like holiness within it, regardless of the cost its discovery at any one moment entails” (2004, 229). No half-hearted service toward the community is acceptable to Dr. Stockmann, because the concept of self is, by and large, inconceivable to him. Peter Stockmann and others, however, act based on what may be called a “realist morality” that serves the public partly out of political shrewdness, partly out of boastful modesty and simultaneously recoils at the thought of transgression. Instead, the position offered by Dr. Stockmann is typically Viking-like and requires human sacrifices. This is an “idealist morality” in the sense that the vigilant citizen not only contributes to the welfare of the public without an eye to selfinterests but goes on to encounter the fate of selflessness—foreshadowed by the growing counter-measures of the society. In Malone’s (2010) terms, the earlier goes by the name of public morality and the latter by individual morality. In short, if realist morality in An Enemy of the People is a social pose intending a simulation of the real, idealist morality is a Promethean act whose primary objects are to teach people simple lessons firstly of articulating their subjectivity and secondly of exploiting their intellectual capacity to avoid the pitfall of being again numbered with the compact majority. In Act III Dr. Stockmann is pressurized to abide by his duty as a husband and father and leave aside his anti-political schemes. Notwithstanding the role played by the single official ideology of the town, Dr. Stockmann contends that the sole concern of his anarchism is to enlighten people and raise it to a level where it could abolish authoritarianism and divest the State of its monopoly. The heroic course, as suggested by Dr. Stockmann, is to usher in some principles upon which responsibility toward the public and the family could be established. He recognizes that in this course his revolutionary ideas are blindly stifled by the inertia of those whose interests lie in the maintenance of the old order. Fraternity between the ruling class and the intellectual elite thrown into disarray, the present arrangement of social justice is refuted and Dr. Stockmann’s actions are directed at the negation of governmentality or, rather, the regaining of the initiative by people. Dr. Stockmann explicitly shows society does not precede family nor does it exceed it; both collaborate with one another in the formation of an active structure. Dr. Stockmann is consistent in his idea that, given the proper commitment from the public, these two entities would thrive together. He thus rejects the normalized differentiation between family and society when addressing his wife: “Because a man has a wife and children, is he not to be allowed to proclaim the truth-is he not to be allowed to be an actively useful citizen—is he not to be allowed to do a service to his native town!” (Ibsen 59) His task is henceforth all the more urgent, because, not to speak of his own wife’s pragmatic determination to dispel the sense of wholeness and purpose he tries to produce in the public, he is made acutely aware that his salvation is not an act of fulfillment but of annihilation. Under the magnifying glass of the government, tomorrow is and must remain yesterday. The tendency for dissolving the former language games, according to Lyotard, occasions the initiation of a new discourse.5 Thereby, Dr. Stockmann’s entanglement with power relations does not prove futile, because by providing a 5 Lyotard writes in The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge that different discourses – be they physics, chemistry, literature, customs – all conform to sets of established rules. Legitimate statements are those that fall within the scope of these rules, and others which defy subordination are left out of the game. The justification for this ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 94 sphere of self-articulation he challenges the monophony of authority. Foucault’s point is that “power is exercised upon the dominant as well as on the dominated” (Dreyfus & Rainbow 1983, 186). No matter how much the panoptic practices involve a close surveillance of Dr. Stockmann, his reaction functions as a catalyst for a re-interpretation of domination as the birth right of the totalitarian government. Not surprisingly, Peter Stockmann harbors a perpetual fury against his brother’s riotous behavior for creating the uproar in the town. It is only by accentuating the fury in other surveying eyes over the issue of Baths’ improvement that he can accomplish the scheme of discrediting him: “It is simply and solely through the Baths that the town has before it any future worth mentioning” (Ibsen 34). While the majority takes this position much to its liking, it is—deliberately and directly—guided by Peter Stockmann to bombard Dr. Stockmann: Peter Stockmann. In consideration of the close relationship in which, as you all know, I stand to the present Medical Officer of the Baths, I should have preferred not to speak this evening. But my official position with regard to the Baths and my solicitude for the vital interests of the town compel me to bring forward a motion. I venture to presume that there is not a single one of our citizens present who considers it desirable that unreliable and exaggerated accounts of the sanitary condition of the Baths and the town should be spread abroad. (Ibsen 66) The harsh and unreal account of Dr. Stockmann’s spirited expression of his concerns justifies Peter’s task in introducing him as someone who intrudes in building the sinews of a prosperous town. The mayor’s mind games promise an intimate and immediate connection with public sympathies. On the contrary, Doctor’s leap of faith only demands an act of repentance and remorse, something which he does not gratify, keeping away from entrance into the Elysian peace guaranteed by hegemony’s ultimate power. McConnell (2010) notes that Dr. Stockmann’s crusade is a moral combat between him and the society. We might add that this combat is not only moral but mortal, because at the end of the play collision on its true scale is yet to begin. An Enemy of the People incorporates the notion of pluralism into a vigorous design for an emancipated subjectivity. Ibsen does not settle for the affirmation of the inherited episteme; he rather puts it to the test of experiments and finds it wanting. With respect to the growth of new possibilities, Stockmann believes in the expansion of horizons and opposes the reduction of vitality to docility. He challenges the monotonous finalities by assuming that an identity not modeled over the sovereign lexicon is a decentering of institutional practices, and that such a view lays claim to new adventures which might in essence have nothing to do with former narratives. He finds that, as Foucault puts it, we are dynamic beings “always in the position of beginning again” (1984, 47). For him, the event of becoming is an interrogation of the existing event, the provision of a private and autonomous rationality for the conception of a singular identity. The play underscores the idea of purgation, as the result of which the networks of domination do away with the unpredictable, the incalculable, and the uncontrollable when they still have the chance. The instruments of power manipulated by the hierarchy could be summed up as: normalization through perpetuation of unwritten laws, subjectification through fear of negative assessment, and objectification through deprivation of identity. Foucault believes: “A system of constraint becomes truly intolerable when the individuals who are affected by it don’t have the means of modifying it” (1988b, 294). Hence Stockmann’s failure in his crusade for public enlightenment in the vast scale is a testimony that he cannot contend with the all-encompassing gaze of the panopticon although he preserves his own liberated subjectivity. 3. Wrath of the Panopticon: The Policy of Exclusion In his lecture ‘The Order of Discourse’ (1970) delivered at the Collège de France Foucault states that exclusion is readily approved by the subjects of power. The outcome is that – if seen through the normal distribution principle – the majority falls within the categorization devised by the ruling standards and the minority which diverges from the regimentation is considered abnormal. The production of discourses is naturally administered by a system: “In every society the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized and redistributed by a certain number of procedures whose role is to ward off its powers and dangers, to gain mastery over its chance events” (Foucault 1981, 52). The enforcement of the utilitarian code divides the public into a polarity with the normal categorized as productive or useful and the abnormal as unproductive or risky. To illustrate the rationale of the strategy, Foucault refers to three modes of exclusion which constrain discourse: taboo, division between the mad and the sane, distinction between true and false. Taboo is a form of social sanction that prohibits the discussion of subjects such as sexuality. Those who deviate from the norm are delinquents and are treated as such. The second operation of exclusion, discussed at length in Madness and Civilization (1967), demands from the public not to attend the speech of those labeled as insane, to measure it as if it were non-existent. The third practice involves an acceptance of the statements made by those in position of authority and a rejection of statements made by those not involved in the body of power. Only a finite number of discourses are thereby allowed free circulation in the society, and others which are characterized as false are excluded. For Foucault, the third form of exclusion is more important than the other two, because in the contemporary world their structures are modernist totality, says Lyotard, is that “if there are no rules there is no game, that even an infinitesimal modification of one rule alters the nature of the game” (1984, 10). ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 95 on the verge of being modified and finally dissolved by the will to truth. Thus, they are “constantly becoming more fragile and more uncertain” (1981, 56). Recognizing that modification met with stumbling blocks and its policies were faced with resistance, the panopticon brings to play the full potential of its capacities to minimize Dr. Stockmann’s and Jimmy Porter’s ventures for questioning its institutional dogmatism and single-mindedness. Their actions and statements are so revolutionary and unprecedented that they are construed for their exemplary rather than mimetic natures, ones that set the examples of state-contestation rather than the ones that correspond—like those of the masses—to the criterion of affirmation. In effect, to immunize the public and to protect the monopoly of power, the best recourse is to lay siege to the voices of dissidence. At the beginning of ‘The Order of Discourse’, Foucault lays stress on the institutional imperatives that precede and regulate discourse; the essence of their operations, Foucault argues, is to bring heterogeneous or irresponsible practices to justice. He ironically quotes the response of the institution of power toward one’s speech: “ ‘if discourse may sometimes have power, nevertheless it is from us and us alone that it gets it’ ” (1981, 52). If, according to Foucault, even freedom is intentionally granted by the hands of dictatorship, then democracy itself in both plays is only the shrouded policy of reductionism. On the one hand, Dr. Stockmann and Jimmy are allowed to be unsettled and spell out their indignation, while, on the other hand, they are detected as anarchists and made public spectacles. The pronouncement of Stockmann’s guilt occurs in a purely public sphere, the condemnation of Jimmy in a mystifyingly public privacy. Therefore, the continuation of rebellion bodes ill for Dr. Stockmann. His exclusion comes after he is told by the Mayor that “as an officer under the Committee, you have no right to any individual opinion” (Ibsen 38). This formula does not give him any satisfaction whatsoever, as he seriously doubts that coming to terms with the government is actually the answer. The result is that his behavior displays a marked departure from point-to-point fidelity to the very basis of society. He sets his heart on the hope that people may break loose from their shackles of captivity and begin to live, for the first time, for the greater good. Furthermore, he only needs a slight provocation to affirm the Rousseauistic insight that might does not presuppose right and that, in fact, right is greater than might: Mrs. Stockmann. But, dear Thomas, your brother has power on his side. Dr. Stockmann. Yes, but I have right on mine, I tell you. Mrs. Stockmann. Oh yes, right—right. What is the use of having right on your side if you have not got might? (Ibsen 41) This resistance, at bottom a quest for pluralism, is challenged by a fierce reaction. At the public gathering held in Captain Horster’s house, the confrontation of might and right reaches its pinnacle. Aslaksen, with his emphasis on moderation, seeks to disarm the extremist Dr. Stockmann in the public: “I have learned in the school of life and experience that moderation is the most valuable virtue a citizen can possess” (Ibsen 65). This declaration fortifies Peter Stockmann’s defensive techniques against his brother: “I should like to propose that the meeting should not permit the Medical Officer either to read or to comment on his proposed lecture” (Ibsen 66). Dr. Stockmann’s exclusion from the center of public life, his being labeled the other or outsider, is justifiable proof that the third form of Foucauldian exclusion is enforced on him in cold blood. His discourse is divested of its truth value and that of the ruling class is invested with total authenticity. During the same occasion, we are made acutely aware that the exchange of opinions is a mere pretext; what is pursued beneath the surface is to crown the infallible authority once again. Accordingly, to further obliterate the image of Dr. Stockmann as the public friend, the second operation of exclusion is carried out. In an attempt to vindicate its ways to the public and legitimize the status quo, the panopticon judges Dr. Stockmann to be mad. The following dialogue shows the efficiency of the policy: 3rd Citizen. I rather think he goes quite off his head sometimes. 1st Citizen. I wonder if there is any madness in his family? (Ibsen 78) The individual who employs parrhesia, Foucault explains, is “someone who says everything he has in mind: he does not hide anything, but opens his heart and mind completely to other people through his discourse” (2001, 12). Viewed thus, Dr. Stockmann and Jimmy Porter are the parrhesiasts (the exploiters of parrhesia) who, for giving utterance to their criticism, jeopardize their lives because they recognize “truth-telling as a duty to improve or help other people” (19). More and more plagued by the forces allied against him, Jimmy Porter starts to admit, even more strongly, that escape is not a possibility. As the play wears on, he gradually reveals that he is a skeptical philosopher whose working-class consciousness pervades almost everything he says. Being unable to drag himself out of the self-consuming morass, he attends to an insatiable urge to revenge himself on the class that has showered disillusionment upon him and his class. His pain is expressed with razor-sharp insight; Jimmy, as Luc Gilleman notes, “philosophises as naturally as he breathes. His insights and opinions are well-informed and witty” (2012, 149). In other words, his sickening sense of the society’s futility is dragged through the slippery path of his faith, yet the poetry of his cynicism preserves its magnitude in spite of all. Jimmy’s exclusion from the social scene owes much to his belief in puncturing the self-delusion of officeholders and the necessity of reform in a dispirited society. Unlike the older generation who evades responsibility by gazing upon the ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 96 past, Jimmy is focused on the present; for this reason, he knows Colonel Redfern to be the “poor old Daddy – just one of those old sturdy old plants left over from the Edwardian Wilderness that can’t understand why the sun isn’t shining anymore” (Osborne 113). The horrendous romance of Jimmy and the present, readily made known to others, is interpreted as an act of transgression by the overarching gaze, and what ensues is the truth/falsehood polarity. The lesson of Jimmy is that truth-telling is measured against the backdrop of what Foucault calls the regime of truth, which signifies that truth is respected as long as it respects the schemes of the Establishment. Foucault reveals the constraints imposed on the production of discourse take away our individuality, as “we know quite well that we do not have the right to say everything, that we cannot speak of just anything in any circumstances whatever, and that not everyone has the right to speak of anything whatever” (1981, 52). Retaining his attachment to his local self, Jimmy, however, distorts the harmony and speaks of “anything.” At the end of the play, he concedes that he and Alison are dismissed by the power which wishes to remain unsullied: JIMMY: […] We’ll be together in our bear’s cave, and our squirrel’s drey, and we’ll live on honey, and nuts – lots and lots of nuts. And we’ll sing songs about ourselves – about warm trees and snug caves, and lying in the sun. And you’ll keep those big eyes on my fur, and help me keep my claws in order, because I’m a bit of soppy, scruffy sort of a bear. And I’ll see that you keep that sleek, bushy tail glistening as it should, because you’re a very beautiful squirrel, but you’re none too bright either, so we’ve got to be careful. There are cruel steel traps lying about everywhere, just waiting for rather mad, slightly satanic, and very timid little animals. (Osborne 142-143) Dr. Stockmann and Jimmy Porter realize the power relations that envelope them. The panoptic program operates as quicksand; once they find out its mechanism, they attempt to break loose only to sink deeper in it. Yet, paradoxically speaking, the very thing which reigns over them and deprives them of their emancipatory potential allows them to actively participate in their self-constitution. At this point, the critique of governmentality comes to the surface. Foucault believes the critique of governmentality is “the movement by which the subject gives himself the right to question truth on its effects of power and question power on its discourses of truth” (1997, 32). This critical attitude gives them both a chance to celebrate their individuality and a responsibility to defy the boundaries to make others celebrate theirs. The essence of their ethical awareness is an eventual self-effacement for the benefit of the political subjects in order to turn them, if possible, into free agents. Naturally enough, for these idiosyncratic heroes the epiphany is the same. Dr. Stockmann declares in the end that “the strongest man in the world is he who stands most alone” (Ibsen 100), and for Jimmy “the heaviest, strongest creatures in this world seem to be the loneliest” (Osborne 141). By denying their rights to social awakening, the panopticon builds upon a homogeneous domain of reference to ensure a codified, institutionalized freedom which does not tolerate plurality. In consequence, subcultures pull the roof down upon their own heads as soon as they voice their revolutionary screams. This is where the prayers and tears of Foucault come to nothing. References Althusser, L. (2012). Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus (Notes towards an Investigation). In S. Žižek (Ed.), Mapping Ideology (pp. 100-140). London: Verso. Brustein, R. (1991). The Theater of Revolt: An Approach to Modern Drama. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. Bryden, R. (2011). “The House that Jimmy Built.” In P. D. Denison (Ed.), John Osborne: A Casebook (pp. 3-20). New York: Routledge. Dreyfus, H. L. & Rainbow, P. (1983). Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books. Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality, Volume. 1: An Introduction, translated by Robert Hurley. New York: Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1981). The Order of Discourse. In R. Young (Ed.), Untying the Text: A Post-structuralist Reader (pp. 4878). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Foucault, M. (1982). The Subject and Power. Critical Inquiry, 8(4): 777-795. Foucault, M. (1984). “What is Enlightenment?” In P. Rainbow (Ed.), The Foucault Reader (pp. 32-50). New York: Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1988a). “Truth, Power, Self.” In L. H. Martin, et al. (Eds.), Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault (pp. 9-15). London: Tavistock. Foucault, M. (1988b). “Sexual Choice, Sexual Act: Foucault and Homosexuality.” In L. D. Kritzman (Ed.), Politics, Philosophy, Culture: Interviews and Other Writings, 1977-1984 (pp. 286-303). New York: Routledge. Foucault, M. (1997). “What is Critique?” In S. Lotringer & L. Hochroth (Eds.), The Politics of Truth (pp. 23-82). New York: Semiotext(e). ALLS 7(1):88-97, 2016 97 Foucault, M. (2001). Fearless Speech. J. Pearson (Ed.). Los Angeles: Semiotext(e). Gilleman, L. (2012). “John Osborne: The Drama of Emotions.” In D. Pattie (Ed.), Modern British Playwriting: The 1950s: Voices, Documents, New Interpretations (pp. 146-170). London: Methuen. Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. Q. Horae & G. N. Smith (Eds.). London: Lawrence & Wishart. Hemmer, B. (2004). “Ibsen and the Realistic Problem Drama.” In J. McFarlane (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Ibsen (pp. 68-88). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ibsen, H. (2014). An Enemy of the People. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University. Innes, C. (2002). Modern British Drama: The Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lyotard, J. F. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, translated by Geoff Bennington & Brian Massumi. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Malone, I. R. (2010). Ibsen and the Irish Revival. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. McConnell, T. (2010). Moral Combat in An Enemy of the People: Public Health versus Private Interests. Public Health Ethics, 3(1): 80-86. Miller, A. (2004). “Ibsen and the Drama of Today.” In J. McFarlane (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Ibsen (pp. 227-232). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mills, S. (2003). Michel Foucault. London: Routledge. O’Farrell, C. (2005). Michel Foucault. London: Sage Publications. Osborne, J. (2002). Look Back in Anger. New-Delhi: Oxford University Press. Quigley, A. E. (2011). “The Personal, the Political, and the Postmodern in Osborne’s Look Back in Anger and Déjàvu.” In P. D. Denison (Ed.), John Osborne: A Casebook (pp. 35-60). New York: Routledge. Simon, B. (2005). The Return of Panopticism: Supervision, Subjection, and the New Surveillance. Surveillance & Society, 3(1): 1-20. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Poetics of Narrative: A Study on The Sons of the Wind by Laila Al Atrash Asmaa M. Al Zuraigat Department of English, College of Arts, Tafila Technical University, Tafila, Jordan E-mail: Dr.asmaalzregat@yahoo.com Hussein Hasan Zeidanin (Corresponding author) Department of English, College of Arts, Tafila Technical University, Tafila, Jordan E-mail: husseino_z@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.98 Received: 14/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.98 Accepted: 08/11/2015 Abstract This study aims at identifying the poetic devices overlapping with the genre of fiction in Laila Al Atrash's novel The Sons of the Wind. The devices the study explores are the poetics of the title, poetics of the prologue and poetics of the language upon which the writer relies to support her point of view about the topics and issues addressed in her novel. The study found different patterns of overlapping between the narrative text and poetic text and evaluated its effects on the realization of poetic narration and expression of the narrative point of view. As a highly experienced and creative writer and journalist, Al Atrash used a poetic language to express the narrative perspective of her novel. Keywords: Poetics, Narrative, Title, Prologue, Language 1. Introduction Formalism as a contemporary approach of criticism sets new criteria and characteristics which literary genres must meet. It focuses on the concept of poetics which Jean Cohen (1966) defines as “the stylistics of literary genres” (16), Tzvetan Todorov (198) describes as “a knowledge of the general laws presiding over the birth of each literary work” (23), Ezz Addin Al Manasra (1992) refers to as “the laws of creative writing” (31), and Kamal Abu Adib (1987) considers as “a textual embodiment resembling a net of relationships that develop among primeval components; each may take place in a different context without being necessarily poetic” (17). Fiction creates images along with their transfigurations to emphasize the expressionism of objects. Poetics is determined by language, so poetry may conform to fiction and novel may serve as an incubator of poetry in its narrative form. The work of fiction relies on its poetics to “defamiliarize the language and literary forms” (Qasim, 1984:232) which represent the narrative basis. The poetics of fiction are not limited to certain scenes or episodes but to the whole work. Poetics is created in a work of fiction by means of the figurative language, axioms of replacement and invocation, determinate and indeterminate signifiers and the signified meaning of signs” (Adib, 1987: 13 – 15). Word in a poetic work of fiction, therefore, becomes a sign that does not signify the meaning of a sign; rather, it is a sign signifying other signs and images”( Al Ghuthami, 1985: 30). Commitment to poetics in fiction imparts certain characteristics of poetry to narrative works and enriches them with new aesthetics without losing or negating their distinctive narrative structure and flavor. This can be attributed to the fact that fiction as a genre is capable of incorporating the defining characteristics of other genres and arts. On this account, some critics consider it “the poem of all poems or a vessel of art in which other arts melt though it does not lose its narrative identity”. (Todorov, 1992: 172) In the light of the literary theory of formalism, this paper studies poetics in The Sons of the Wind by Laila Al Atrash and explores its impact upon and role in the narrative text. 1.1 Overview of the Writer's Biography The authors of this paper have made a personal interview with Laila Al Atrash on Thursday 23, April, 2015 to collect some autobiographical information about her. The Palestinian Jordanian writer, Laila Basil Al Atrash, who was born in Bayt Sahour, a Christian holy city, belongs to a group of writers whose television and journalistic fame predated their publishing and literary fame. Al Atrash commenced her writing career by publishing articles and short stories; and she had worked for printed, audio and visual media before she published her first novel entitled Sunrise from the West in 1988. She received her school education in Bayt Sahour, graduated from the College of Law in Beirut Arab University in 1955 and pursued a diploma of French in 1982. She participated in dozens of cultural and media seminars on Arab issues, women rights and Arab culture in Jordan, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia and the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Her husband Fayez Sabbagh, a Jordanian poet, constantly supported and encouraged her to write. ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 99 Al Atrash has been honored and rewarded with golden and silver medals by many cultural forums, Arab and western universities for the television programs she presented. She joined many Arab and Jordanian circles and organizations. The most famous short stories collections, novels and plays she has written are: An Ordinary Day and Other Stories (1992), Women on Crossroads (2009), Sunrise from the West (1988), A Woman of Five Seasons (1990), Two Nights and the Shadow of a Woman (1998), Neigh of Distances (1999), Port of Illusion (2005), Desires …. that Autumn (2009), The Sons of the Wind (2012), Hymns of Lure (2014), Love Leaves (2011) and Gate (2015). Some of her short stories and novels were translated into English, French, Italian, German, Korean, Indian, Chinese and Persian, and adapted into radio plays. In addition, her works make lively research topics for master theses and doctoral dissertations in Jordan and elsewhere. For example, Yosef A'wadh from the University of Jordan wrote a master thesis in English entitled " A Feminist and Comparative Reading of Henrik Ibsen's a Doll's House and Leila Al-Atrash's A Woman of Five Seasons"; Sana Al Azzah from the University of Islamic Sciences wrote a thesis on "Substantive and Artistic Issues in the Novel of Laila Al Atrash"; Tammam Al Rshoud from Yarmouk University wrote a thesis on "The Artistic Structure in Laila Al Atrash's Novels"; and Asma Al Zraigat from the University of Mu'ta wrote a doctoral dissertation on "Vision and Formation in the Narrative Works of Laila Al Atrash". It is noteworthy that many universities around the world teach her works in Arabic and English. 1.2 Overview of the Novel The Sons of the Wind is a realistic novel approaching its protagonists from a psychoanalytic perspective. It builds on “the heritage and some mythologies to raise the existentialist questions of the fate of life and death, struggle against fates to change their courses, and struggle against self and society” (Ali, 2012). These forms of struggle coincide with events of love, jealousy, suspicion, resistance, exploitation, defeat and conquest. The novel relates the life stories of young men and women who fall victims of orphanhood, family breakup or anonymous parenthood, and live in care houses. The novelist recurrently visits these houses and studies the laws regulating their work in order to envisage the lives of the children and young people there, give an account of their lives outside care houses, and survey their attitudes towards the houses which cared for them when others abandoned them. The novel intends to draw attention to the marginalized and oppressed groups whom the society, represented by its traditions and culture, neglects and ignores. The sons in this novel represent a small group of people fated to grow up atypically at shelters or orphanages where there is no parent to protect and care for. Scattered by days like chaff before the wind, fate smiled to some orphans but frowned to others. Sufian is one of the fortunate sons who discovers that his uncle Tayseer works and lives with his family in Dubai. After he moves to live with them, his uncle cares and finances his study in the College of Medicine. Sufian soon learns that his father Hasan Abd Al Jabbar mourned and grieved over the death of his faithful wife (Sufian’s mother) until he died at an early age for mysterious reasons. Thirty years later since the beginning of the story, Sufian uses reverse chronology to recall certain events and recollect the memories of those orphans who one day formed with him a family of six brothers and five sisters. The progress of events sheds light on more mysteries and secrets as Sufian discovers that his uncle Tayseer drives his father to kill his mother Aamina. Tayseer lusted for her and conspired with her cousin to steal into Hassan’s house while he is away; meanwhile, Tayseer told him that a strange man was in his house. This is why Hassan murdered his wife while their three-year son was unconsciously watching. In addition, the novel recounts other intertwined stories about Yahya and his parents, Firas, Hamza, Nadira, Adel, Ribhi, Saa’ed, Ghassan, Mo’ataz, Yonis and others. The relationship of these stories to the main plot of the novel is like the relationship of the leaves to the branches or the branches to the trunk. Al Atrash’s novel closely examines the uncertainties of the inner self about existence and difference, and the oppressive milieu for the orphans, foundlings and homeless who constantly raise the existentialist questions of why is it me? And who am I? The novel analyzes their feelings and determines their perception of life and human beings. Some orphans existentially challenge their life conditions and achieve social mobility, whereas others resign to fate. The events and characters of the novel tend to overlap and intersect like what happens in the stories of One Thousand and One Nights. For example, some protagonists discover that they were foundlings because their parents abandoned them, orphans because their parents were dead, or homeless because their parents could not provide for them. The title of the novel suggests that the protagonists are the sons of the wind in the sense that they neither have family history nor know where the destinations of their trips are. The novel does not narrate a personal experience that needs a psychologist or sociologist to interpret. Rather, it is a realistic novel that raises poignant questions about the society and life. It represents the sons of the wind as victims of marginalization and negligence. It questions their oppressors for exposing them to socio-psychological problems and disorders. The novel stresses the need for a revolution to resist oppression and rebel against fate. It seems that the novelist was thinking of that revolution while weaving the fates of the sons of the wind. 2. Poetics of the Title Title is the threshold of the text which the reader first encounters; it is viewed as a reason for continuing or discontinuing reading since it condenses and signifies the text and provides the keys for its interpretation. It is the signifier that precedes and determines the signified. The title, as Roland Barthes perceives it, plays a very significant role in whetting appetite for reading (Ridha, 1996:155) and expressing the content of the text and the point of view of the writer. It is a semiotically “precedent text that not only overshadows but also determines the identity of the text” ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 100 (155).The text likewise denotes its title which signifies its narrative objectives and thematic concerns. The title further entails the perspective from which the text can be approached and adds symbolic values to large texts whose interpretations it condenses and concentrates. The interrelationship between the precedent text and the text suggests different interpretations to readers who accordingly have to review their predictions and expectations and either confirm or reject them. Some interpretations may appear more probable than others based on the mutual correlation and connections between the title and the text. Yet, the reader “ultimately builds on textual and contextual factors related to the progress of events to determine the most appropriate interpretations and connotations of the title as well as the text” (Al Rawashda, 2006: 135). As a semiotic sign, the title may encourage readers to reread a familiar text embedded in their socio-cultural milieu on the ground that it may help them reclaim their power and explode their energy. This implies that the act of reading, which begins at the moment when one reads the title, precedes the act of interpretation” (Qattous, 2001: 3). Novelists generally take a special interest in the title for its important role in arousing readers’ suspense and anticipation. In the course of reading a text, readers look for points of intersection and divergence between the title and text; this may confirm or invalidate the horizon of expectations they bring to the text. In each time they review and modify their horizon of expectations, unexpected interpretations are brought into the surface. The Sons of the Wind observes the rebellion of orphans, foundlings and homeless against the miseries, prejudices and solitude they are fated to in their societies. They grow up to find themselves detained in care houses where they have no hope of a better life and future. Al Atrash in this novel presents a model of those oppressed people who switch between memories of unhappy past in shelters and memories recollected from their present as young men and women. This switching leads to textual anarchy and consequent meaninglessness which the novelist purposefully uses as an objective correlative to express the miseries and misfortunes of her protagonists, evoke certain emotions and elicit various responses. The protagonists are metaphorically referred to as the sons of the wind to suggest that they are aimlessly drifting on the sidewalks of life. The title establishes the novel as a realistic description of life in the society where people are surrounded by the wind from all directions. This indicates that though the wind existed before us, it still lives with us; it is inseparable from the human existence from which the sons in this novel descend. Dahbour (2012) argues that if existence is perceived as the container of life, abstract ethos cannot be applied to it. The collapse of scientific rationalism, however, does not redeem the mind or remorse from sustainable grievances. He quotes Dostoevsky’s assumtion that there is some type of enjoyment even in toothache because man will not moan with toothache unless he enjoys moaning. Moaning, on one hand, represents the inability of science to understand the aimlessness of pain or predict human reactions to it. On the other hand, it represents an existentialist protest against the futility of pain which some people accept as an essential part of the human life. The pain and fear brought about by the sons’ bitter and traumatic experiences mark their conscience of being socially different from others. Such conscience positively drives them to think of effective solutions emanating from the doctrines of human justice and ontology of conflict. The ontological philosophy of conflict argues that the eternal opposition between oppressors and oppressed is an essential constituent of human existence. The oppressed have no choice but to confront and disempower the oppressors by means of a revolutionary act. This novel proceeds from the sentimental premise that the sons are the victims of the society; and it represents them as human characters drifted windward from one place to another. The wind, which constantly blows, brings forth cruel and heartless people to the course of their lives. The oppression, suppression and tyranny systematically practiced against the sons make their life very terrible and unbearable. When chased by the police from one street into another, they would take them by guile and wit to avoid arrest. Like their other heartless oppressors, the police cruelly humiliate and torture them (Abu Matar, 2014). The protagonists of the novel dwell at care houses and are either foundlings or victims of parents who deserted them at an early stage of their childhood. Sufian recaptures this in his disclosure that “we, the dwellers of the houses, did not need any explanation or proof from anyone to realize that we were different. We realized that what distinguishes us cannot be for our advantage. Rather, it overpowers and compels us to be satisfied with fates which we cannot change or resist” (Al Atrash, 2002: 25). Nevertheless, it does not occur to Sufian and his protesting brothers and sisters in the confinement of their shelter that they are of the same age despite their assertion that “we were born during the same year. We are only a few months younger or older than each other” (23). This is not the only thing that renders the sons different from others. They are torn out of their mothers’ arms for various reasons. Sufian faintly recollects the pain he experienced when he was torn out for the first time before he relived a similar experience for the second time. He remembers “a man with a woman who gave me a hug and left me alone with weepy-eyes. I clung to her for comfort but she used to push me away … I cried but she did not pay attention to me” (25). After they reach the age of five, Sufian recalls when two venerable men came into the school principal’s room around which the children gathered. The men angrily reproached and scolded her exactly like what she used to do when children made mistakes. They told her that she has violated the law for not sending the children away at the age of five. They demanded her to send them to school because the ministry was preoccupied with other concerns than the affairs of care houses. They stressed that she made a double mistake because it would be against religion and law to enroll them at gender inclusive schools which receive young children only (25). ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 101 In response, the principal shouted and angrily said that “we were still young; and it’s the responsibility of the ministry to enroll us at schools and prepare us for a better future … she has written to the ministry about us, but she did not receive any reply” (25). Then, she emphasized that she is “more honest than most of the ministry’s officials who plunder the corporeal and financial aids which they allocate to their relatives and friends instead of the children in care houses” (25). The school principal thinks that officials never care about the future of bastards. Sufian recollects that the face of one of the men turned red out of anger before he ordered us to return what we have taken. Then the man said “Ibn haram or bastards are bastards. They greedily devour everything in their path, leaving us with nothing” (28). Their mother resentfully protested “it is haram to say that! Some of them are orphans …. And what guilt or sin have bastards made to blame them for?!” (28) Though Sufian and the other children did not ask anyone about the meaning of the word “ibn haram”, they realized that it must be associated with painful connotations. Sufian says, “instinct taught us it is related to a shameful deed, so we remained silent” (28). The same word is, however, used in the novel to express compassion and empathy towards the sons of the wind. Yet, Sufian reveals that “all of us hated the word haram” (28). He also wonders “why do people call us abnaa’ (plural form of the word Ibn (son) in Arabic) haram? And why do they classify us into orphans, foundlings and homeless?” (28) This is why Sufian bitterly hates and resents the word haram in all of its contexts. The negative social phenomena, which the novel observes, conceptually determine the title and its connotations. The protagonists of the novel are the sons of the wind in the sense that they are people with no history or destination to their journey. They live in a society that failed either to protect them against oppression and exploitation or redress their grievances. They consequently wonder why do not they have equal rights to others? Why are they always deemed victims? Where will fate inevitably lead them? Why do care houses choose their names? Sufian discloses that “only after I had grown up did I discover that shelters have chosen the names of the sons of the wind. We were being tossed by the wind on sidewalks” (114). The omniscient narrator, who plays and assumes the role of the writer, determines the relationship between the title and plot and creatively depicts the real world of the sons of the wind. The anarchy portrayed in the novel identically reflects that in reality. The coherent and successive narration of events brings us to the climax of the novel. The writer assigns the narrative voice to two men, Tayseer and Sufian, and a woman, Nadira, despite their different life experiences. Sufian vigorously and determinedly searches for his family members who mentor and foster him till he becomes a physician. This does not quench his curiosity to know of the cause of his father’s ailment and his suspicion that his uncle knows the secrets behind the death of his father and mother but he keeps them well-guarded and locked up away from him. Sufian ignores or remains silent about that in order not to lose his gratitude to the family that cared and provided for him, and rescued him from the claws of care houses where he was brought up. In comparison, Nadira continues looking for her mother, two sisters and brother until she finds them. Her name in Arabic literally denotes uniqueness and exclusivity, so she firmly and irrevocably rejects her family’s reckless behaviors which she blames for making her one of the sons of the wind. The title, which is considered the first threshold of the text, paints a very bleak and pessimistic picture about the sons of the wind whose struggle against society’s institutions and centers of authority is inevitably doomed to disappointment and defeat. In addition, the title foretells the tragic end with which the writer concludes her novel which raises the existentialist questions of who am I? And why is it me? The narrator indicates that “the question which we repeatedly asked was … who am I?” (164) The multiple connotations and interpretations of the title, along with its figurative suggestiveness, further bestow a poetic aspect and charm to the novel. The protagonists are metaphorically viewed as the sons of the wind to signify their displacement, random dispersion on the sidewalks of life and unknown destinations. Based on the harmony between its title and plot, the novel characterizes protagonists victimized by difficult life experiences, absence of family warmth and cordiality, and misconception of fate. It examines the effects of emotional and psychological deprivation on the sons by observing the character of Sufian who achieves success despite orphanhood and traumas of care houses. The connotations of the title can, however, be determined by the negative social phenomena that the novel observes. The narrator comments “the wind of melancholy storms through the chronicles of childhood comrades … Their uncovered woes and sorrows have drowned me” (129). A close examination of the plural noun “sons” enunciates that they are orphans, foundlings or homeless, have similar fates and raise the same existentialist question, i.e. who am I? The semiotic relation between the word sons as a signifier and what it signifies gets complex for the different connotations the word wind attaches to it. Whether the protagonists are orphans, foundlings or homeless, they will have a similar destiny; they are randomly drifted windward by a heartless wind which is flinging merciless and cruel people into their paths. The writer apparently explores the relationship between the precedent text (title) and the second text (plot). The reader can rely on the title to identify the narrator’s point of view and observe its developments. The title serves as an epigraph through which the writer summarizes the content of the whole novel, prepares readers to its textual atmosphere, creates suspense and intrigue and builds surprise. Thus, readers enthusiastically observe the development of narrative events which reflect a realistic image of the lives of the sons of the wind in an exploitative and oppressive society. The title likewise contributes to evolving the simplicity and literalness of the prosaic discourse in fiction into the metaphoricality of poetry. ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 102 3. Poetics of the Narrative Prologue Narrative prologue provides another model of poetics which the paper examines and analyzes in The Sons of the Wind. The writer sets a starting point that helps her plunge into the atmosphere of the novel and prepares the reader for the first narrative threshold. Prologue is considered a very effective device to start the work with because it clarifies the terms, determines the elements and influences the forms and points of view of the novel (Al Rawashda, 2006: 141). Prologue, on one hand, is perceived as a hegemonic reproductive preamble that distinguishes novels from other narrative works. It neither enlightens nor intrudes on the text; instead, it is figuratively viewed as an incubator of textual events” (Nasir, 1993:16). On the other hand, it marks a transition from a familiar real world into a fantastic new world which the writer creates and predetermines to unveil the point of view of the novel, clarify its connotations and observe the chronological development of events. The prologue as well encourages the reader to curiously read further. In the prologue of The Sons of the Wind, the writer states: Oh Baal Guardian of the three realms God of rain, power and storm Source of the fertility of beings Why did you leave me? The prologue starts with Baal, the warrior god, the god of sun, and provider of rain and fertility as respectively described in the Canaanite, Phoenician and Ugarit mythologies. Baal is equated with the Ugaritic god Baal Hadad, Greek god Zeus and Roman god Jupiter; it stands for the god of all gods and the supreme ruler of the world. He is the protector of peace and human race. All other gods are subordinated to him. Nothing can challenge his will but fates. Like the Greek and Roman gods, Baal devotes himself to pleasures, pains, sorrows, wraths and all other human desires and emotions (Guerber, 2007: 21). The writer wonders why Baal, the god of rain and storm, leaves her unguarded and unprotected against the wind which is drifting her into inhuman conditions! In the prologue, Al Al Atrash investigates the legitimacy of the existential question directed to heavens and their guard or creator by the sons of the wind who insistently question Baal, the god of all gods and beings, for not saving them from the heartless and cruel wind which has randomly and violently cast them on the sidewalks of life where they have no identifiable history or destiny and fall victims to an oppressive society. The prologue as well suggests that the writer builds on the experiences of orphans, foundlings and homeless to raise the large existential questions of “who am I?” and “why is it me?” She, therefore, delves into the psychologies of the main characters in the novel, analyzes their feelings and expresses their attitudes towards life and people. Despite being blown up by the wind, some characters manage to face and overcome their difficult conditions, whereas others capitulate to the contrivances of fates. On this ground, the prologue reflects the point of view of the writer who existentially questions fate over death, life and inequalities, and examines the potentials of conflict with self, society and fate. Such conflicts are usually accompanied by love, resistance, exploitation, defeat and conquest. The prologue further exposes the writer to the atmosphere of the novel, identifies its point of view and analyzes the questions of the human self about its existence and nature. The writer apparently condemns Baal, the god of all gods and beings, for the inhuman conditions and oppressive laws that are ruining the lives of the sons of the wind. As a literary device, the prologue effectively contributes to creating the poetics of fiction and expressing characters’ perspectives towards the reality of human existence. 4. Poetics of the Language Language is considered one of the most complex devices in The Sons of the Wind. The arrangement of words into meaningful sentences and the combination of sentences in an integrated and coherent context are essential components of literary works. Language helps readers understand the world represented and the perspective expressed in the text; Bakhtin (1987) conceives it as the means of communication through which man, as a social being by nature, communicates. Its expressive potentials make it possible for speakers or writers to creatively develop a set of stylistic tools of their own (84). In literature, language acts like a mirror in which the multiple levels of linguistic structures are displayed. Works of fiction often contain poetry and adapt the language of poetry by conforming to its figurative, imaginative, laconic and elliptical conventions. The writer in this novel used a laconic language that is excessively expressive, dense and concentrated. This linguistic depth results from the courageous description of a society that is supposed to be protective rather than cruelly abusive and oppressive of its subjects. It is a society that never feels guilty for the heartbreak, sorrows and depression it causes to innocent children because of other people’s faults and flaws. The language used in the whole novel is very authentic, engaging and eye-catching as exemplified by the narrator’s assertion that: One day, the compressed steam of breathing fogged the glass of the bus windows where some of us painted houses, of which some were complete while others were on progress or left ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 103 incomplete. Children usually paint on everything using anything … our fingers, branches of trees, paints and paper… We built houses from the steam of breathing in winter and scribbled them on the soil of playgrounds in summer. Even the walls of the care center became a canvas on which we sketched the houses we imagined. Psychotherapists and supervisors offered us paints and paper in an attempt to protect the walls from our scribbles and scrawls. The administration of the care center got the walls repainted and enforced more severe punishments to keep the walls clean from paintings (9). This quote directs the attention of the reader to the language of the novel; lexical choices and syntactic structures of sentences cause the reader to feel that he is reading a poem in the form of prose about painful memories and bitter emotions guiltlessly and unremorsefully set in motion by fate in an oppressive society. The poetical and inspirational language of the quote, which provides a window into human nature, marks the creativity of the writer who humanely and painfully represents the lives of the sons of the wind. When asked about her writing experience of this novel, Al Atrash said, “it took me two years to write this novel. I have rewritten it for several times. I worked hard to maintain its artistic and linguistic structures. I devote the novel to express the passions and desires of a group of unfortunate characters who bewilderedly wonder why is it me? And who am I?” (Ali, 2012) She emphasizes that the novel describes an expressive image of protagonists in orphanages and care centers, where they endured moments of bewilderment, jealousy, concern and love throughout their constant inquiring about existence and oppression, and their thirst for freedom and conquest. The descriptive and figurative language to which the text is customized helps the writer express the feelings and attitudes of the characters. The language of both the writer and characters in this novel is undoubtedly in tune with their social statuses. Because characters belong to different social classes, they use different languages to express themselves. The language used by Yahya, for instance, is generally described as colloquial and vulgar. In a scene, Yahya asserts, “my father is the cause of all misfortunes… he divorced my mother and married again… he divorced her for no reason” (53). Then Yahya resumes, “he abandoned us and went off to find himself… and work as a driver for a hospital… he fell in love with a woman working there and married her. He never cared about us… My mother had no choice but to marry… Either married or prostituted herself? This was how she responded to my reproach” (53 – 54). Yahya critically states, “We can learn more at streets than at schools. Streets show more compassion and mercy to children than their parents who abandon them at care houses” (52). On the contrary, the language Nadira uses is uniquely courteous and indulgent as it is evident in her disclosure, “you know … I not only understand and forgive my mother but also love her. She had to marry! She could not have survived without marriage … After all, orphanhood was never a shame” (120 – 21). The different varieties of language the writer uses to describe different social situations foreground the polyphony and subjectivity of the novel whose characters have completely independent voices from the voice of the narrator. Nadira’s attitudes, attributes and behaviors are so unique that she firmly and irrevocably rejects her family’s reckless behaviors which she blames for making her one of the sons of the wind. She as well denies any behavior that may tarnish her reputation. The resilient properties of her language can be demonstrated by her statement that “my twin brother and I were born the day my father returned as a martyr…. This was what the people of my village and my mother said. If Heaven knew what it means to displace a family and live in an orphanage, would it make him die?” (143) In another instance of her rejection of the behaviors of her family, she states, “I assaulted and slapped him (her brother) and pulled his hair. I disavow his humanity, damned the womb that carried and gave birth to such a corrupted and vicious person. I used the word “pimp”, which I learnt in the lesson of religion, to blaspheme him, but he did not understand what I meant”( 143). The quotes shared strongly express Nadira’s rejection and opposition to the lifestyle of her family members whom she strips from their humanity. She represents her frivolous mother, reckless sister and pimp brother as immoral and licentious because they never abstain from lying, stealing or cheating despite their educational and social background. 5. Conclusion This paper has highlighted several aspects of overlapping between the genre of fiction and the genre of poetry. This overlapping produces poetic narrative texts and expresses narrative points of view. As a creative writer and journalist, Al Atrash writes using poetic linguistic conventions related to the poetics of the title, poetics of the prologue and poetics of the language. Poetics is generally considered an effective literary device to express the perspective of the novel. References Abu Matar, A. (2014, October 3). Language and Tears: the two protagonists of Laila Al Atrash’s novel. Elaaf. Adib, K. (1987). On Poetics. Beirut, Arab Research Institution, p. 17. Al Atrash, L. (2002). The Sons of the Wind. Al Ahlia Publishing and Distribution House. Al Ghuthami, A. (1985). Sin and Expiation. Jeddah, Cultural and Literary Club, p. 30. Ali, A. (2012, July 21)). Laila Al Atrash Raises Large Existentialist Questions in The Sons of the Wind]. Al Ghad Daily Newspapers. Al Manasrah, E. (1992). Poetics: A Montage Reading. Amman: Barhoma Publishing House, p. 31. ALLS 7(1):98-104, 2016 104 Al Rawashda, S. (2006). Ranks of the Story: A Study on the Arab Novel. Amman: Al Shorouq Publishing House, p. 135. Bakhtin, M. (1987). Discourse in the Novel. (M. Barada,Trans). Cairo: Intellect Publishing House, p. 84. Cohen. J. (1966). Structure Du Language Poetique. (M. Al Wali and M. Al Omari, Trans). Casablanca: Topgal Publishing House, p.16. Canaanite Baal in Manuscripts and Mythologies. (Nov. 21, 2013). In al-lj,bna:nj,w,w,n [The Lebanese]. Retrieved from http://www.elloubnanioun.org/index.php/2012-07-23-05-32-58/19-2012-07-30-20- 50-37/374-2013-11-21-18-4223 Dahbour, A. (2012, October 3). Laila Al Atrash has crowned her literary production with a novel entitled The Sons of the Wind]. Al Fatih Newspaper. Guerber, H. A. (2007). Myths of Greece and Rome. (H. Fariz, Trans). Amman: Ministry of Culture, p. 2. Nasir, Y. (1993). Prologue in the Literary Text. Baghdad: Cultural Affairs Publishing House, p.16. Qasim, S. (1984). On the Poetics of the Open Work: Chapters of Literary Criticism. P. 232. Qattous, B. (2001). The Semiotics of the Title. Amman: Ministry of Culture, p. 3. Ridha, I. H. (1996). Modern Poetic Discourse: From Linguistic to Visual Discourse. Fussoul, 51(2), 155-160. Todorov, T. (1981). Introduction to Poetics (S. Al Mabkhout and R. Bin Salamah, Trans). Casablanca: Topgal Publishing House, 1981, p. 23. Todorov, T. (1992). Mikhael Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. (F. Saleh, Trans). Baghdad: General Cultural Affairs Publishing House, p. 172. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Particle Choices and Collocation in Cameroon English Phrasal Verbs Napoleon Epoge Higher Teacher Training College (ENS) Yaounde, University of Yaounde I PO box 47, Yaounde, Cameroon E-mail: mcepoge@yahoo.fr Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.105 Received: 11/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.105 Accepted: 09/11/2015 Abstract The meaning of some phrasal verbs can be guessed from the meanings of the parts (to sit down = sit + down, run after = run + after) and the meaning of some others have to be learned (to put up (a visitor) = accommodate, to hold up = cause delay or try to rob someone) due to their syntactic and semantic complexities. In this regard, the syntactic and semantic properties are expected to be the same in every English speaking context. Thus, this paper aims to explore the inputoriented syntactic and semantic properties of phrasal verbs in Cameroon English. Findings reveal that the syntactic property of some phrasal verbs undergoes innovative processes such as particle substitution (to round up a point), omission (to bite more than you can chew), and redundancy (to meet up with the requirements); while the semantic property undergoes the process of semantic extension (to came out with a pathetic story to justify ones absence from office; to come out with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption), and semantic shift (to put up with someone for one semester). This reveals that, in the New English context such as Cameroon, users resort to the domestication of the alien language as a functional and dominant paradigm to combat cultural imperialism and express new identity. Keywords: Cameroon English, collocation, particle, phrasal verb, semantics, syntax 1. Introduction The view of language as a system for meaning potential implies that language is specific to context and must be studied within the social and geographical contexts it operates. This is evidently true, as it is accepted widely, that living languages change over time and space. Consequently, the English language used in environments different from its origin would adjust and change to suit its new environments. Such indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in many ex-British colonies with multilingual populations such as Cameroon, Nigeria, and Ghana. The differences between the new varieties and the standard variety may be viewed from the aspects of phonology, syntax and semantics invoked naturally or otherwise to express new identities. To this end, this paper aims to examine innovations in particle choices and collocation in Cameroon English phrasal verbs. The paper is divided up into five phases: overview of phrasal verb literature, theoretical paradigm, methodology, results, and discussion of findings. 2. Overview of phrasal verb literature A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and one or two particles which together function as a single verb. The particle may be an adverb, a preposition or a word that can act as either an adverb or a preposition (Stephens, 2002). These are either spatial adverbs (e.g., aback, ahead, and away), prepositions (e.g., at, for, from), or words which in other contexts can act either as adverbs or as prepositions (e.g., by down, in). Hence, a phrasal verb is broadly construed as a structure which consists of a verb proper and a morphologically invariable particle that functions as a single unit both lexically and syntactically (Darwin and Gray, 1999; Quirk et al, 1985). This diverse combinations breeds varied phrasal verbs and meanings. The meanings are divided up into three sub-classes: · the verb and the particle keep their individual lexical meanings (e.g., look over (inspect), set up (organize); · the verb alone keeps its lexical meaning and the particle has an intensifying function (e.g., find out (discover), sweep up (sweep); · the verb and the particle are fused into a new idiomatic combination, the meaning of which is not deducible from its parts (e.g., bring up (educate), come by (obtain), put off (postpone), turn up (appear, arrive), come in for (receive). In such combinations, the adverbial lexical values of the particles have been lost and the entire verb-particle combination has acquired a new meaning. Therefore, Hall (2002) notes that phrasal verbs are used in three ways: · · · to describe an action literally (e.g., He went out of the room); to intensify or emphasize an action (e.g., It has been pouring down all day); to act as a verb with a special meaning (e.g., Her daughter was run over while playing in the street). ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 106 It is healthy to point out here that the particles, which carry the syntactic and semantic functions (Omar, 2005), are significant structural elements and essential discourse devices which constitute the basic components in producing written texts (Carmen, 2004). However, though the particles are cardinal in processing language in communication, acquiring their usage in English phrasal verbs is challenging to non-native learners of the language due to the syntactic and semantic complexities of phrasal verbs (McArthur, 1992; Crystal, 1995; Thrush, 2001; Hourany, 2002; Eastwood, 2006; Yasir, 2011). This is because preposition and adverb particles, in the English language, demonstrate varied meanings in which some of them are very challenging and need high cognitive and mental work from language users’ part (Courtney, 1983; Dirven, 1993; Cuyckens and Radden, 2002; Eastwood, 2006). In view of the above-stated, Baker (1982) identifies and categorizes non-native learners of English difficulty with phrasal verbs in four areas: semantics (i.e., understanding what the expression means), structure (i.e., knowing what patterns the expression can follow), phonology (i.e., producing correct natural stress), and collocation (i.e., knowing with which particular group of words the expression can be used). In this connection, the present study is concerned with innovative particle choices and collocation patterns in Cameroon English phrasal verbs. Since no research endeavour has so far ventured into the examination of particle choices and collocation patterns in Cameroon English, there is paucity of organized knowledge in this area of research. This attempt may be considered as one of the few research attempts in an unexploited area. 3. Theoretical Paradigm There are two main paradigms with regard to phrasal verbs interpretation: lexical-morphological interpretation and syntactic interpretation. The lexical-morphological interpretation holds that the particle and verb combine presyntactically and form a constituent that excludes the direct object (Olsen, 2000; McIntyre, 2001). In spite of the plausibility of this stipulation, it is noticed that the main problem, for a morphological analysis of phrasal verbs, is the violation of the principle of lexical integrity. Though the verb and the particle form a semantic unit that may take on an idiomatic meaning differently from prefixed words, the particle and the verb, although closely connected, do not completely fuse to form an inseparable complex word (Iacobini, 2009). Alongside the lexical-morphological interpretation is the syntactic interpretation. The latter is anchored on two principal kinds of analyses: syntactic complex predicate approach and principled syntactic approach. The first, the syntactic complex predicate approach, holds that the verb and the particle form a phrasal constituent which enters the syntax as separate heads (Zeller, 2001). The second, principled syntactic approach, assumes that the particle predicates over the post-verbal NP in a resultative minimal predicate structure that possesses arguments and predicates, but no finite verb (Kayne, 1985, 1998; Den Dikken, 1995). Beyond the above-stated modular model of Generative Grammar, Toivonen (2003) adopts a Lexical Functional Grammar approach. Toivonen (2003) posits that particles are lexically specified as non-projecting words, and that their adjunction to the verb is sanctioned by a specific phrase-structure rule. This stipulation corroborates Booij (2001, 2002b) claims that phrasal verbs are a case of “periphrastic word formation”, that is, lexical items that can behave as complex words, even though they originate from a phrasal construction. Hence, he stipulates that phrasal verbs are “constructional idioms”. The idea that there are constructional meanings which are independent of the particular lexical items that make up the sentence has been “the most noteworthy development in the area of the lexicon-syntax interface” (Zubizzareta and Oh, 2007:1) since the 1980s. What we gather from all these specifications is that collocation and semantic features are cardinal in syntactic analysis. The term “collocation” denotes the way in which words are used together regularly. That is, it refers to the restrictions on how words can be used together. For instance, which preposition or adverb particles are used with particular verbs, or which verbs and nouns are used together. In English the verb “perform” is used with “operation”, but not with “discussion” as exemplified below. · The doctor performed the operation. · *The committee performed a discussion. · The committee held/had a discussion. In these examples, the verb “perform” is used with (collocates with) “operation” (but not with discussion), and the verb “hold” and “have” collocate with “discussion”. Along with collocation is the semantic feature. The latter denotes the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of words may be described as a combination of semantic features. For instance, the semantic feature, male, is part of the meaning of “father”, but other features are needed to give the whole concept a sense of “father”. Furthermore, the same feature may be part of the meaning of a number of words. For example, the word “movement” is part of the meaning of a whole group of verbs and nouns: run, jump, walk, gallop (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:477). This portrays that meaning plays an important part in grammatical analysis. These perspectives underlie the examination of the internal structure of phrasal verbs and the rules which govern them in Cameroon English. 4. Methodology The data for this study was collected through a production test, reading of the end-of-training dissertations, recordings and field investigation. The production test, designed to assess the respondents' proficiency of phrasal verbs, consisted of fifteen contextualized phrasal verbs which were drawn from the students' English curricula courses. The test comprised of a multiple choice comprehension task (MCCT) and a gap test task (GTT). ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 107 In the multiple choice comprehension task, the respondents were asked to choose an appropriate particle, from the list provided in the brackets at the end of each sentence, to fill in the blank so that the sentence is complete and expresses a complete thought (e.g. I came _______ a vase exactly like yours in a Chinese shop (over, into, across). In the gap test task, respondents were asked to fill in each of the gaps provided with an appropriate adverb or preposition particle, to complete the sentence (e.g. The government has come _______ with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption). The test was administered to English Major Undergraduate and Postgraduate students of the Department of English, University of Yaounde I; and the Higher Teacher Training College (ENS) Bambili, University of Bamenda. The test lasted 30 minutes in each of the Levels chosen. After administering the test, a sample of 92 randomly selected scripts was considered for analysis. Consequently, the randomly selected scripts of 92 respondents served as the sampled population for this study. This sampled population, according to institution and academic level, is presented in the table below. Table 1. Distribution of Respondents according to Academic Level and University Academic Level University of Yaounde I University of Bamenda Level 3 17(18.48%) 15(16.30%) 32(34.78%) Level 4 15(16.30%) 15(16.30%) 30(32.61%) Level 5 15 (16.30%) 15(16.30%) 30(32.61%) TOTAL 47(51.09%) 45(48.91%) 92(100%) Total The table above shows that 47(51.09%) of the respondents were from the University of Yaounde I and 45(48.91%) were from the University of Bamenda. This gives a total of ninety-two respondents as the sampled population. The data collected was analysed using a scoring scheme wherein a response that reflected the Standard British English (SBE) input-oriented feature specifications got a point and any other got no point. Furthermore, feature specifications, in the data provided, were identified, described, and analysed. The results of the respondents’ performance are jointly presented in tables below. Besides the production test, there was need to obtain data from free writing, most especially academic writing of the students, to corroborate the data provided by the production test. In this vein, some randomly selected end-of-training dissertations written by postgraduate students in the Department of English, University of Yaounde I, and Higher Teacher Training College (ENS) Bambili, University of Bamenda, were examined. Some data were also collected through recordings and field investigation. The recordings involved mainly the informal and formal conversations of university students as well as educated speakers of Cameroon English at different social events, conferences, and seminars. An impressive number of recurrent innovative phrasal verbs were identified, described and analysed. They have been taken into consideration in the discussion phase. 5. Test Results The results in table 2 below show the general performance of the sampled population in the production test. Table 2. Respondents’ performance in the production of phrasal verbs Academic Level SBE Parameter Settings Other Parameter Settings Total Level 3 118(24.58%) 362(75.42%) 480(100%) Level 4 187(41.56%) 263(58.44%) 450(100%) Level 5 226 (50.22%) 224(48.78%) 450(100%) TOTAL 531(38.48%) 849(61.52%) 1380(100%) As can be seen in the table above, the respondents provided 531(38.48%) instances wherein the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications were respected, and 849(61.52%) instances wherein the respondents employed other parameter settings in their choice of the adverb and preposition participles to come up with phrasal verbs. To this end, they produced phrasal verbs such as: 1. The government has come out with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption. (for SBE “come up with”, i.e., to suggest or think of an idea or plan that is positive; or to produce and discover something in response to a need or challenge). 2. Let me round up this point. (for SBE “round off”, i.e., to complete an event or an activity in a pleasant or satisfactory way). 3. The plane is blown off by the terrorists. (for SBE “blown up”, i.e., to destroy something or kill someone with a bomb). ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 108 4. I came over a vase exactly like yours in a Chinese shop. (for SBE “come across”, i.e., to meet by chance) 5. John did not meet up with the requirements to enroll for the course. (for SBE “meet”, i.e., to fulfill, satisfy, or achieve) 6. Please, put off your phones. (for SBE “switch off”, i.e., to turn off a piece of electrical equipment or be turned off) 7. Can you break up these figures and let me have the details? (for SBE “break down”, i.e., to analyse). 8. I seem to spend most of my time running around for those kids. (for SBE “run around after”, i.e., to do a lot of things for someone else, especially when they should be able to do more for themselves). 9. Firefighters have been called to put off the fire in the Mokolo market. (for SBE “put out”, i.e., to extinguish or stop burning) The changes inscribed in the way these particles are used are products of realities in new language speaking contexts such as Cameroon. This is because phrasal verbs are a feature of the “Germanic language family” and English belongs to this language family (Schmitt & Siyanova, 2007). Consequently, learners who are not German or Scandinavian may be unfamiliar with these multi-word verbs and they may lack the strategies to deal with them. Hence, when non-native speakers of English, such as the respondents in this study, encounter difficulties of syntactic and semantic features in understanding and using phrasal verbs, due to their grammatical peculiarities, they dominantly choose particles that make them produce phrasal verbs that are communicatively comprehensible among themselves. However, as they move up the academic ladder, with much exposure to input, their understanding of the grammatical peculiarities of phrasal verbs is ameliorated as the graph below illustrates. 80 70 60 50 40 SBE Settings Non-SBE Settings 30 20 10 0 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Figure 1. Respondents’ performance in relation to level of education The graph shows that respondents from Level Three produced the least number of instances 118(24.58%); while those from Level Five produced the highest number of instances 226(50.22%) in respecting the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. However, none of the groups showed a good mastery of the Standard British English input-oriented feature peculiarities. The majority of the instances they produced 847(61.52%) exhibited structural features which did not adhere to the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. In order to highlight this, the respondents’ performances in the different syntactic and semantic peculiarities of phrasal verbs: verb + adverb +preposition (4.1), verb + adverb (4.2), and verb + preposition (4.3) are discussed below. 5.1 verb + adverb + preposition One of the syntactic peculiarities of phrasal verbs is that they may be composed of a verb, and an adverb and a preposition particle. The lexical collocation of the verb and these particles builds up the grammatical peculiarity of the phrasal verb concerned. The data provided exhibited feature specifications that do not tie with the lexical and collocation features of the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. The results of the respondents’ performance are presented in the table below. Table 3. Respondents’ performance in the production of three-part phrasal verbs (n=3) Academic Level SBE Parameter Settings Other Parameter Settings Total Level 3 27(28.13%) 69(71.87%) 96(100%) Level 4 36(40%) 54(60%) 90(100%) Level 5 39 (43.33%) 51(56.67%) 90(100%) TOTAL 102(36.96%) 174(63.04%) 276(100%) ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 109 Statistics in the table show that 102(36.96%) instances provided by the respondents tie with the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications as in (10). 10. She thinks they look down on her because she didn’t go to university. Furthermore, respondents provided 174(63.04%) responses whereby they employed Non-Standard British English feature specifications as in (11). 11. The government has come out with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption. In this structure, the respondents were expected to come up with the phrasal verb “come up with” to express the notion of suggesting or thinking of an idea that is positive. However, in the majority of the responses they provided, they came up with the phrasal verb “come out with” (to say something usually unexpected, surprising, false or hard to believe) to mean “to think and suggest an idea, a plan or a solution that is positive; or to produce and discover something in response to a need or challenge). With this, it can be deduced that the phrasal verbs “to come up with” and “to come out with” are synonymous in Cameroon English usage. It has also shown that the phrasal verb “to come out with” has undergone semantic extension in the learners’ grammar. In the same vein, the structure such as the one in (12) were recurrent in the data provided. 12. Catherine will put up with me for one semester. In (12), the phrasal verb “to put up with (somebody/something), which means to accept or continue to accept an unpleasant situation in Standard British English as in “John is moody – I don’t know why Mary puts up with him” is used in the learners’ grammar to express the idea of providing someone with a place to stay temporary. The phrasal verb “to put somebody up” which means to provide someone with a place to stay temporary as in “Deborah is putting me up for a weekend” was expected. Since no respondent provided the expected phrasal verb, it could be concluded that the phrasal verb “to put somebody up” is non-existent in the respondents’ grammar. However, the phrasal verb “to put up with”, which means to accept or continue to accept an unpleasant situation in Standard British English has undergone semantic shift in the learners’ grammar to express the idea of providing someone with a place to stay temporary. 5.2 verb + adverb A phrasal verb may be composed of a verb and an adverb particle. Hence, the semantic and lexical collocation of the verb and the particle is construed by the grammatical peculiarity of the phrasal verb concerned. However, a majority of the responses provided in the data exhibited lexical and semantic collocation features which do not tie with the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. Thus, the respondents came up with novel phrasal verbs. The table below sums up the statistics of their performance. Table 4. Respondents’ performance in the production of verb + adverb phrasal verbs (n=7) Academic Level SBE Parameter Settings Other Parameter Settings Total Level 3 56(25%) 168(75%) 224(100%) Level 4 91(43.33%) 119(56.67%) 210(100%) Level 5 112 (53.33%) 98(46.67%) 210(100%) TOTAL 259(40.22%) 385(59.78%) 644(100%) The scores in the table above show that the respondents provided 259(40.22%) instances which respected the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. In the same vein, they produced 385(59.78%) instances in which other parameter settings had been employed as in (13) and (14). 13. Let me round up this point” (for SBE ‘round off’). 14. The plane is blown off by the terrorists” (for SBE ‘blown up’). 5.3 verb +preposition A phrasal verb may be composed of a verb and a preposition particle. An analysis of the responses provided in the data revealed that the lexical and semantic collocation features of most of the afore-mentioned type of phrasal verbs do not tie with the Standard British English input-oriented feature specifications. The table below sums up the performance of the respondents. Table 5. Respondents’ performance in the production of verb + preposition phrasal verbs (n=5) Academic Level SBE Parameter Settings Other Parameter Settings Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 TOTAL 35(21.88%) 60(40%) 75 (50%) 170(36.96%) 125(78.12%) 90(60%) 75(50%) 290(63.04%) Total 160(100%) 150(100%) 150(100%) 460(100%) ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 110 The table above shows that the respondents provided 170 (36.96%) instances which respected the Standard British English lexical and semantic collocation features of the phrasal verbs examined. Though this percentage, it is feasibly clear that a greater majority of the responses 290(63.04%) did not meet the Standard British English specifications. The phrasal verbs produced are flavoured and coloured to suit the respondents’ sociolinguistic background as in (15), (16), and (17). 15. I came over a strange man in my village today. (for SBE ‘come across’, i.e., to meet by chance) 16. You have only had a slight cold. You will get off it in a day or two. (for SBE ‘get over’, i.e., to recover from) 17. It is an offer that you wouldn’t get again so I should jump for it if I were you. (for SBE ‘jump at’, i.e., to accept immediately). 6. Discussion The analysis of the results of the data collected shows that respondents adopt innovative feature specifications such as the substitution of the Standard British English adverb particle for another adverb particle (5.1), substitution of the Standard British English preposition particle for another preposition particle (5.2), occurrence of redundant particles (5.3), omission of particle (5.4), omission of verb (5.5), semantic extension (5.6), and semantic shift (5.7). 6.1 Substitution of the SBE adverb particle for another adverb particle The learners’ grammar is characterized by phrasal verbs wherein the Standard British English input-oriented adverb particles are substituted for other adverb particles as exemplified below. 18. Did you know that Jonathan had gone out with his sister-in-law? (for SBE ‘gone off with’, i.e., to leave a partner in order to have a sexual or romantic relationship with someone else) 19. I picked up the book and it came out in my hands. (for SBE ‘come apart’, i.e., to separate into several pieces) 20. Let me round up this point. (for SBE ‘round off’, i.e. to complete an event or activity in a pleasant or satisfactory way) 21. The plane is blown off by the terrorists. (for SBE ‘blown up’, i.e., to destroy something or kill someone with a bomb, or to be destroyed or killed by a bomb); 22. The sound of his footsteps gradually died out. (for SBE ‘died away’, i.e., it becomes reduced until it stops existing or disappears) 23. Someone is putting it out that Rosemary is pregnant. (for SBE ‘putting it about/around’, i.e., to tell a lot of people something that is not true) 24. Bullies often back up when you stand up for them. (for SBE ‘back down’, i.e., become less aggressive) 25. I do wish you’d stop going out with my car without asking me beforehand. (for SBE ‘going off with’, i.e., to take something without getting permission from the owner first) 26. John suggests we break off now and meet again at five o’clock. (for SBE ‘break up’, i.e., stop a speech or conversation) 27. Would you mind putting your cigarette off, please? (for SBE ‘putting your cigarette out’, i.e., to stop burning) 28. Can you break up these figures and let me have the details? (for SBE ‘break down’, i.e., analyse); 29. The question of salary increase will come out at the next general meeting. (for SBE ‘come up’, i.e., to be mentioned or talked about). 30. She is running about with Michael and his friends these days. (for SBE ‘run around with’, i.e., to spend a lot of time with someone) The exemplifications above reveal one of the changes inscribed in the way English phrasal verbs are produced in a nonnative setting. These changes or innovations are products of reality in a new language speaking context such as Cameroon whereby the English language learners/speakers come up with lexical and syntactic structures that are communicatively comprehensible only among themselves. The next innovative process noticeable in the data provided is the substitution of the Standard British English preposition particle for another preposition particle. 6.2 Substitution of the SBE preposition particle for another preposition particle The substitution of the Standard British English preposition particle for another preposition particle is one of the characteristic features identified in the respondents’ grammar as exemplified below. 31. I came over a strange man in my village today. (for SBE ‘Come across’, i.e., to meet by chance) 32. She jumps at her children instantly if they are disobedient. (for SBE ‘jump on’, i.e., to criticize someone as soon as they have done something or said something you disagree with) 33. You have only had a slight cold. You will get off it in a day or two. (for SBE ‘get over’, i.e., to recover from) 34. Mr John’s version of events does not accord to his witnesses statements. (for SBE ‘accord with’, i.e., to be the same as or to agree with) 35. Deborah’s happiness consists of watching television and reading magazines. (for SBE ‘consists in’, i.e., to have something as a main and necessary part or quality. It is good to note here that there is also ‘consist of’ but ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 111 it means to be made of or formed from something e.g. “The team consists of four Europeans and seven Africans”.) 36. It is an offer that you wouldn’t get again so I should jump for it if I were you. (for SBE ‘jump at’, i.e., to accept immediately) 37. While she was pregnant, her husband waited for her hand and foot. (for SBE ‘wait on’, i.e., to do something for someone, to help) 38. If there isn’t enough soup to go around just put some hot water into it. (for SBE ‘go round’, i.e., enough for everyone in a group of people) Speakers of English in Cameroon come up with these changes in order to make the phrasal verbs comprehensible among themselves. They feel that the Standard British English input-oriented preposition particle attached to the verb, to form a phrasal verb, does not enable the phrasal verb to convey its meaning succinctly. Besides the above innovative process, occurrence of redundant particles is feasible in the data collected. 6.3 Occurrence of redundant particle(s) Communicational redundant particles which are supposed to be omitted do occur in the learners’ grammar. Some of these innovative phrasal verbs are: 39. John did not meet up with the requirements to enroll for the course. (for SBE ‘meet’, i.e., to fulfill, satisfy) 40. I’d rather wait in for the storm than drive home immediately. (for SBE ‘wait out’, i.e., to wait until something unpleasant has ended) These additions are made by L2 learners/speakers to make the phrasal verbs succinctly meaningful. They feel that there is something lacking to make these phrasal verbs complete in thought and structure. Another innovative process feasible in the data provided is the omission of particle. 6.4 Omission of particle One of the features specifications identified in the learners’ grammar is the recurrent omission of the particle in some phrasal verbs. This is exemplified by the tokens below. 41. Jacob grew in the village. (for SBE ‘grow up’) 42. The AES-SONEL will cut the electricity if you do not pay the bill. (for SBE ‘cut off’, i.e., to stop supply) 43. Our deepest sympathies go to her husband and children. (for SBE ‘go out to’, i.e., to think and feel sorry for someone) 44. I’ll be home after midnight, so don’t wait for me. (for ‘wait up’, i.e., to not go to bed at night because you are expecting someone to arrive) 45. Mary’s already agreed, but it’s going to be harder persuading Joseph to go with it. (for SBE ‘go along with”, i.e., to support or agree with) 46. She agonized for days whether she should take the job. (for SBE ‘agonized over/about’, i.e., to spend time worrying and trying to make a decision about it; e.g. ‘She agonized for days over whether she should take the job). 47. Fill the blanks with appropriate prepositions. (for SBE ‘fill in’, i.e., to write the necessary information on an official document) 48. Volunteers would fill for teachers in the event of a strike. (for ‘fill in for’, i.e., to do someone else’s work for them because they cannot or will not do it themselves) The omission of the Standard British English input-oriented particles in the construction of phrasal verbs by these L2 learners/speakers is a testimony of language change and identity construction as it is exported to another context. This is done to enable the phrasal verbs to fit within the cultural and the linguistic atmosphere of the new users. Another feature noticeable in the data that contributes in building this socio-cultural and linguistic atmosphere is the omission of the verb. 6.5 Omission of the verb Omission of the verb is one of the characteristic features in the learners’ grammar. English language learners/speakers in Cameroon recurrently come up with structures wherein only the particle of a phrasal verb is used. This is exemplified by the tokens below. 49. Please, off your phones. (for SBE ‘switch off’) 50. Can you on the television for us? (for SBE ‘switch on”) As the examples above illustrate, there are varied ways in which L2 learners/speakers of English in Cameroon come up with innovative English phrasal verbs that are appealing and comprehensible only to them. Not only do phrasal verbs undergo a number of syntactic innovation processes, they are also subjected to semantic innovation processes such as semantic extension and semantic shift. ALLS 7(1):105-113, 2016 112 6.6 Semantic extension One of the characteristic innovative features in the semantics of English phrasal verbs, in the Cameroon variety of English, is semantic extension. For instance, the phrasal verb “to come out with” plays two roles in the learners’ grammar: (i) it is used to express the notion of suggesting or thinking of an idea that is positive or of producing and discovering something in response to a need or challenge; and (ii) it is equally used to express something surprising, suddenly and unexpectedly, in order to deceive. The tokens below amply illustrate this semantic extension. 51. Evelyn has come out with a brilliant solution. 52. The researcher came out with a theory that is being used abroad. 53. The Choristers have come out with a beautiful song to thrill the audience. 54. The government has come out with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption. 55. She’s come out with some amazing scheme to double her income. 56. Catherine came out with a pathetic story to justify her absence from office. 57. You always come out with such lies when you are cornered. In view of this, we could come to the conclusion that the phrasal verbs “to come up with” and “to come out with” are synonymous in Cameroon English usage. This is as a result of the semantic extension that the phrasal verb “to come out with” has undergone in the learners” grammar in also denoting “suggesting or thinking of an idea that is positive or producing and discovering something in response to a need or challenge” as seen in 51 -55 above. 6.7 Semantic shift The phrasal verb “to put somebody up” which means to provide someone with a place to stay temporary is non-existent in respondents’ grammar. Instead, the phrasal verb “to put up with is used to express this idea as in (56). 58. Catherine will put up with me for one semester. This clearly shows that the phrasal verb “to put up with” has undergone semantic shift in the respondents’ grammar. It is not used to express its original meaning of “to accept or continue to accept an unpleasant situation” as in “John is moody – I don’t know why Mary puts up with him”, but it is instead used to express the idea of providing someone with a place to stay temporary. In the same light, the phrasal verb “to put off” which means in SBE to decide or arrange to delay an event or activity until a later time or date (to postpone) as in “The meeting has been put off for a week” is used in the learners’ grammar to express the idea of ‘turning off a piece of electrical equipment or being turned off’ as in (57). 59. Please, put off your phones. (for SBE ‘switch off’). As exemplified above, the phrasal verbs “to put up with” and “to put off” have undergone semantic shift in the variety of English spoken in Cameroon. 7. Conclusion This paper has examined the use of adverb and preposition particles in the construction of some phrasal verbs by ESL learners/users Cameroon. This is done through an analytical, descriptive and interpretative approach to the data provided in the syntactic structures of this linguistic phenomenon. After a thorough perusal and analysis of the data, the results show that learners/users encounter problems of semantics and collocation features in understanding and using phrasal verbs due to their grammatical peculiarities. Consequently, they dominantly choose particles that made them produce phrasal verbs such as “The government has come out with a wonderful strategy to curb corruption” and “Let me round up this point” which are communicatively comprehensible only among themselves. Hence, the learners’ grammar is characterized by substitution of the Standard British English input-oriented adverb and preposition participles of phrasal verbs for some other adverbs and preposition particles; omission of particles; presence of communicational redundant particles which are supposed to be omitted as well as semantic extension and shift of phrasal verb usage. The paper concludes that changes inscribed in the way these particles are used are products of realities in new language speaking context whereby users of the English language resort to the domestication of the alien language as a functional and dominant paradigm to combat cultural imperialism and express new identity. References Baker, A. (1982). English to Get on with: Practice in Phrasal/ Prepositional Verbs. London: Heinemann. Booij, G. (2001). From Syntax to Morphology: Particle Verbs and Grammaticalization. In Schaner-Wolles, C., Rennison, J., and Neubarth, F. (eds.). Naturally! 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Cambridge, MA: Michigan Institute of Technology Press. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Relationship between the Onset Age of Bilingualism and Development of Cognitive Control among Nigerians Yasir Bdaiwi Jasim Al-Shujairi (Corresponding author) Faculty of Modern Language and Communication, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: yasir.bdaiwi.jasim1990@gmail.com Jamila AbdulAzeez Buba Faculty of Modern Language and Communication, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: Jamila_abdulazeez@yahoo.com Mohammed Sani Ya'u Faculty of Modern Language and Communication, University Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: elmuhsan@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.114 Received: 04/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.114 Accepted: 10/11/2015 Abstract An increasing body of studies suggests that bilingual persons are better than monolinguals on a variety of cognitive measures. Thus, the present study investigates the relationship between the onset age of bilingual and the development of cognitive control among Nigerians. 10 bilingual students studying at University Putra Malaysia have been selected to participate in this study. They are divided into two groups: 5 early and 5 late bilinguals. The data are collected using online English proficiency test and E-prime software as instruments. Both groups are examined for English proficiency and performance on a flanker task. The result demonstrates that early bilinguals are more proficient in English than late bilinguals. Moreover, early bilingual performs better than late bilingual on flanker task. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that being early active bilinguals tend to have greater advantages in cognitive control and higher language proficiency. Keywords: onset age, bilingualism, and cognitive control 1. Introduction Language propensity (Aptitude) is theorized as a mixture of cognitive and perceptual capacities that are very much advantageous in second language acquisition (SLA) (Doughty et al., 2007). Carroll (1993) sees this pattern of capacities (p. 675) and maintained that they were to some extent inborn, fairly steady and moderately long-term characters. While specialists and novice would equally concur the common view of aptitude as a special ability for language, the speculative paradigm behind this popular idea has continued to be somewhat indefinable in the SLA scholarship. Although there is some understanding that language aptitude includes diverse cognitive abilities, it has been theorized in many ways in SLA, and separately they have distinctive implications at the measurement level. An increasing body of studies suggests that bilingual persons are better than monolinguals on a variety of cognitive measures (Craik, & Ryan, 2006). These advantages, which have been considered as advantages in cognitive control, have been documented across the lifespan. Improved cognitive control among bilinguals has been observed in bilingualexposed infants and toddlers (Poulin-Dubois, et al., 2011) bilingual preschool children, young adults and older adults (Bialystok, Craik, & Freedman, 2007). Further, cognitive controls advantages of bilingualism have been demonstrated using multiple cognitive tasks and found out that among bilinguals speaking a variety of language pairs, others are balanced bilinguals while other are not, suggesting that these effects are not limited to a single task or particular language pairing (Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010). Studies on progressive effect of bilingualism on executive control as reported by Bialystok, 2007 leaves some question on how much bilingual experience is needed to appreciate these benefits. Normally, the research picks bilinguals who are very eloquent in the two languages and are using both frequently. This categorization of bilingualism is largely centered on an evaluation of factors as commencement age of second language (L2) acquisition, competence in the second language, and extent of acquaintance to the L2. While these variables regarding bilingual history have been indicated in influencing characteristics of language and comprehension development (Kovelman, Baker & Petitto, 2008), their function in influencing the relation between bilingualism and cognitive consequences is not determined. ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 115 Shared elucidation for the bilingual effect on executive control is that bilinguals are required to direct attentiveness to two existing organisms, hence employ the executive control network for this purpose (Abutalebi & Green, 2007). Continuous involvement of this control system in handling the two languages strengthens the system, resultant in early development in children and further efficient performance in adulthood. For instance, bilingual children and adults do better than their monolingual peers in responsibilities that involve cognitive plasticity (Bialystok, Craik & Ruocco, 2006), and reserve of distracting or conflicting information (Bialystok & Shapero, 2005). In all these reports, bilinguals were designated to be persons who had used two languages to a high degree of competence for most of their lives. This current study is aimed to relate bilinguals who commenced early or late in active usage of two languages for their task controls. The onset age of bilingualism therefore, was expressed as the age at which the bilinguals started using both languages on a regular base. This can be said to be unusual from erstwhile studies that use age of L2 acquisition or migration age as the onset measure of bilingualism (Birdsong, 2005). Irrespective of the age at what stage a second language was learnt, the current analysis assessed the age at which that language became a functional part of the individual’s linguistic catalogue. A prior onset age of functional bilingualism also shows longer history of using two languages in a number of young adults. The choice of Nigerian students was based on two main reasons; first the Nigerian state that was created in 1914, as an act of British colonialism, by the unification of two surviving British colonial states, the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria was 100 years old on the 1st day of January 2014. It is will be most suitable at this point to explain the meaning and the consequence of ‘amalgamation’. Understandably, amalgamation may be seen as the uniting or inclusion of two groups or units into one, with the outcome that together they tend to be, and are substituted by a new group or unit. Therefore, with the 1914 amalgamation, both the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria ended its existence as distinct legal units and remained as a single unit called the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Secondly, with this political development of the country, and the effects of the colonialism and their administration, Nigeria is today viewed as having three major regions, The North, South and West. The latter two regions came into contact with western education earlier than the North, thus educationally more developed than the North and are exposed to English at an early age there by qualifying them as early bilinguals. This study therefore hypothesized that; bilingual adults with an earlier commencement age of functional bilingualism were likely to perform better on their control task than the bilinguals who commenced using two languages late in life. The age considered in this study for bilinguals early or late was chosen to be 15 years old as early and above 15 as late. Earlier research reported support for a critical hypothesis suggested this period to be around the age of puberty (Johnson & Newport, 1989;DeKeyser, 2000). 1.1 Objectives of the study The main objective of this study is: § § § To Asses the cognitive advantages in bilinguals, and the influences associated to it. To compares bilinguals who started early or late in actively using two languages for their performance. To identify different levels of bilingual’s English proficiency. 1.2 Statement of problem Correlation amongst onset age of bilingualism and improvement of cognitive control has been acknowledged by contemporary research, reporting a encouraging effect of bilingualism on executive control (Bialystok, 2007). Classification of bilingualism is mostly founded on an evaluation of the following factors as, onset age of second language (L2) acquisition, competency of the second language, and length of exposure to the L2. While these variables regarding bilingual account have been presented to affect characteristics of language and literacy development (Kovelman, Baker & Petitto, 2008), their role in regulating the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive consequences is unknown in the study area. Emmorey, Luk, Pyers & Sebastian-Galls (2008), reported findings on a bilingual benefit in cognitive elasticity by using Flanker tasks in young and middle-aged adults. The relationship between age of becoming active bilingual and English competence is constant with a large-scale. Study reported by Hakuta, Bialystok, and Wiley (2003) states that increase in age of second language acquisition was correlated with declining second language proficiency through lifetime. Thus, the present analysis is an attempt to demonstrate the bilingual consequence on executive control among Nigerian bilinguals studying in University Putra Malaysia. 1.3 Research questions This study intends to answer the following questions; 1- How the onset age of bilingual performance relate to the cognitive control? 2- What is the relationship between the age of active bilingualism and English proficiency? 1.4 Significance of the study This study, the onset age of bilingualism was projected to allow bilinguals to be aware of the significance of the prior onset of functioning bilingualism, which is to associate it with better functioning in English sensitive vocabulary. It is therefore, inevitable that the early bilinguals became competent in their second language at earlier age than the late bilinguals, confusing length of time being bilingual and age of acquirement of a second language. The study is also likely to encourage bilinguals to think critically of the tasks they are involved with. ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 116 2. Literature review Several researchers have explored the relationship between the onset age of bilingualism and cognitive development. Gigi & Bialystok (2014), for example, have noted in their study that late bilingual participants had been using two languages for only a half of their lives, performed more like monolinguals on the executive tasks. They also had significantly lower scores in English proficiency tests. These comparison provided evidence for the view that there is a relationship between onset age of actively practicing bilingualism and the size of effects on performance. In this study, analysis conducted 100 sample of participants indicated a positive relationship between these two variables. Moreover, the result has also indicated that early bilinguals became proficient in their L2 at an earlier age than the late bilinguals. In contrast, Bialystok et al. (2014), in their study executed with function test to discover the effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer Disease (AD) found that there was a significant effects of bilingualism on birth age of onset and age of first clinic appointment such that bilinguals diagnosed with MCI and AD were older than their monolingual counterparts when they began to show symptoms. The implication of the result is that there is late-life benefit from early bilingual exposure and continued bilingual practice. Considerably, the constant involvement of the executive control system in managing attention to two languages fortifies that system, resulting in earlier development in children and more effective functioning in adulthood. For example, bilingual children and adult perform better than their monolingual peers in tasks that require cognitive flexibility (e.g. dimensional card sorting task for children and adult, Bialystok, Craik & Ruocco, 2006; Bialystok & Martin, 2004) and inhibition of distracting or conflicting information (e.g. appearance-reality resolution in children, Bialystok & Shapero, 2005; Simon task I children and older adults, Bialystok, Craik, Klein & Viswanathan, 2004; Martin-Rhee & Bialystok, 2008; behavioural antisaccade task in young and older adults, Bialystok, Craik & Ryan, 2006; Bialystok & Viswanathan, 2009; and flanker task in young and middle-aged adults, Costa, Hernandez & Sebastian-Galle, 2008;Emmorey, Luk, Pyers & Bialystok, 2008. However, in another study, Thomas et al. (2014), analyzed information collected from the participants to investigate whether Bilingualism influence Cognitive aging, and the types of bilingualism (early versus late acquisition). They suggested that determination of differential effects depends on childhood IQ. Therefore, Individual with high intelligence seems to benefit more from early acquisition, but neither of the group showed negative effect. Accordingly, early and late acquisition of a second language might have different effects on frontal executive function. While different factors associated with the reported advantages found in fully bilingual children for metalinguistic awareness and executive control, level of proficiency in the language testing is related to performance in metalinguistic tasks. This is evident in Bialystok & Barac (2012), in their study ‘Emerging Bilingualism’. The findings demonstrated a benefit of bilingualism on children’s executive control. It also reveals the relationship between bilingualism and metalinguistic performance. Similarly, the results discover the mechanism by which bilingualism affects cognitive and linguistic outcomes. On the other hand, Unworthy (2012), examined two groups of bilingual children (English/Dutch and English/Greek) in order to investigate the role onset and input quantity on the acquisition of grammatical gender as marked of definite determiners. In the sample of English/Dutch children, cumulative length of exposure was also observed to significantly correlate with age of testing and age of onset. Gigi Luk, et at. (2011), conducted a study with group of bilinguals with age range of about 20 years old, the study was done to examine the English proficiency for bilingual adults and also young monolinguals on a flanker task. The researcher found out that both early monolinguals and bilinguals demonstrated similar proficiency level, as they were all proficient than the late bilinguals. After the data for the study was analyzed, it was found out that, the onset age of active bilingualism was negatively correlated for English proficiency and positively correlated with flanker task. This shows that there is an advantage in being bilingual, because of the cognitive control and higher language proficiency. 3. Methodology 3.1 Sample selection and size In selecting subjects of the current study, a purposive sampling method was used, because it is one of the most excellent methods to obtain a representative sample. This type of method is usually cost and time economic. 10 Nigerians postgraduate students at UPM University in a multicultural country Malaysia has been taken to participate in this study. The 10 participants were divided into two groups. First group contains 5 early bilinguals, whereas the second group contains 5 late bilinguals. All the bilinguals were asked to report the age at which they began to use both languages actively and regularly on a daily basis. The reporting age was considered to be the onset age of active bilingualism. Early bilinguals reported that they started active bilingualism before 10, and late bilinguals reported that their onset age of active bilingualism was after the age of 10. Table 1 and 2 below show the age and the gender of all participants. The tables also indicate the onset age of active bilingualism. Hence, bilingualism could be seen as the age that participant starts to use L2 in her/his daily life situation. Besides, the proficiency level score of all participants has been presented. Participant using the following link took the proficiency test online http://www.transparent.com/learn-english/proficiency-test.html. ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 117 Table 1. Early bilingual participants No. Participants 1 Age Gender Proficiency level 31 Female 90% Age of active bilingualism 3 30 Female 80% 4 32 Male 84% 4 26 Male 87% 4 30 Male 83% 5 Average 84.5% Average 4 Lilian 2 Grace 3 Daniel 4 Tope 5 Ajadi Average 30 Table 2. Late bilingual participants No. Participants 1 Age Gender Proficiency level 33 Female 76% Age of active bilingualism 12 28 Male 70% 14 38 Male 71% 19 30 Male 71% 15 31 Male 77% 15 Average 73% Average 15 Jamila 2 Adamu 3 Abdullahi 4 Habib 5 Mohammad Average 32 All the participants have been given an English proficiency test to identify their level of proficiency. The test was an Internet based where the participants individually asked to do it online and send their score report on Email. 3.2 Instruments To make the result more accurate and valid, this study used E-prime software as an instrument. The computers have become a significance tool to design many kinds of experiments. E-prime has been created to simplify the conception of experiments. It has been developed by PST Net, offers a user-friendly interface that makes typical experiments easy to build. This study shows how to create an experiment effortlessly with E-prime, followed by an example. 3.3 Procedure Flanker task The flanker task was adapted from Eriksen and Eriksen (1974) and Bunge, Dudukovic, Thomason, Vaidya and Gabrieli (2002). All participants were asked to indicate the congruent and incongruent chevrons by pressing 1 and 9 respectively located on the keyboard. In congruent trials, there was an array of five, four and three chevrons all pointing in the same direction. For incongruent trails, the flanking chevrons pointed in the opposite direction. Successful response required the recruitment of executive control to focus on the target chevrons and avoid being distracted by the extraneous conflicting flankers. Each block started with 6 practice trails randomly. All participants were given the choice of getting more practice if they like, but none of them made such request. Both RT and ACC were measured, but only trials associated with a correct response were included in the RT analysis. Sample stimuli are presented in figure 1 below. ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 118 Congruent >>>>> >>>> >>> Incongruent >><>> >>><> ><>> Figure 1. Sample stimuli of Flanker task The software program which has been used in this procedure is E-prime. It has been designed to facilitate the conception of any experiment that uses a computer as an edge between the subject and the experimenter. It can also run the experiment, collect the results and do some basic data analysis. The five programs that constitute E-prime are EStudio, E-Run, E-Data Aid, E-Merge and E-Recovery. 3.4 Data collection The data has been collected by using E-Studio. It is a subprogram of E-prime devoted to create and run experiments. It is a major program that comes with E-prime. Figure 2 shows the trail list with 12 stimuli and each one has been repeated twice through the experiments. The stimulus presented randomly to the participants. Figure 2. The trial list with 12 stimulus of the experiment 3.5 Data analysis This paper used E-Data Aid program to analyze data. It shows the data collected. As presented in figure 3, it uses the file created by running the experiment in E-Studio. E-Data Aid offers important functions: identify, modify, and analyze the data. What we need to illustrate in this research are the accuracy and the response time of both congruent and incongruent stimulus for all participants. Look at table 3 below. Table 3. Analyzing the data of participant 9 (Habib) by using E-Data Aid Sub 9 9 9 9 9 9 SE 1 1 1 1 1 1 Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 C 1 1 9 1 1 9 ACC 1 1 1 1 1 1 CRESP 1 1 9 1 1 9 S.OnsetTime 76796 78915 80567 82335 83904 85522 S.RESP 1 1 9 1 1 9 S.RT 1090 630 740 540 590 840 S.RTTime 77890 79540 81310 82870 84490 86360 STM >>>>> >>>> >><> >>> >>>> ><>> ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 119 4. Findings and Discussion After analyzing the data, it is observed that the participants responded differently in accordance with their level of proficiency in displaying cognitive control. This can be justified in their time taken (reaction time) as well as how accurate they are (accuracy) while performing both congruent and incongruent stimulus in the given flanker tasks. The tables below illustrate the stimulus accuracy and reaction time for the early and late bilinguals, average proficiency level and average age of active bilingualism, and finally average accuracy and reaction time. In terms of the accuracy and the reaction time illustrated in the table below, it should be noted that the higher the score of the participant in accuracy, the better he/she performed. However, in terms of reaction time, the lower the score of the participant (time spent while performing stimulus task), the better the performance and vice versa. Table 4. The stimulus ACC and RT for early bilingual participants No. Participants ACC-Cong ACC-Incong RT-Cong 1 1.00 0.96 488.75 Lilian 2 1.00 0.96 540.98 Grace 3 1.00 0.96 484.58 Daniel 4 0.96 1.00 498.75 Tope 5 0.96 0.96 438.75 Ajadi 0.98 0.96 490.36 RT-Incong 595.00 598.67 541.25 523.75 473.75 546.48 This table indicates the performances of early bilinguals in a given stimulus tasks. From the above table, it can be deduced that ‘Tope’ is the best among the participants. Although he got lower scores in congruent in both ACC and RT, he scored better in incongruent in both ACC and RT. Furthermore, Lilian, Grace and Daniel have similar scores in ACC both in congruent and incongruent, but differs respectively in RT in both congruent and incongruent. Accordingly, ‘Ajadi’ has the least scores compared to other participants. Table 5. The stimulus ACC and RT for late bilingual participants No. Participants ACC-Cong ACC-Incong 1 0.92 1.00 Jamila 2 1.00 0.92 Adamu 3 0.96 1.00 Abdullahi 4 1.00 1.00 Habib 5 0.96 0.96 Mohammad 0.96 0.97 RT-Cong 538.33 RT-Incong 550.00 530.42 674.58 581.67 570.83 587.08 672.92 526.67 537.08 552.83 601.08 The table above shows the performances of late bilinguals in stimulus tasks given to them. If one examined the scores critically, it can be concluded that Muhammad, though, less than Habib in ACC both in congruent and incongruent is the best participant, followed by Habib. In fact, Muhammad scored marvelously in RT both congruent and incongruent. Contrariwise, Habib scored better than Muhammed in ACC in both congruent and incongruent. Jamila and Adamu almost have the same scores interchangeably in ACC both in congruent and incongruent. They however have little bit differences in RT (congruent and incongruent). Abdullahi seems to be last participant even though he scored better in ACC incongruent. Table 6. Average age, proficiency level, and Age of active bilingualism of participants. Average Age Proficiency level Age of active bilingualism Early bilingual 30 84.5% Average 4 Late bilingual 32 Average 73% Average 15 The above table reveals the average age, average proficiency level and average age of active bilingualism of both early and late bilinguals. From the data presented in the table, it can easily be inferred that early bilinguals are better than ALLS 7(1):114-121, 2016 120 their late bilingual counterparts in proficiency tests given to them. This is not far from the fact that early bilinguals were earlier exposed to second language knowledge. Therefore, they are in a better position to excel in language proficiency tasks better than their late bilingual counterparts. Their familiarity with both spoken and written language right from their childhood age is therefore earns them with the ability to communicate fluently and to write correctly. Unlike early bilinguals, late bilinguals only exposed to language at their later ages mostly in school settings. The finding coincides with the previous literature of bilingual research, especially different studies conducted by Bialystok and his colleagues. Table 7. Average accuracy and reaction time for both groups. ACC-Cong ACC-Incong Early bilinguals 0.98 0.96 Late bilinguals 0.96 0.97 RT-Cong 490.36 552.83 RT-Incong 546.48 601.08 The table above presents the summary of the average performances in both the accuracy and the reaction time of the early and the late bilingual participants. The story remains the same in cognitive performances. Considering the above topic, it could be concluded that early bilinguals performed well in cognitive activities compared to late bilinguals. It is noticeable that early bilinguals are seemed to be balanced bilinguals, and perhaps are children of educated elites in Nigeria. In fact, they are exposed to different cognitive activities both in schools and at home. This will obviously familiarize them with accuracy in cognitive activities like this stimulus flanker tasks. In addition, they possess materials like computers, games etc which undoubtedly help them to perform cognitive activity with high accuracy and easement. However, late bilinguals lack these opportunities, which are not unconnected to their lower scores in the given tasks. These inadequacies of learning materials coupled with lack of exposure to cognitive activities will not augur well with late bilinguals in their later endeavors, unless effective measures are taken. Accordingly, there are number of recent literature that have been found supportive to this findings. For instance, Bak, et al (2014), who studied the influence of cognitive aging in early and late bilinguals found out that early bilinguals perform a given tasks with high intelligence as compared to late bilinguals, while neither of them showed negative effect. In the same vein, Kalia, et al. (2014) found a similar findings which concur the findings of this study. While investigating the influence of age of exposure and language proficiency, findings of their study demonstrated that late bilinguals exhibited disadvantage in accuracy for a tasks given to them, while their early bilinguals counterparts performed a given tasks with high accuracy. 5. Conclusion Observing the findings presented in tables 4 and 5 above we find that, bilinguals who are active in the usage of the language for a long time showed less RT in the experiment. Again in both the bilingual groups RTs over the congruent chevrons are less than in the incongruent chevrons. Another issue that we observed was that, the early bilinguals were more efficient in the Flanker task than the late bilinguals this is evident from the reaction time of both groups. While the RT of the early bilinguals in both the congruent and the incongruent is 490.36 and 546.48 respectively, the late bilinguals RT was 552.83 for congruent and 601.08 for incongruent. The correlation consideration of the two groups on task performance established to us that early developing bilingualism, together with longer bilingual proficiency, are very important pointers to higher competence in the language and greater cognitive control. The group evaluations therefore, offer some support for the opinion that there is relationship between onset age of active practicing bilinguals and cognitive control as testified in the literature (Bialystok & Barac, 2012, Unsworth 2012). 5.1 Limitations and recommendations This study has its limitation in two aspects. First, there were a small number of participants and that may limit the generalization. For further studies, it is advisable to involve a large number of participants to make a strong claim based on the findings. Second, one task which is Flanker task was used to collect the data from participants. Using various tasks will ensure the reliability and strengths the validity of the findings. Reference Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 207-245. Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). 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Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas Tahereh Siamardi (Corresponding author) Department of English Literature, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran PO Box 31485-313, Karaj, Iran E-mail: Tahereh.Siamardi@gmali.com Reza Deedari Department of English Literature, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran PO Box: 31485-313, Karaj, Iran Email: R_deedari@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.122 Received: 15/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.122 Accepted: 11/11/2015 Abstract The focus of the present study is to demonstrate traces of Homi k. Bhabha’s notion of identity in V.S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas (1961). As a prominent postcolonial figure, Bhabha has contemplated over the formation of identity in the colonizing circumstances. He discusses on what happens to the colonizer and the colonized while interacting each other, arguing that both the colonizer and the colonized influence one another during which their identity is formed, fragmented and alienated. In considering Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas as postcolonial text, by the help of postcolonial theories of Homi Bhabha, it is argued that, mentioned novel sums up Naipaul’s approach to how individuals relate to places. This novel shows that individuals’ quest for home and a place of belonging is complicated first, by the reality of homelessness, and second, by the socio-cultural complexities peculiar to every place. In other words, the reality of homelessness makes the desire for home, elusive. A House for Mr. Biswas describes the story of homeless and rootless immigrants who lack identity and security in the colonial world. In this novel Naipaul deals with shifting identities, roots, homes and changing realities of migrants. Keywords: Identity, Ambivalence, Other, Creolization, Mimicry, Clash of cultures, Unhomeliness 1. Introduction This paper is the study of V. S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas through the application of Bhabha’s postcolonial notions. Homi K. Bhabha , is one of the famous conemporary voices in postcolonial studies,who was born in 1949 in Bombay, India. He received his bachelor’s degree from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, and his doctorate from Christ Church, Oxford. After teaching at Sussex University (1978-94) and the University of Chicago (1994-2000), Bhabha moved to Harvard University, where he is Ann F.Rothenberg Professor of English and American Literature, and chair of the program in History and Literature (Hale, p. 716, 2006). Bhabha’s analysis of colonial experiences is grounded in the work of Frantz Fanon, especially his theories of racial difference and mimicry, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jacques Lacan (Castle, p. 202, 2007). As an important postcolonial theorist, Bhabha argues that in the encounter of the colonizer and the colonized both cultures are affected, and neither culture is pure. In the writings of Bhabha, depicted best in The Location of Culture (1994), he forms a series of concepts that work to ‘undermine’ and challenge self and other. In the novel, A House for Mr. Biswas, Naipaul depicts the situation of the colonial ‘other’ to reach some sort of personal identity. The postcolonial precepts such as Identity Formation and Cultural Diversity/ Multiculturalism, are the features that in this study the researcher attempts to trace in V. S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas through Homi Bhabha’ s theories. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas is a tragicomic novel set in Trinidad in 1950s, and was published in 1961.In this book Naipaul deals with shifting identities, roots, homes and changing realities of migrants. “The novel takes its subject matter from the excluded peoples who have been alienated from societies to which they apparently belong, and who are in search of an identity”(Recep Tas, p. 2, 2011). Timothy Weiss in his book On the margins : the art of exile in V.S. Naipaul, (1992), interprets Naipaul’s approach to India as, an “idea” rather than observation of place, saying that for Naipaul “India is not precisely a place, but an idea, a state of mind” (Weiss, p. 18, 1992). A House for Mr. Biswas (1961) has been Naipaul’s acclaimed novel based on his father’s life in Trinidad in that Naipaul pays tribute to his father’s life. Despite the fact that Naipaul has produced various accounts of his life, his early works are reticent about its detail. He tells stories which show us ourselves and the reality we live in. His use of language is as precise as it is beautiful, fraught with simple, strong words, with which he expresses the humanity of all of us. However, he sketches himself more freely on the subject of his life in interviews than in his non-fiction ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 123 and fiction. His declarations in interviews reveal a tendency to dramatize himself in terms of an “overstated pessimism”, but they are broadly consistent with the sense of his life which is attainable from his writings (Hayward, p. 17). 2. Homi k. Bhabha and Postcolonialism Postcolonial theory is concerned with a range of cultural engagements: the impact of imperial language upon colonized societies; the effect of European “master discourse” such as history and philosophy; the nature and consequences of colonial education and the links between western knowledge and colonial power. In particular, it is concerned with the responses of the colonized: “the struggle to control self-representation through the appropriation of dominant languages, discourses and forms of narratives; the struggle over the representations of place, history, race and ethnicity; and the struggle to present a local reality to a global audience.” (Tyson, p. 419, 2006) Homi k. Bhabha, the critic who the researcher used and applied his theories and ideas in this research is one of the influential and important figures of postcolonial studies. The gist of Bhabha's theoretical framework is epitomized in his book Location of Culture in which he discusses the concepts such as Mimicry, Ambivalence, Hybridity, and Identity…. In his works and theories, Bhabha is inspired by a great number of twentieth-century theorists. Even though “the wit and wisdom of Jacques Derrida” is constitutional to his achievement, Bhabha makes use of a wide range of twentiethcentury theorists throughout “The Commitment to Theory.” Founding on the significant notion of nations declared by Benedict Anderson in Imagined Communities (1983), Bhabha puts emphasis upon “how nationality is narratively produced, rather than arising from an intrinsic essence.” From Mikhail Bakhtin, he borrows “the concept of dialogue to stress that colonialism is not a one-way street but entails an interaction between colonizer and colonized” (Leitch, p. 2377-78, 2001). In The Location of Culture (1994), a collection of his most important essays, Bhabha forms a series of concepts that work to ‘undermine’ and challenge self and other. The most famous example of these concepts, Bhabha’s theories emphasizes the hybridity of cultures, which on one hand in its simple way refers to ‘the mixedness whether mixedness of culture, politic or language, or even “impunity” of cultures_ so long as we don’t imagine that any culture is really pure (Huddart, p.6,2006). Bhabha’s main focus is on what happens on the borderlines of cultures and also in-between cultures through what he calls luminal, ‘meaning that which is on the border or the threshold’ and emphasizes on what is in between fixed cultural forms or identities like self and other that is central to the creation of new cultural meaning. In fact, Bhabha’s work is studying of how language transforms its actual meaning through its confrontation of colonizer and colonized. Edward Said believes that the West has made a binary opposition between the West and the East considering the East as the Other. He believes that the “established binary opposition between of the West/ the Other must be abolished along with its racial and religious prejudices” (Bressler,p. 241,2007). Bhabha builds on Said’s concept of the Other and Orientalism saying in the interaction between the two sides, no culture can claim to remain fix and uncontaminated. However, the colonial experience proves that the colonizer is affected too as the colonized do. With the help of the theory of Lacan on how the identity gets shaped, Bhabha offers us “analyses in which the identity of the colonizer cannot be very well separated from that of the colonized or at least from the supposed identity of the colonized” (Berten, p. 207, 2001). According to Lacan, our identity gets constructed based on the interaction we make with others and the Other. The others in Lacan’s outlook refer to every individual in our daily life, who hails us as a subject. As Lacan says, “the subject, while he may appear to be the slave of language, is still more the slave of a discourse in the universal movement of which his place is already inscribed at his birth, if only in the form of his proper name” (p.433,1979). Bhabha, like Lacan, believes that our identity is unstable and is constructed in interaction with Other and the others. Both colonizer and the colonized are responsible in defining and shaping their identity. Moreover, Bhabha points out the colonizer’s dependency on none-friendly others in the interaction. Ambivalence is a rife term used in Bhabha’s studies in. Ambivalence as a colonial and postcolonial aspect is the most central attention of Bhabha. There is a controversial statement in which Bhabha says that “ambivalence represents the existing fluctuating relationship between mimicry and mockery”. (Bhabha, p.87,1994); however it is worth of mentioned that ambivalence is an undesirable aspect of colonial discourse for the colonizer. The relationship between colonizer and colonized which is the complex mix of ‘attraction and repulsion’ is called ambivalent in Bhabha’s viewpoint. Considering colonizer who moves to the host’s culture and society, colonial relationship then refers to relationship between these two groups. As Tyson says, " to be unhomed is to feel not at home even in your own home because you are not at home in yourself: your cultural identity crisis has made you a psychological refugee, so to speak" (p. 421, 2006). Bhabha calls this feeling of being caught between two cultures unhomeliness__ the concept that is often referred to as double consciousness. This feeling of confusion and abandonment by both the colonizer's and the colonized's cultures often makes the colonized a psychological refugees since their cultures have been blended and they cannot strongly say to which culture they do belong. One of the most significant concepts in the postcolonial studies is the discourse of stereotypes. Bhabha argues that colonial discourse seeks to produce knowledges of two distinct and antithetical colonial subjects. He starts the essay with an assertion of the importance of ‘fixity’, a concept whose key discursive strategy is the stereotype, where the Other is fixed as unchangeable, known, and predictable. However, the stereotype is also an ambivalent mode of constructing the Other and it is not a simple assertion of difference but a complex articulation of a contradictory belief. ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 124 While the colonized are fixed as unchanging, the stereotypes they are identified with is often one of disorder, anarchy and licence. Thus, the stereotype is “a complex, ambivalent, contradictory mode of representation, as anxious as it is assertive” (Bhabha, p.70). Other important key in Bhabha’s theory is the term hybridity. As defined by Bhabha, ‘hybridity’ is the condition of doubleness and it occurs through interaction of two separate identities. For Bhabha “all forms of culture are continually in a process of hybridity” (Bhabha, p.154). In fact the concept of hybridity formulated in the work of Homi Bhabha in the 1980s that is original mixedness of something like mixedness of language and culture of some different people of different races. According to Bhabha,“Hybridity is a new cultural and a privileged third space, the hybrid can be considered as something that is ‘neither the one nor the other”( Bhabha, p. 10, 994). Bhabha believes that hybridity is camouflage, in fact camouflage of self-identity and mimic other culture that the immigrant (colonized) creates through polarization between self and other. Also in this research it should be mentioned that Other refers to the colonizer or (as told before) the host, because as someone moves to the other land or society feels a sense of strange identity that doesn’t belong to the new place and to the new home, therefore tries to adapt him/herself to new situation by mimicking native people, it sometimes lead them to hybridize their own culture and language with the new situation culture and language and then lost the way and create an identity that belongs to nowhere, this as Bhabha says" is just like a heresy" (p. 226, 2007) . He notes "how newness enters the world" (p. 227) and it is depended on a "process of translating and transvaluing cultural differences" (p. 252). Cultural diversity or multiculturalism, refers to “the social and political movement and/or position that views differences between individuals and groups to be a potential venue of cultural strength and renewal; multiculturalism celebrates and explores different varieties of experience stemming from racial, ethnic, gender, sexual and/or class differences” (Wolfreys, Robbins, Womack, p. 69, 2006).In the essay ‘The commitment to theory’ (1988), Homi Bhabha describes that the recording signifiers of cultural diversity which is a mere reference to a range of separate and distinct groups of behavior, attitudes and values. It can be understood from such a framework that such differences are ‘merely aberrant or exotic’, as was ‘implicit in imperialistic ethnographies’ (qtd in Ashcroft et al, p. 60). In the context of postcolonial studies, the term ‘‘Creolization’’ is conceived as “the process of intermixing and cultural change that produces a creole society,” especially in the Caribbean. While the creolization processes might be argued to be going on throughout the world, the term has usually been applied to ‘New World’ societies ( particulary the Caribbean and South America) and more loosely to those postcolonial societies whose present ethnically or racially mixed populations are product of European colonization (Ashcrofts, p. 58). The leading theorist of creolization, Edouard Glissant, stresses even more explicity creolization’s opposition to essence: what it teaches us is above all that “Creolization is unpredictable, it cannot solidify, become static, be fixed in essences or absolutes of identity.” Thus, identities and differences are always in process (Britton, p.16, 1999). Homi Bhabha also describes creolization as a dynamic process, which prevents the emergence of absolute identities. The proliferating, unstable nature of creolization therefore makes the process of identity-formation into what Homi Bhabha has called “the articulation of antagonistic or contradictory elements” (Gallagher, p. 260, 2003). The other term, which Bhabha has talked about, is Mimicry. According to Bill Ashcroft et al in their Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies (1998), ‘mimicry’ is “an increasingly important term in post-colonial theory, because it has come to describe the ambivalent relationship between colonizer and colonized. When colonial discourse encourages the colonized subject to ‘mimic’ the colonizer, by adopting the colonizer’s “cultural habits, assumptions, institutions and values, the result is never a simply reproduction of those traits. Rather, the result is a ‘blurred copy’ of the colonizer that can be quite threatening” (p.139). Ashcroft et al continues to claim that this kind of mimicry is not very far from mockery, because mimicry seems “to parody whatever it mimics.” Therefore, “mimicry locates a crack in the certainty of colonial dominance, an uncertainty in its control of the behavior of the colonized” (139). As Ashcroft argues, mimicry is inseparable from Bhabha’s idea of the ambivalence in the discourse of colonialism. For Bhabha in the process of mimicry “the colonized subject is reproduced as ”almost behavior, manners and values by the colonized contains both mockery and a certain “menace”, so that mimicry is at once resemblance and menace” (p.80). All the terms which have been explained through the eye of Bhabha, are to emphasize the fact that in the process of interaction between the colonizer and the colonized, the identity of both groups undergoes a serious changes. As it was mentioned as a prominent postcolonial figure, Bhabba has contemplated over the formation of identity in the colonizing circumstances. He discusses on what happens to the colonizer and the colonized while interacting each other, arguing that both the colonizer and the colonized influence one another during which their identity is formed, fragmented and alienated. This study argues how people who have been colonized once, particularly the colonial migrant intellectuals who had left the colonies to locate themselves in the centers of the world, imitate their colonial masters and struggle to internalize the values and cultures of the West. 3. The Situation of a Colonial 'Other' 3.1 Mr. Biswas as an Other in a Colonized Society A House for Mr Biswas is a narrative of a male protagonist located in the period of British colonialism. The impact of colonisation is everywhere in the novel. Much of Naipaul’s novel is given to depicting the groups of Indian people in Trinidad. Biswas tells the story of its protagonist, Mr. Biswas from birth to death, each section dealing with different phases of Mr. Biswas’s life. Mr. Biswas is caught between the old culture of India and English people which are shown in many ways. ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 125 Ashcroft et al in their Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies assert that: “the 'other' is anyone who is separate from one’s self. The existence of others is vital in defining what is 'normal' and in locating one’s own place in the world” (p.169, 2000). In the novel A House for Mr. Biswas Naipaul depicts the situation of the colonial 'other' to reach some sort of personal identity. Although the characters themselves are related in the usual sense of the word, they are noticeably separate from one another, and work against each other in the quest of their own satisfaction. In the traditional society of Trindad Mr. Biswas is considered as an Other. His birth is considered ominous as he is born with extra finger and a Hindu pundit predicts that it will bring bad luck. “What is it?” the old man asked. “Boy or girl?” “Boy, boy,” the midwife cried. “But what sort of boy? Six-fingered, and born in the wrong way.” The old man groaned and Bissoondaye said, “I knew it. There is no luck for me.” (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.5, 1995) The prophecy seems to be correct when as a child, Mr. Biswas is indirectly and unintentionally responsible for the death of his father, and his family is sooner or later broken apart as a result. “That boy!” Dhari said. “He has murdered my calf and now he has eaten up his own father.” Lakhan brought up Raghu unconscious. They rolled him on the damp grass and pumped water out of his mouth and through his nostrils. But it was too late. (p. 13) Later in the story, as the youngest child of family, he stays with his mother, but she lacks the ability to support him and influence his education. He basically becomes a child of circumstance, and his life becomes accidental. In his job in Tulsi store, he is fascinated to a young girl’s smile and it motivates him to write her a note which her family interprets as a love letter, and he unexpectedly finds himself engaged, with no way of detaching himself from the situation. After marriage Mr. Biswas and his wife Shama live in Hanuman House with Shama’s parents and her relatives. Very soon he finds himself in conflict with one member of the family or another. Then he is sent from the house to run a store on one of the Tulsi properties. When Mr. Biswas experiences financial difficulties Seth, Mrs. Tulsi’s brother-in-law offers him a position as a driver on one of the Tulsi sugar estates, and he accepts, under Shama’s persuading. After that Mr. Biswas spends his whole life fearing the 'void', and moves from one house to the other and tries to occupy a space of his own. Mr. Biswas is impatient to build a house, but he does not have very much money. The image of dispossession and rootless ness, and being homeless, becomes the repeated metaphor in A House for Mr. Biswas. Mr. Biswas as an Other in a colonized society is a man who is historically displaced and struggling in a ruined land. The house in fact becomes a substitute for the unconscious search for a lost land. Mr. Biswas unconsciously in the entire course of the novel seeks to substitute this search with the search for a house of his own. 3.2 Search for Identity A House for Mr. Biswas describes the story of a homeless and rootless immigrant who lacks identity and security in the colonial world. The process of colonization brings forth new patterns of cultural behavior and value system in creole society of Trindad. In this book Naipaul deals with shifting identities, roots, homes and changing realities of migrants. Naipaul has written extensively about different aspects of post-colonial society, viewed from post-colonial perspective. The Tulsi household is a metaphor for the British Empire in Trinidad and Tobago, headed by a Queen, Mrs. A House for Mr Biswas, metaphorically, is a miniature world which symbolizes the colonial world. Mr. Biswas’s personal conflict with the stronghold of the Tulsi household is a search for freedom and the struggle for personality. As Singh underlines; “Mr. Biswas is the unaccommodated man representing the outcast’s symbolic quest for a place in the hostile universe” (p.126, 2011). The Tulsis are symbol of the world of colonialism and during the course of the story Mr. Biswas is repeatedly accused of not being grateful to the Tulsis. “I am giving you notice,” Mr. Biswas shouted. “I curse the day I step into your house.” “Man, man.” “You curse the day,” Mrs. Tulsi said. “Coming to us with no more clothes than you could hang on a nail.” This wounded Mr. Biswas. He could not reply at once. “I am giving you notice,” he repeated at last. “I am giving you notice,” Mrs. Tulsi said. “I gave it to you first.”(A House for Mr. Biswas. P.226, 1995) At surface it seems that Tulsi family provides shelter and job for Mr Biswas but in fact Mr Biswas is like a slave in Tulsis’s household and they use him as a worker to improve their economy. Naipaul’s Biswas is fighting for freedom and recognition and for him to build a house of his own means freedom and recognition. Mr. Biswas is in search of a home by which he will be able to find his identity. As Kumar Parag underlines “a house is not just a matter getting a ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 126 shelter from heat, cold or rain. In fact, it is both an imposition of order and a carving-out of authentic selfhood within the heterogeneous and fragmented society of Trinidad” (p.139. 2008). 3.3 Co-existence of Different Cultures In the story of Naipaul’s A House for Mr Biswas the co-existence of different cultures is reflected in the novel from various points of view and Cultural difference is the main subject of this story. Cultural difference or multiculturalism refers to a variety of beliefs, custom and behaviors. It establishes a kind of Creole society in which various cultures, languages, beliefs and religions are interacting with one another. As Ashcroft says such a society is made in a process in which various cultures clash in one specified land thus this “is process of intermixing and cultural change that produces a creole society” (p.51, 2000). Trindad as an example here, setting of the novel A House for Mr Biswas, is full of people with different cultures and languages. Naipaul based A House for Mr. Biswas on his own experiences in Trinidad. In the creole society of Trindad cultures are heterogeneous and Trinidad’s diversity has affected its culture. English is the official language, but four creole languages (mixtures of English, Spanish, French, and African tongues) are also spoken. About 40 percent of Trinidadians are of African descent; another 40 percent are of Indian descent; and the rest, referred to as Creoles, and are mixtures from different ethnic backgrounds. In A House for Mr Biswas, the characters speak Hindi, the official language of India, as well as Trinidadian English, which is characterized by a simplified grammar and the omission of words or word endings. In this novel we have an example of how different people cope with different cultures and how they try to adopt to creole society. During the course of story we see some characters like Biswas who try to adopt new culture and on the other hand characters like Tulsis who seek to perverse their culture. Tuttle and Mr. Biswas had something in common: they both felt that by marrying into the Tulsis they had fallen among barbarians. W. C. Tuttle regarded himself as one of the last defenders of brahmin culture in Trinidad; at the same time he considered he had yielded gracefully to the finer products of Western civilization: its literature, its music, its art. He behaved at all times with a suitable dignity. He exchanged angry words with no one, contenting himself with silent contempt, a quivering of his longhaired nostrils. (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.219, 1995) By the end of the story we see the changes which took place in the history and culture of Indian people. The shift from Hindi to English. This story is not only a story of a man but also the history of culture. A House for Mr depicts a multicultural society in which people try to adopt themselves to the new environment by mimicking their language and culture that result in creating a cross-cultural society. 3.4 The Impact of Colonisation The impact of colonisation is everywhere in the novel. The family structures and social customs of the Indians in Trinidad is related to political situation. The people among which Mr Biswas is born are trapped in miserable situations and are considered as inferior in the discourse of colonizers. Naipaul in his book Jasmine says that “Trinidad was an island without a “mythology”; therefore, to them, Trinidadians, all literatures were foreign, since during the colonization period Trinidad lacked a literary tradition and all books came from abroad” (46-47). As the narrator of the A House for Mr Biswas discusses in the missionary schools of Trindad students learn to recite Christian prayers in Hindi with noticeable purpose of conversion. The education Biswas received was part of the empire’s civilizing mission and cultural values of Biswas’s Hindu background were disregarded. In this story Biswas presents an independent Caribbean, but one that is crippled by colonial education and cultural colonization. It was by means of his colonial education that Mr Biswas became familiar with the dominant values and culture of canonical literary works and he used literature as a way of escape from bitterness of real world. He stayed in the back trace and read Samuel Smiles. He had bought one of his books in the belief that it was a novel, and had become an addict. Samuel Smiles was as romantic and satisfying as any novelist, and Mr. Biswas saw himself in many Samuel Smiles heroes: he was young, he was poor, and he fancied he was struggling. But there always came a point when resemblance ceased. The heroes had rigid ambitions and lived in countries where ambitions could be pursued and had a meaning. He had no ambition, and in this hot land, apart from opening a shop or buying a motorbus, what could he do? What could he invent? (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.189, 1995). As a result of colonization, reality for the colonized people like Biswas is fragmented and he is continually in the process of searching for a sense of his own self. But according to Cooke “arriving is a process which cannot come to an end” (p.140,1980). Biswas as a colonial subject has gone through the colonial education system and internalized the values which are established by colonizers. As it is depicted in the novel, although for people like Biswas education is a source of hope for escaping from poverty but this escape is attained by rejecting their own culture and traditions. Naipaul’s sense of detachment can best be understood in the context of the conditions, in which he grew up, as a member of a culturally displaced minority community, and in relation to the nature of colonial education, which ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 127 encouraged an identification with the values of English civilization, and increased his sense of distance from the culture that surround him. His subsequent novels, therefore, developed more political themes and he began to write about colonial and post-colonial societies in the process of decolonization. In this novel Naipaul depicts the defenselessness of the Indian family structure in a colonial setting. The break of the Indian families is due to social, economic and political reasons; they seem not to have any political rights and their claim to the place where they live is so questionable and they can be easily removed from their house. And so Mr Biswas came to leave the only house to which he had some right. For the next thirty-five years he was to be a wanderer with no place he could call his own, with no family except that which he was to attempt to create out of the engulfing world of the Tulsis. For with his mother’s parents dead, his father dead, his brothers on the estate at Felicity, Dehuti as a servant in Tara’s house, and himself rapidly growing away from Bipti who, broken, became increasingly useless and impenetrable, it seemed to him that he was really quite alone (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.40, 1995). Because of the limitations that socially imposed on him due to his colonial background, Biswas’s freedom is limited and he is always at a standstill. Mr. Biswas is from a race not located in its own country. A race that has been uprooted, alienated and dislocated from its origins. And since every ethnic group has its ethic, cultural and historical specifications, its dislocation is distressing and complicated because its members cannot find a home of their own. 3.5. Experiences of Displacement According to Bill Ashcroft et al in their Key Concepts in Post-Colonial Studies, the term ambivalence “first developed in psychoanalysis to describe a continual fluctuation between wanting one thing and wanting its opposite. It also refers to a simultaneous attraction toward and repulsion from an object, person or action” (p.12). Homi Bhabha adapted this term into colonial discourse theory and believed that the term ‘ambivalence’ describes the complex mix of attraction and repulsion that characterizes the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. In this novel the same concept can be noticed as well fitting Bhabha’s conception of the ambivalence. During the course of the novel as it is shown Biswas leaves the rural society of Trinidad to go to Port of Spain. Here rural norms and taboos have no value and Mr Biswas encounters diverse lifestyles. He starts to notice "change followed change”. (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.367, 1995) Port of Spain opens new avenues for Mr. Biswas. The city provides him the opportunities he has searched for. He feels that he is not a nonentity anymore. He forgets his wish to have a space of his own and enjoys his success and family life. Mr. Biswas manages to get a loan from Ajodha and buys a house in Port of Spain. He describes his house thus: The sun came through the open window on the ground floor and struck the kitchen wall. Wood work and frosted glass were hot to the touch. The inside brick wall was warm. The Sun went through the home and laid dazzling strips on the exposed staircase” (p. 572). These words visibly reveal Mr. Biswas’s happiness and sense of fulfillment and his battle against the forces of oppression. His happiness, however, is short-lived and taken by Tulsis as absolute authorities. In this book the aim of Naipaul is not only to depict the Hindu background but also to relate it to the circumstances in which he is living. Here Mr. Biswas is depicted as an individual who is portrayed as an unlucky man who experiences hostility and humiliation from society. In the Port of Spain Mr. Biswas faces different circumstances as a result of experiencing new culture in the dominant colonial situation. Thus he finds himself caught between two feelings, that of liking or disliking new condition. He is in some way attracted toward it and on the other hand he hates it. This feeling is called ambivalence which the colonized experience in the colonizer’s atmosphere. Here in the story Naipaul describes characters complex mix of attraction and repulsion: Their ritual was debased; the moment they got to England they ate meat and drank to prove their modernity (a Brahmin boy had offered Owad curried com beef for lunch); and, incomprehensibly, they looked down on colonial Indians. The sisters said they had never really been fooled by Indians from India; they spoke of the behavior of the missionaries, merchants, doctors and politicians they had known; and they grew grave as they realized their responsibilities as the last representatives of Hindu culture. (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.257, 1995) Biswas’ manners shows that while he incorporates capitalist values of individuality, he rejects his roots in order to adopt new culture. In this scene we see that he is trapped between what he regarded as utopia and what he is really in which might be called dystopia as he feels ambivalent now toward the situation. During the course of novel we can see that similar to Mr Biswas other characters’ minds are obsessed with the idea of utopia. In one part of the story sisters describe the land as below: The land itself was a wonder. The saman trees had lianas so strong and supple that one coulswing on them. All day the immortelle trees dropped their red and yellow bird-shaped flowers through which one could whistle like a bird. Cocoa trees grew in the shade of the immortelles, coffee in the shade of the cocoa, and the hills ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 128 were covered with tonka bean. Fruit trees, mango, orange, avocado pear, were so plentiful as to seem wild. . . The sisters spoke of the hills, the sweet springs and hidden waterfalls with all the excitement of people who had known only the hot, open plain, the flat acres of sugarcane and the muddy ricelands. Even if one didn’t have a way with land, as they did, even if one did nothing, life could be rich at Shorthills. (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.354, 1995) All the characters of the story are wishing for a better world and hope. They consider the land as a tropical paradise where the ideals of communal living may be established. More than any other character in the story Mr Biswas’s mind is obsessed with the idea of fantastic landscape, but at his first visit he gets surprised. 3.6 Search for Independence Naipaul’s emotional bond with Indian which remains for him an area of pain and ache, is projected in the novel A House for Mr Biswas. According to Freed the fragmented society of Trindad “demonstrates a disorder which originates from within” (p.69, 2004). A House for Mr. Biswas deals with the historical period of colonialism and the experiences of migration and displacement with respect to Trinidad. According to Parag “A House for Mr. Biswas delineates the traumas of a tainted and troubled past and the attempts to find a purpose in life, beautifully analyzing the sense of alienation and the pangs of exile experienced by the characters” (p.135, 2008). A House for Mr. Biswas is the story of search for independence and identity of a Brahmin Indian living in Trinidad. As Gourevitch believes. The story induces a man’s quest for autonomy “against the backdrop of postcolonial Trinidad” (p. 27, 1994) On the surface the novel might be about Mr. Biswas as an individual, but in fact he is the representative of people who suffered many problems in the shift from the organic concept of the family towards the modern notion of the individual on the social level. Mr. Biswas as a postcolonial subject all his life struggles to leave a mark on the human history and for him house is the symbol of shelter, security and achievement. The meaning of A House for Mr. Biswas is clear in the Prologue: How terrible it would have been, at this time, to be without it; to have died among the Tulsis; amid of the squalor of that large, disintegrating and indifferent family; to have left Shama and the children among them, in one room; worse, to have lived without even attempting to lay claim to one’s portion of the earth; to have lived and died as one had been born, unnecessary and unaccommodated. (A House for Mr. Biswas. P.14, 1995) The search for a house is supposed to offer some renovation of freedom and a source of belonging. The theme of A House for Mr. Biswas is drawn from the social, racial and political environment of the West Indies in a state of transition from colonial to dominion status and the hero of the story is engaged in a serious battle against the forces of oppression. 4. Conclusion A House for Mr Biswas is a narrative of a male protagonist located in the period of British colonialism. The impact of colonisation is everywhere in the novel. Biswas tells the story of its protagonist, Mr. Biswas from birth to death, each section dealing with different phases of Mr. Biswas’s life. Mr. Biswas is caught between the old culture of India and English people which are shown in many ways. A House for Mr. Biswas describes the story of a homeless and rootless immigrant who lacks identity and security in the colonial world. The process of colonization brings forth new patterns of cultural behavior and value system in creole society of Trindad. In this book Naipaul deals with shifting identities, roots, homes and changing realities of migrants. Naipaul has written extensively about different aspects of post-colonial society, viewed from post-colonial perspective.Biswas, as the protagonist of the story, is searching for a house of his own throughout his life. He represents displaced people having no identity in Trinidad since they are unhomed from their own land and in this new environment, they feel unstable. As a result of being unhomed and having no identity they have to create a new identity of their own. The first step is to imitate the colonizer's way of behavior and absorb its norms through which the characters in this novel gradually lose their language, culture, custom and their belief in Hindi religion and their religion becomes a mixture of Christian and Hindi. Moreover, they become confused as to which culture they should stick to and thereby find an ambivalent personality. In the novel A House for Mr. Biswas Naipaul depicts the situation of the colonial 'other' to reach some sort of personal identity. Although the characters themselves are related in the usual sense of the word, they are noticeably separate from one another, and work against each other in the quest of their own satisfaction. On the surface the novel might be about Mr. Biswas as an individual, but in fact he is the representative of people who suffered many problems in the shift from the organic concept of the family towards the modern notion of the individual on the social level. Mr. Biswas as a postcolonial subject all his life struggles to leave a mark on the human history and for him house is the symbol of shelter, security and achievement. In this novel Naipaul depicts the defenselessness of the Indian family structure in a colonial setting. The break of the Indian families is due to social, economic and political reasons; they seem not to have any political rights and their claim to the place where they live is so questionable and they can be easily removed from their house. ALLS 7(1):122-129, 2016 129 References Ashcroft, B., Gareth, G., and Helen T. (2000). Post-colonial Studies: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge. Bertens, Hans. (2001). Literary theory. New York: Routledge. Bhabha, H. K. (990). “DissemiNation: Time, Narrative, and the Margins of the Modern Nation.” Nation and Narration. London: Routledge. ---. (994). "Of mimicry and, man: The ambivalence of colonial discourse". Location of Culture. London: Routledge, p. 85-92. ---. (1994).The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Bressler, C. (2007). Literary Criticism. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Britton,Celia.(1999). “Edouard Glissant and postcolonial Theory: Strategies of Language and Ressistance”. The University Press of Virginia. Castle, Gregory. (2007). Blackwell Guide to Literary Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. Cooke, John. (1980).“A Vision of the Land: V.S. Naipaul’s Later Novels.” Jounals of Caribbean Studies. Freed, Lynn. (2004).“The Critical Is Personal.” The New York Times Book Review. Gallagher, Mary. (2003). Ici-Lá: Place and Displacement in Caribbean Writing in French. Rodopi B.V., AmesterdamNew York, NY. Gourevitch, Philip.(1994). Naipaul World. Commentary, London: Penguin. Hale, Dorothy J.(2006). The Novel: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory 1900-2000: Blackwell publishing Ltd. Heyward, Helen. (2002). The Enigma of V. S. Naipaul: Sources and Contexts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Huddart, David. (2006). Homi K. Bhabha, Routledge Critical Thinkers. New York: Routledge. Jonathan Hart. (1994). Traces, resistance and contradictions: Canadian and international views on postcolonial theory, the knowledge web. Lacan, J. (1979). 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Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Comparison and Contrast between First and Second Language Learning Javed Akhter (Corresponding author) Department of English Literature and Linguistics, University of Balochistan Quetta Balochistan Pakistan E-mail: sangatjavedakhtar@gmail.com Muhammad Amin Department of English Literature and Linguistics, University of Balochistan Quetta Balochistan Pakistan Faria Saeed Department of English Literature and Linguistics, University of Balochistan Quetta Balochistan Pakistan Shumaila Abdullah Department of English Literature and Linguistics, University of Balochistan Quetta Balochistan Pakistan Khair Muhammad Department of English Literature and Linguistics, University of Balochistan Quetta Balochistan Pakistan Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.130 Received: 19/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.130 Accepted: 13/11/2015 Abstract This research paper tends to focus on comparison and contrast between first and second language learning. It investigates the different factors that have inhibiting influences on the language learning process of the learners in the two different environments. There are many factors involved in this respect. The age factor is one of the vital factors that influence the progress of learners in the language learning process. The other factor between first and second language learning, which mostly influences the performance of second language learners, is language input in terms of the quantity and quality in both cases of the limitations of the second language learning in classroom. This research study also studies the language input in both cases and limitations of second language learning in classroom. The present research also investigates the individual differences between first and second language learning, covering aptitude of the language learner, motivation of teacher and classmates, language anxiety and language ego. This research paper suggests that motivation of the teacher and other class fellows, aptitude of learner and teacher’s instructions and teaching methodology as well as classroom setting may help the second language learners to overcome their language anxiety and language ego in the classroom. Keywords: First language learning, Second language Learning, Age Factor, Individual Differences, Language Input, Language Anxiety and Language Ego 1. Introduction Language learning is essentially a problem in psychology, individual, dyadic, and social phenomena. First language and second language learning are commonly considered as two different domains due to their difference of age and environment. (Oxford, R.L, 1990, p. 4). He distinguish first language and second learning, that the first arises from naturalist and unconscious language use, whereas the latter represents the conscious knowledge of language that happens through formal instruction. Fillmore suggests that this definition seems too rigid because some elements of language use are at first conscious and then become unconscious through practice (Fillmore, L. W., 1989, p. 311). On the other hand, Brown argues that both learning and acquisition are necessary for communicative competence particularly at higher skill levels. Therefore, learning acquisition continuum is more accurate than dichotomy in elaborating how language abilities are developed (Brown, H.D., 1994, p. 48). However, the interrelation between learning and acquisition does not prevent argument around the long list of limitations of second language learning in the classroom. R. Allwright answered the question why do not learners learns what teacher teach them? He argues that the apparent failure of teaching to have a significant effect on second language learning can be ascribed to the failure to realise that planned teaching is only one part of the input available to the classroom language learners, even outside the four walls of the classroom. Therefore, formal and informal language learning are interwoven, acting as the two axes of language fluency. Native speakers’ speed of articulation is affected not only by their ability of retention, but also by the amount of prefabricated chunks stored in the long-memory and retrieved when needed, a skill which promotes fluency (Allwright, R, 1978, p. 209). Given the language of the speech community and the innate physical and mental capacities of the newcomer to that community, what happens between ALLS 7(1):130-134, 2016 131 the time of his ignorance of the national language and his eventual control of it, either partial or complete? The process is a type of learning that involves the establishment of a set of habits that are both neural and muscular, and that must be so well learned that they function automatically. Language learning divides language learners into two main classes, those who as infants are learning the first language and those who, having attained faculty in first language, are learning another as a second language. There are many comparisons and contrasts to be made between these two classes of language learners. In the case of first class of language learners, there is a fascinating contest between their innate potential for use of parole and the community’s highly systematized practice of langue. The latter always win and impose upon the loser almost completely. The outcome long obscured the arresting significance of what the infants bring to struggle. There is vital force in the infants that finds delight in incessant verbal play, with the result that within a matter of months, they break the code of the language being used about them, and within a few years, they have completely mastered it in spoken form. Nelson Brooks claims that, “The human infant merits full credit for his contribution to this remarkable synthesis” (Brooks, Nelson, 1964, p. 22). Second language acquisition is by means easy task. It is important to note that the process of second language acquisition is complex at all ages. The variation in the case with which different young children acquired second language, ranging from six-year-old who appeared to acquire nothing from the first seven months of her immersion in English to others with extremely rapid development. Therefore, the individual who already possesses first language brings to the learning of a second language a very different set of physical and mental capacities. Partial, if not complete, command of one linguistic code has already been attained, and it can be both a help and a hindrance in learning the second language. The contradictions for learning second language are almost identical for all learners of the first language, differ widely for the second-language learner. One of the greatest differences is whether he finds himself in the cultural field of the language in question, by being either geographically within its borders or in direct contact with it in an authentic cultural island transplanted to a distant place. 2. Literature Review There are many different theories of language learning, which has been and can be applied to the process first and second language learning. In this regards, “Intercultural Competence in Young Language Learners: a case study” Thesis by Robyn A. Moloney submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Education, to the University of Sydney Australia, On September 2007. It is brilliant, interesting study, thought pro study on the subject, which attempts to prove logically that young children are interculturally competent learners rather than the adults. Aladdin Assaiqeli wrote a research paper entitled “Theories of language learning: A contrasting view” in which he discussed many theories of language learning but touched the issue of comparison and contrast between the first and second language learning very slightly. In addition, the critical hypothesis (CH) as proposed by Lenneberg (1967), opines that primary language acquisition must occur during a critical period that ends at about the age of puberty with the establishment of cerebral lateralization of function. Any language learning after the age of puberty will be slower and less successful than normal first language learning (Krashen 1975, Lenneberg 1967, Scovel 1969). Children are superior to adults in acquiring the sounds of L2 (Asher, J. & Garcia, R, 1969; Olson & Samuels, 1973; Seliger, Krashen, & Ladefoged, 1975; Oyama, 1976; Snow & Hoefnagel-Hohle, 1977). Krashen, Scarcella & Long wrote many things on the subject of child-adult differences in the second language acquisition. (Krashen, Scarcella & Long, 1982). The present research tends to highlight the comparison and contrast between adults and children in second language learning in the light of brilliant language learning theories of these linguists to prove that there is are many factors including age factor involved in the process of the second language learning. In addition, the present research study also suggests how to overcome the hindrances and hurdles in the second language learning to make it effective and successful. Debate and Discussion Age factor and other factors are involved in the process of language learning. Age difference is of great importance in second language learning. It largely determines the extent to which the second language learner retains the faculties that made it possible for him to learn his first language. Therefore, children learn languages quickly and better than adults do. According to Harley, children, learn languages better than adults do. (Haley, 1986, p. 4). Children are considered to be naturally gifted artists, who learn English as a second language within no time but when the critical period ends and the puberty period starts they begin to develop psychological and emotional interference, shyness, hesitation, anxiety and ego in their behaviour, so they become slower in their second language learning process. Brown describes that language ego can be damaging to language learning as follows: “At, these inhibitions are heightened in the trauma of undergoing critical physical, cognitive and emotional changes. Their egos are affected not only in how they understand themselves, but also on how they reach out beyond themselves, how they relate to others socially, and how they use the communicative process to bring on affective equilibrium” (Brown, H. D., 1994, p. 70). In addition, some linguists thought that language ego is one of the psychological interferences that hinders and causes handicap in adults to learn second language. Guiora (1972) was the first linguist, who discovered the notion of language ego, claiming that this agent occurs when the learner is aware of the limitations and boundaries of a language. Therefore, language ego refers to the very personal nature of new Language Learning and is associated with the fear of making mistakes. These mistakes work as internal and external threats to one’s ego. Ego boundaries, according to M. E. Ehrman, “are the degree to which individuals tend to compartmentalize their experience, which effects receptivity to outside influences such as new languages and cultures. Learners, like others, try to build set of defences to protect the ego. In classroom, students’ learning preferences depend on how thick or thin their ego boundaries are, Students with ALLS 7(1):130-134, 2016 132 thin ego enjoy content-based learning where the focus is on what is being said more than how it is said. Many of them prefer non-linear approaches to learning and enjoy unexpected learning events. Students with thick ego boundaries, on the other hand, prefer a clearly structured curriculum and display some discomfort with role-playing and similar suspenses of everyday identity” (Ehrman, M. E. 1999, p. 69). The great advantage of children is their mental flexibility to learn languages, which adults are lacking. Therefore, children produce native like-accent in second language learning. This is a great hindrance in case of adults to produce native like- accent in second language learning. H. D Brown observes as follows: “Children who acquire a second language after the age of five may have a physical advantage in the phonemic control of second language is physically possible yet that mysterious plasticity is still present. It is no wonder that children acquire authentic pronunciation while adults generally do not, since pronunciation involves the control of so many muscles” (Brown, H.D., 1994, p. 51). However, children can sound similar to their second language class fellows very quickly with all cultural background. While the adults, on the other hand, can hardly attain the depth of cultural background. In addition, in the case of second language learning limited input, language anxiety and language ego are also main factors that influence the process of second language learning in the classroom. Adults cannot gain the depth of cultural background, which makes them able to learn second language as the native speakers of a language do. M. E. Ehrman terms this the Critical Period (CPT), (Ehrman, M.E., 1996, p. 180). According to Critical Period Hypothesis, adults do not possess the same plasticity as children, which enable them to cope with new mental activities. Therefore, the adults face many difficulties to achieve native like fluency because the developmental changes in the brain that effect the nature of language acquisition after the end of the critical period. L.S. Vygotsky (1978) explains this hypothesis in a different way, arguing that the adults tend to be more analytical in learning languages than children, who tend to be more holistic. Therefore, children acquire the langrage as it is formed and produced by others. On the other hand, the adults unlike children often think of how a construction is formed before using it in conversation. The impact of CPH on first language acquisition does not receive consensus of all linguists and classroom researchers. Lightbown and Spada cite a research study carried out by Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle on a group of English speakers learning Dutch as a second language. The study includes learners from all age categories from six to sixty year olds. The study proves that adolescents neither children nor adults are the most successful learners because they learn faster in the early stages of second language development. The young learners have some difficulty in learning tasks, which are beyond their cognitive maturity. The research shows that adults and adolescents are able to make a considerable progress in second language learning when they use the language on a daily basis in social, professional and academic interaction (Lightbown and Spada, 1999, p. 60). Whereas, in the case of adult second language learners, who crossed the premises of critical period and reached the boundary of puberty period, second language learning process becomes comparatively slow. The critical period hypothesis (CPH) as proposed by Lenneberg (1967) opines that primary language acquisition must occur during a critical period that ends at about the age of puberty with the establishment of cerebral lateralization of function. A strong implication of CPH is that the processes involving in any language acquisition, which takes place after the age of puberty, will be qualitatively different from those involved in first language acquisition. A commonly drawn, though not necessary, corollary of CPH is that any language learning that takes place after the age of puberty will be slower and less successful than normal first language learning (Krashen, 1975, Lenneberg, 1967, 1969 and Scovel, 1969). Adult second language learners are indeed less likely than young children to master second language are. They are doomed to failure. In this sense, it can easily be observed that their second language learning ability is affected badly. Therefore, language ego is one of the major factors that hinder the adults to learn a second language. It does not mean that language ego is only one specific factor to hamper second language learning process. In addition, many other factors hamper a person to learn second language. However, the most dominate factors in this regard, is ego, which generates powerful feelings in the mind of adult that hamper or makes the learning process slower and slower. For this reason, adults are not as successful L2 learners as children are because more they think little they speak. They are actually afraid of speaking as they think that people might make fun of them if they will not pronounce the words correctly, make grammatical mistakes. If fluency will not be there the people would crack jokes on them, what if they did not answer well That is why, ego raises such questions in the mind of an adult L 2 learner and that is how it slowdowns the learning process and proves that he is not getting fruitful results. This research rejected all theories of age factor’s impact on second language learning. The adults are advantaged over children in a number of ways. Young children can learn second language faster and gain a native like fluency. They can speak second language in very limited vocabulary, simple grammar and their sentences are generally based on concrete topics. On the contrary, the adults unlike children possess a higher level of cognitive development of mind, vast knowledge and experience of life, which enable them to achieve language proficiency, competence and fluency on satisfactory level in a very short period. However, this is not a hindrance for those who have already skipped puberty to learn second language. This rejects the influence of the critical period on the second language learning process. For this reason, the so-called critical hypothesis is wrong and does not possess solid ground. Many studies and theories on language learning prove it so. Modern linguistics has copiously acknowledged the value of input in the context of language acquisition because it carries primary importance in acquiring L1 and L2. This process takes place in the target language while using the target language culture as its pedestal and thus, becomes more influential when it is provided according to the age of the ALLS 7(1):130-134, 2016 133 learners. In the case of educated atmosphere, it can be made possible through games and certain other activities under the shelter of the target language. In fact, the credit of introducing the concept of input into the world of linguistics goes to Lev Vygotsky whose Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), resulted a revolutionary change in conceptions related to the second language learning. Vygotsky is of the opinion that there is a gap between current knowledge of the child and potential knowledge. He calls it a zone and believes that a child learns best when given small pieces of information, which aid them through the ZPD. Krashen on the other hand, proposed input hypothesis that is I + 1. He considers that human beings acquire language through ‘comprehensible input’ (Johnson 2004, p. 47; Krashen 1987; Krashen & Terrell 1983; Macaro 2003). According to Krashen human beings are blessed with natural linguistic competence which he terms ‘I’ while he calls the level of language, which he or she acquires next to his already acquired competence as ‘1’. Nevertheless, the idea of linguistic input is licensed when it receives the fever of behaviourists who define behaviour as a conditioned response to stimuli. In the opinion of Chastain (1976), the “behaviourists concluded that all learning consisted of some form of conditioning” (cited in Hadley 2001, p. 105). Pavlov, the most eminent Russian behaviourist, too, believes in language input, as acquiring language through behaviour is also an input. He exercised his conditioning process on dogs. The dogs were conditioned and they responded to the ringing bell. B.F. Skinner followed and developed further Pavlov’s theory of conditioning and called it the process of learning as operant conditioning. Thus, language learning is also a part of this process of operant conditioning. In this context, in this process, he affirms that learning takes place because of the reward given for accomplishing the correct task. While punished the learner for not achieving his goal. (Van Patten 2003). He exercised his theory of operant learning on rates while using Skinner’s box as a tool where rates were put to test. He applied this experiment to the language learning process. However, Noam Chomsky’s ideas are quite different in this regards. He believes in innateness. Noam Chomsky proposes theory of Universal Grammar or UG and believes that children needs to be given the input of lexical items only and that grammatical knowledge, which is hardwired into ones’ mind, develops all to itself. Thus, language input is an essential fact in the process of language acquisition. It contains the seeds that may give birth to a developed linguistic competence with the passage of time. 3. Conclusion The present research study indicates contrasts between first and second language learning. These are complex and involved in age difference, personal difference and difference of environment. This paper also shows difference of the phonemic inventory, and language structures between first language and second languages, which have vital impact on second language learners in producing the sounds of second language in the case of second language learner as the native speakers do. The difference between structures of first and second language also influences the language proficiency, fluency and accuracy of the learner in performance, competence and learning of second language. As a result, solution of this problem is that motivation of teacher and classmates, aptitude of learners, instructions and teaching methodology of the learned and motivated teacher as well as classroom atmosphere may prove helpful for second language learners in the classroom. If these steps will be taken, they are helpful for second language learners to overcome their language anxiety and language ego. References Allwright, R. (1978). Concluding Comments on Second Language Acquisition in Context. In: Ellis, R. (ed.), Second Language Acquisition in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Prentice Hall. Pp. 209-212. Asher, J. & Garcia, R. (1969). The Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language. Modern Language Journal 53, 334-342. Assaiqeli, Aladdin. (2013). Theories of language learning: A Contrasting View. Scholarly Journal of Scientific Research and Essay (SJSRE) Vol. 2(3), Pp. 34-43, March 2013. Available online at http:// www.scholarlyjournals.com/SJSRE ISSN 2315-6163 © 2013 Scholarly-Journals. Atchison, J. (1974). General Linguistics. UK: English Universities Press Ltd. Brooks, Nelson. (1964). Language and Language Learning. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New York: Pearson Longman. Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning And Teaching (4th edn.). 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An Introduction to Language (6th edn.). USA: Rinehart and Winston. Hadley, Alice Omaggio. (2001). Teaching Language in Context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Halliday, M.A.K. (1975). Learning How to Mean: Explorations in the Development of Language. London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as Social Semiotic: the Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold. Harley, B. (1986). Age in Second Language Acquisition. England: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Johnson, Marysia. (2004). A Philosophy of Second Language Acquisition. New Haven: Yale University Press. Harlow, England: Longman. (2010). Theories of Language: socialsemiotic.RetrievedFeb.24,2010.http://golum.riv.csu.edu.au. Halliday’s Theory-language Young, R.F. (2009). Discursive Practice in Language Learning and Teaching. Blackwell.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfieldhttp://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/ as a Wiley- Harris, R., and Taylor, T.J. (1989). 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Successful E-Learning Management Programme. National e-Learning and Distance Learning Center. Macaro, Ernesto. (2003). Teaching and Learning a Second Language. New York: Continuum Books. Moloney, Robyn A. (2007). Intercultural Competence in Young Language Learners: a Case Study. Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Education, at the University of Sydney, September 2007. Olson, L. & Samuels, S. (1973). The Relationship between Age and Accuracy of Foreign Language Pronunciation. Journal of Educational Research, 66, Pp. 263-268. Oxford, R. L. (1990). ‘Anxiety and Language Learner: New Insights’: In: Arnold, J. (ed.), After in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 58-67. Oyama, S. (1976). A Sensitive Period for Acquisition of a Non-native Phonological System. Journal of Psycholinguistic Review, 5, Pp. 261-284. Radford, A. (1988). Transformational Grammar. Cambridge University Press. Saville-Troike, Muriel. (2006). Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scovel, T. (1969). Foreign Accents, Language Acquisition and Cerebral Dominance. In: Language Learning, 1969, 19, Pp. 245-253. Seliger, H.W., Krashen, S.D., & Ladefoged, P. (1975). Maturation Consonants in the Acquisition of Second Language Accent. Language Sciences, 36, Pp. 20-22. Snow, C., Hoefnagel-Hohle, M. (1977). Age Differences in the Pronunciation of Foreign Sounds. In: Language and Speech, 20, Pp. 357-365. Steinberg, D.D., Nagata, H. and Aline, D. (2001). Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind, and World (2nd edn.). Van Patten, Bill, and Jessica Williams. (2007). Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Complexity Level in the Use of Tense and Aspect as Perceived and Experienced by Arab EFL Learners Ahmed Mohammed Al-Quyadi Department of English, Faculty of Education, Sana'a, Yemen & Jazan University, Saudi Arabia E-mail: quiadhy@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.135 Received: 14/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.135 Accepted: 15/11/2015 Abstract It has been well learnt that a large number of Arab EFL learners encounter a considerable degree of complexity in the use of tense and aspect as fundamental components of the English language. Such a degree of difficulty is perceived and experienced by those learners at their different levels of learning English starting at the primary level up to the university level. This is what has led the researcher to carry out this research with the major aim of looking into the reasons behind the failure of such learners to handle the use of tense and aspect of English in a proper manner. The sample of this research comprised a group of students studying English as an ESP course, who were on the verge of graduation in the College of Engineering, Jazan University. The research tools used were both a test and a questionnaire. The findings of the research show that those learners encounter a great deal of complexity in the use of tense and aspect. This is clarified by means of their inability to use tense and aspect in English as correct as they should. This complexity is greater in the case of the use of the aspect. The research concludes with forwarding a number of conclusions resulting from the discussion of the results; and these conclusions are followed by a number of recommendations that can be useful for teachers, curricula designers and decision makers. Keywords: complexity, tense, aspect, present, perfect, Arab EFL learners 1. Introduction The complexity encountered by ES/FL learners in the use of tense and aspect in English has been a major subject of scientific study for a great deal of time. It is a fact that such learners have to be aware of a number of certain rules regarding the use of tense and aspect. Not only this, but complexities sometimes appear as a result of badly presented and/ or inadequate learning materials, improper teaching methods, unsuitable learning environments, and low motivation on the part of the learner, all of which make the task of learning and using such an area complex and challenging to EFL learners like those included in this study. This is so at the time when it is well known that grammar can never be separated from learning a language, whether as a first, second, third or foreign one in the sense that grammar is "a central area of the language around which other areas such as pronunciation and vocabulary revolve, (Cook, 2001: 19)." (Telda and Desta (20114: 92) add that "Grammar has been an inseparable part of language pedagogy for ages." 1.1 Statement of the Problem The use of tense and aspect is one of the challenges that EFL learners, among whom Arab learners are, have to face. Such learners get confused when they have to use the correct tense (present & past) and aspect (progressive & perfective), as this becomes very clear when they are required to produce sentences of their own. 1.2 Questions of the Research This research poses the following questions: 1. How common are the errors made by Arab EFL learners, as represented by the students of this research, in the use of tense and aspect, and which grammatical category, i.e., tense or aspect is more complex? 2. Why do EFL learners find it complex to use tense and aspect in English correctly? 3. Does the task (isolated sentences vs. a paragraph) affect the performance of the students in the use of tense and aspect? 4. What are the possible suggestions that can be helpful to solve such a problem? 1.3 Significance of the Research This research has a twofold significance. On one hand, its results can help the educational authorities to think of plans ahead that can be of practical use for decision makers to take action plans so that such a complexity can be gradually minimized. On the other hand, it can help curricula designers and developers tailor the curricula according to the needs of the learners who are supposed to receive all kinds of aid and help so as to facilitate their learning of grammar rules ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 136 and solving any difficulty that may arise as a result of their learning of such grammar rules. In much detail, curricula designers and developers can benefit in reshaping the learning materials by means of the feedback they get from what teachers report to them as the latter ones are in a direct contact with learners in classrooms. 1.4 Objectives of the Research This research is meant to: 1. Find out the reasons that make it complex for EFL learners, like those included in this study, to use tense and aspect correctly. 2. Assess those learners' knowledge in both tense and aspect for the purpose of being able to decide which area is more complex than the other. 3. Help the people concerned be aware of such complexities so that they can take suitable actions. 1.5 Limitations of the Study This research is limited to the two points discussed in the research being the tense and aspect. In terms of tense, it is limited to the present and past simple tenses; and in terms of aspect, it is limited to the present progressive and/ or continuous, the past progressive and/ or continuous aspects in addition to the present and past perfect aspects. It is also limited to the two skills of reading and writing due to the fact that such skills are highly demanded by learners like those in order to fulfil their academic requirements by means of reading and writing. However, errors in the use of tense and aspect while listening and speaking can go unnoticed, so they are not of a considerable significance. 2. Review of Literature Undoubtedly, the knowledge of the grammar rules is essential for a language learner learning a second or a foreign language so that he/ she learns the language accurately in form and meaning (Rutherford & SharwoodSmith (1988), Celce-Murcia (1991), Ebsworth & Schweers (1997), Doughty & Williams (1998), Thornbury (1999). This is due to the fact that the use of language is governed by grammar, as viewed by Al-Fallay (1998), Jdetawy (2011) and Basaeed (2013). In this regard, Hedge (2000: 143) ascertains that “Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in the role of grammar in English language teaching.” Thakur (1987: 2) points out that it is grammar, which differentiates languages "No two languages have identical conventions; if their conventions were identical in all their details, they would not be two languages." It is highlighted that EFL learners should receive more attention on how to figure out the rules that govern the English language, particularly those related to tense and aspect (Celce-Murcia: 1991, Harmer: 1997, Al-Mutawa and Kailani: 1998, Nunan: 1999, Broughton et al: 2003, and Gebhard:2009). Meantime, it is natural, when learning, that learners usually make errors so teachers are required to look into their learners' errors as systematic attempts in order to learn. In the view of Norrish (1983), Brown (1994), Ellis (1994), James (1998) and Cook (2001) such errors are due to enable teachers know how their learners go about learning a second or a foreign language, namely English. It is also likely to make teachers realize that learning a second/ foreign language, mainly its grammar, is usually complex to EFL learners particularly Arabic speaking learners of English (Mukattash 1983, Abbad 1988, Al-Faleg 1991, Sahu 1999, Rabab’ah 2005, Basaeed 20113), who emphasize that such a complexity exists in the area of tense and aspect due to the reasons from which such errors rise as deficiency in the curriculum taught to those learners, unacceptable teaching methods and/ or techniques by some teachers, lack of a proper learning environment, and lack of motivation by a large number of learners in addition to the fact that English is learnt only as a school subject and for a very limited period of time in the classroom. Clearly, looking at learners' errors as a natural process, according to Dulay et al (1988) and James (1998), can help both teachers teach and learners learn in the way that this is likely to lead to important developments in the teaching practice. In the view of Suleiman (1983), Oxford (1990), Dubin and Olhatain (1991), Harmer (1997), Littlewood (1992), AlQuyadi (1996), Davison and Moss (2000), and Khan (2012) analyzing errors is useful to both teachers and learners in that it tells teachers how learners learn and so teachers can go in a parallel manner of how learners progress in learning. It is further useful in the way that it establishes a link between language learning and teaching so that teachers can plan their teaching in the light of such an analysis. In summary, the researcher strongly believes that making errors is a natural part of language learning whenever and wherever it is learned. The components discussed in the topic of this research are presented as follows: § Tense Tense has been given a number of definitions such as a grammatical category, a grammatical device. As far as this research is concerned, it is considered as including the present simple and the past simple tenses, both of which are indicated by inflections, being marked by a third person singular-s when the verb is used in the simple present, and by an –ed form added to the regular verbs, and/ or a change usually in the vowel letters of the irregular verbs when such verbs are used in the simple past. Greeenbaum and Quirk (1990: 47) state that “Tense is a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection.” Yule (2000: 58) points out that “The basic tense distinction in English is marked by two forms of the verb, the past tense (I lived there then), and the present tense (I live here at the present)." The past tense form makes the situation described more remote from the situation of utterance, (Yule, 2000: 58).” Hornby (1999:78) explains that "tenses indicate whether an action, an activity, or a state is past, present, or future." It is added that "English verbs have only two simple tenses called the Simple Present and the Simple Past. Regarding the use of the simple present tense, and as clarified by ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 137 Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 48), the simple present can be used to refer to "a state of affairs that existed in the past, exists now, and is likely to continue to exist in the future." On the other hand, "The simple past is used to refer to a situation set at a definite time in the past (Greenbaum and Quirk;1990: 50)." · The Present Simple Tense It is used to refer to things or actions that happen regularly or permanently. It is normally used to talk about or describe facts and habits that took place in the past, take place in the present, and may continue to take place in the future. In brief, this tense “refers to general habits, customs, characteristics, or truths (DeCapua; 2008: 168).” Chalker (1992: 76) reiterates that any period that including "the present moment of speaking (whether extending into the past or the future) can be regarded as present time and use a present tense." Regarding the verbs used in the present tense, they are of two types known as stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Stative verbs include verbs such as be, have, like, sense and so on. Such verbs are normally used to refer to single unbroken states. Examples of this type can be as follows: She is tall. He likes vegetables Greenbaum & Quirk (1990: 48) add that the simple present also includes the "timeless present, which refers to eternal truth such as: Two and three make five, or to less extreme instances of timelessness such as: The British Isles have a temperate climate. With reference to the dynamic verbs such as go, make, play, walk, speak, and write, they can also be used to refer to events that repeatedly occur without limited time extension in the past, and the present. Examples of this sort can be: Fatima makes her own dress. They play in the park every afternoon. · The Simple Past Tense The simple past is used to describe completed past actions or events referring to a state or to an action which happened at a particular time in the past. The time when the action happened is often stated or understood. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 50) clarify that "The Simple Past is used to refer to a situation set at a definite time in the past." Leech and Svartvik (1984: 65) say that it "refers to a definite time in the past which may be identified by a past time adverbial in the same sentence, the preceding language context, or the context outside the language." Examples of this tense can be as follows: The Normans invaded England in 1066. When we were children, we used to play with our neighbor children. § Aspect Attempting a kind of definition of aspect, it is "a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning of a verb is viewed with respect to time, (Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 51)" adding that "Two aspects in English are recognized: the perfect and the progressive." Swan (1987) reiterates that aspect is defined according to whether an action is happening, was happening, or whether it has or had been completed. The progressive aspect has had different meanings such as continued action, dynamic action, and durative action. On the other hand, the perfective aspect is meant to indicate the completeness of or effect of an action. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 53) point to the fact that "The progressive (or 'continuous') focuses on the situation as being in progress at a particular time", explaining that "verbs with stative senses do not occur in the progressive, since there is no conception of progression in states of affairs." Yule (2000: 63) states that aspect can be expressed grammatically “via the perfect and progressive forms of the verb.” It is further explained that “The basic grammatical distinction in English aspect is marked by two forms of the verb. These are traditionally described as versions of the verb be with the present participle (verb + -ing) for the progressive as in: I am eating; I was eating, and versions of have with the past participle (verb + -en/ed) for the perfect as in: I have eaten, I had eaten.“ DeCapua (2008:166) points out that “There are two different aspects in English: the progressive and the perfect.” He adds that “A progressive verb phrase consists of the auxiliary be in present or past tense + the present participle of the main verb, (DeCapua; 2008:166).” Regarding the perfect, he adds “The perfect aspect describes the relationship between an earlier event or action with a later event or action”, pointing that a “perfect verb phrase consists of the auxiliary have in either the present or past tense + the past participle of the verb, (DeCapua; 2008: 166.)” · The Present Progressive The present progressive is used to refer to things or actions which happen over a limited period in the current/ present time, which, in the view of Bybee et al (1994), applies mainly to dynamic predicates and not to stative ones as in the following examples: They are staying in a hotel nowadays. He is kicking the ball. ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 · 138 The Past Progressive The past progressive is used to describe ongoing events or actions that were in progress at a point of time in the past. Similar to the present progressive, it is used with dynamic predicates, but not with stative ones. It is normal that the conjunction while is used before the past progressive and when before the simple past. It must be added that the two conjunctions while and when can be substituted. The children were watching TV when their father suddenly came. While she was cooking, the electricity suddenly went off. · The Present Perfect The present perfect is used when an action happened in the past, but it is related to the present. Clearly, it is used for events or actions that continue up to the moment of speaking, or ended just a short time before the time of speaking and it is still important. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 51) point out that "The present perfect is used to refer to a situation set at some indefinite time within a period beginning in the past and leading up to the present." Examples of this can be as follows: He has broken the window. (The window is still broken as seen by others.) I have not visited Italy. (I do not know how it is.) It has been noted by Al-Buainain (1992) that a great deal of attempts has been made to establish a unitary meaning for the English perfect, and as far as its use is concerned, it can be used to indicate an action completed in the past, but whose result or outcome is still in effect and/ or whose effects are still relevant. · The Past Perfect The past perfect is used to describe two actions, both of which happened in the past, but one of them happened before the other, and thus, the two actions are expressed by means of using different verb forms. It is used when an action happened in the past and continued to a point of time in the past. Greenbaum and Quirk (1990:53) clarify that the past perfect is used to refer to "a time earlier than another past time", adding that "it may represent the past of the simple past, a time earlier than that indicated by the simple past. Examples of this can be as follows: They had been in the room for an hour when the manager arrived. He had written a book before he got married. 3. Research Methods and Procedures 3.1 Research Instrument/Tool The research instruments used for the purpose of this research are a test and a questionnaire. Both instruments were used so that an explicit picture of the issue investigated can be obtained in such a way that the more instruments used, the more the point investigated is clearer (Babbie 1995, Best and Khan 1995 and Wallace 2004). Both instruments were given to the students, who are the sample members of this research. The test is composed of twenty four items presented in sentences in the way that there are two tenses (the present and past simple), four aspects (two progressive and/ or continuous (the present and past), and two perfective (the present and past) leading to six areas; and for each one four items were given to test those learner's ability to use the tense and aspect correctly. There was also another section composed of a short text, including sentences to test such learners' ability in handling the use of tense and aspect in connected language. It must be stated that the items of the test administered to the students of this study were not written in order. In other words, the four items allocated to each of the tenses and aspects were not written in succession; one after the other, but they were jumbled so that the respondents of the research would not deal with it in a mechanical manner, which may have a negative effect on their answers. (See the test in Appendix A.) Briefly, the researcher's goal is to see whether such respondents would do better, worse, or similar in the separated sentences and the connected ones. Regarding the use of the questionnaire, it is meant that such an instrument is used to solicit the learners' opinions on the level of difficulty and/ or complexity that such learners encounter in the use of tense and aspect. To that Nunan (1992), states that a questionnaire is a very common and reliable means of collecting data. It has two sections; the first includes Yes/ No questions, and the second section includes questions with three options for answering. All the questions of the questionnaire are focused on the present and past simple, present and past progressive, and present and past perfect. (See Appendix B.) The English version of the questionnaire was translated into Arabic for the purpose of facilitating comprehension on the part of the respondents. (See Appendix C.) Both instruments were validated to check face and content validity using the judges' method. They were also tried out on about more than the third of the research respondents of the research in order to check how long they would take in answering the instruments' items, and how they would react to the different items of both instruments. All such procedures were taken before the final administration of the instruments on the meant research sample members. ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 139 3.2 The Sample of the Research The sample of the research included 58 members of students nearing graduation in the College of Engineering, University of Jazan in the academic year 2013- 2014 corresponding to 1434 – 1435 Hijri. It must be noted here that the terms research sample members, research respondents and learners of this study are to be used synonymously all through this research. It must be added that those students have studied quite a good amount of English at their university learning in the way that they study a course in the preparatory year, which is somehow introductory and general. Then they study a course of ESP English, which is mostly technical so as to be suitable for their specific study of Engineering. In this final year, they study a concluding course of English, which is supposed to help them prepare for a graduation project and also give them some aid for their future careers and professional development. 4. Results and Discussion The research is intended to identify, categorize and analyze the errors made by the learners taken as the sample members investigated for the purpose of this research. For that purpose, a test and a questionnaire were introduced to this group. Regarding the statistical tools used to arrive at such results, percentages were used. The analysis is supported by tables including numbers of frequencies of correct and incorrect use of tense and aspect in the case of the test administered on the respondents of the study; and also numbers requiring Yes/ No answers in the case of the questionnaire administered on the same group. Clearly, the respondents' replies to the different test items are presented in the tables given in this section. First, an analysis of how the respondents reacted to the test items is given in one section, which is divided into A and B in the way that in A, there is a discussion of how those respondents treated the test items when used in isolated sentences, and in B the discussion focuses on how they treated such items when used in a paragraph. Further, section two is dedicated to discussing the learners' respondents to the items of the questionnaire. Section I A: The information presented in table (1) includes the data of the first section of the test comprising a number of items that are meant to test the use of the English tense and aspect by the learners investigated for the purpose of this research. Table 1. The frequencies and percentages of the correct and incorrect use of the categories included in section I Category-Tested Correct Percentage Incorrect Percentage Simple Present Simple Past Present Progressive Past Progressive Present Perfect Past Perfect 129 125 120 119 108 100 56% 54% 52% 51% 47% 43% 103 107 112 113 124 132 44% 46% 48% 49% 53 57% The respondents' treatment of the first tense tested, which is the simple present, is given as (56%) correct and (44%) incorrect, which indicates that such respondents made a correct use of it but at an acceptable level. Regarding the use of the simple past, the statistical figures tell us that they got it correct to some extent (54%), whereas their incorrect use was not that large (46%). Dealing with the use of the present continuous and/ or progressive, the numerical data in the table above show that they used it correctly to a certain extent (52%), while those using it incorrectly were (48%). In relation to their use of the past continuous and/ or progressive, it is seen that they also used it correctly to an acceptable degree being (51%), but those using it incorrectly were at quite a lower degree being (49%). Reacting to the present perfect, it is clear that they got it incorrect to quite a considerable extent (52%), when those who got it correct were somehow low (48%). As for their use of the past perfect, the numerical data indicate that those who used it correctly were lower (43%) than those who used it correctly (57%). B: As far as their use of tense and aspect in a connected piece of language; a paragraph, the respondents' treatment of the items expressing such a grammatical area is given in the table and details below. It is worth pointing that the uses of tense and aspect given in the paragraph were presented naturally, which means tense and aspect items were jumbled. Table 2. The frequencies & percentages of the correct and incorrect use of tense and aspect items used in the paragraph Category-Tested Present Progressive Present Perfec Past Progressive Simple Past Past Perfect Present Simple Correct 12 22 26 27 10 28 Percentage 21% 38% 45% 47% 17% 48% Incorrect 46 36 32 31 48 30 Percentage 79% 62% 55% 53% 83% 52% ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 140 The first blank in the paragraph requires the use of the present progressive; and it is very obvious from the numerical data that they deviated from the correct use of this aspect to a very large extent (79%), while those who used it correctly were just (21%). As for the use of the present perfect that is required in the second blank, the statistical figures say that they also went largely wrong in its use as those who used it incorrectly were (62%), but those who used it correctly were only (38%). Looking at their responses to the past progressive, it is shown that the ones who used it correctly were of a lower number (45%) than those who used it incorrectly (55%). In using the simple past, it is seen in the table that the correct use of such a tense was a little lower (47%) than the incorrect use (53%). The respondents dealt with the use of the past perfect in the way that those who used it correctly were very low (17%), whereas those who used it incorrectly were largely many (83%). Examining the use of the simple present, the numerical data in the table tell us that their correct use of such a tense was quite lower (48%) than their correct use which was (52%). 4.1 Implications of the Results Obtained by the Test To establish a link between the questions of the research and the results discussed in these two sections, it is of concern to refer to the first question that was focused on how common are the errors made by the sample members in the use of tense and aspect. This question also tried to find which grammatical category of tense or aspect was more complex than the other. Looking carefully into this analysis of the results, it is obvious that the learners included in this study are still away from the right track as far as the use of tense and aspect is concerned. However, variation is there as it is seen that such learners seem to be more familiar with the use of the simple present, and the simple past tenses as the percentages of their correct use support this (56%) and (59%) respectively. Their uses of the present and past continuous/ progressive are quite acceptable, being (53%) and (51%) respectively. These results imply that those learners are having some difficulty in these uses up to the levels shown above. The explanation that can be made regarding these results is that since such learners had a certain amount of English learning in their pre-university education, and also in their university education, this had possibly facilitated their task in using these tenses in addition to quite a lesser ability of using the present and past progressive aspects. Nevertheless, the complexity arises when it comes to their use of the present perfect and past perfect aspects. The results achieved by such learners in the two aspects suggest that they are still having a great deal of complexity in such uses as their correct uses were (48%) and (45%) respectively. Such a complexity can be attributable to some reasons such as unsuitable learning materials, improper teaching methods used by some incompetent teachers, and possibly low motivation on the part of a large number of learners. As far as the question pertinent to whether the complexity is larger in the use of tense or the use of aspect, it can be inferred from the statistical information in the table below that the use of aspect is quite more complex than the use of tense. However, this complexity is not that remarkable as they got the correct use of the tenses (55%) compared to the correct use of the aspects as (48%). Table 3. The frequencies and percentages of all the correct and incorrect uses of tense and aspect Correct Incorrect Total The Two Categories of Tenses & Aspects (Compared) Tenses Aspects No. % No. 254 55 447 210 45 481 464 100 928 % 48 52 100 The question concerning whether such learners find it more complex to use tense and aspect in isolated sentences and/ or in sentences that are connected; a paragraph, the numerical data in the summary table below answer this question. Table 4. The extent of complexity in the use of tense and aspect in isolated sentences and connected ones Simple Present Simple Past Present Progressive Past Progressive Present Perfect Past Perfect Total Tense & Aspect (in the isolated sentences) Correct Incorrect No. % No. % 129 56 103 44 125 54 107 46 120 52 112 48 119 51 113 49 108 47 124 53 100 43 132 57 701 50.5 691 49.5 Tense & Aspect (in the connected sentences) Correct Incorrect No. % No. % 28 48 30 52 27 47 31 53 12 21 46 79 26 45 32 55 22 38 36 62 10 17 48 83 125 36 223 64 ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 141 The figures clearly show that those learners encounter a greater complexity in the use of tense and aspect in sentences that are written in connection, a paragraph, while this complexity is not that sharp in the case of using tense and aspect in isolated sentences. The inference made is that such learners have received most of their learning of the uses of tense and aspect in isolated sentences. This is supported by the percentages obtained by those respondents being (36) in the correct use and (64) in the incorrect use. Section Two The analysis here is attempted on the respondents' reactions to the questions included in the questionnaire, which was divided into two sections; the first section was dedicated to questions on whether such respondents find it complex to use the tenses and aspects investigated in this research. And each question of those included in this section was clarified by three options indicating the degree of complexity, such as very complex, just complex, and moderately complex. To analyze the first section, the data obtained from the sample members of the research are presented in the table below. Table 5. The complexity level of tense and aspect Category Frequency % Very Complex Just Complex Moderately Complex Yes 24 41 16 28% 20 34% 22 38% No 34 59 Yes 23 40 15 26% 13 22% 30 52% No 35 60 Present Progressive Yes 41 71 38 66% 11 19% 9 15% No 17 29 Past Progressive Yes 43 74 36 62% 15 26% 7 12% No 15 26 Yes 40 69 39 67% 12 21% 7 12% No 18 31 Yes 44 76 40 69% 16 28% 2 3% No 14 24 Simple Present Simple Past Present Perfect Past perfect The figures in table (5) tell that the respondents do not seem to perceive a considerable degree of complexity in the use of the simple present tense (41%) compared with their good reaction that such a tense does not represent a considerable complexity denying this complexity to a good extent (59%). In response to the extent of complexity in the use of this tense, it is shown that it is not that complex, and the choice of moderately difficult got the highest percentage being (38). Examining the responses given on the complexity in the use of the simple past and to what extent is that complexity is, it is noticed that they believe that it does not form a considerable degree of complexity as they denied this complexity at (60%) while those realizing such a complexity were less being (40%). Regarding the level of complexity felt by such learners in using this tense, it is fluctuating between very difficult ((26%), and just difficult (22%), whereas the larger number indicated that it is being moderately difficult (52%). The figures in this table also show that those learners have a great deal of complexity in the use of the present continuous and/ or progressive aspect as being accepted as difficult at the percentage of (71). However, those denying such a complexity are much less (29%). Regarding the extent of complexity encountered by such respondents, it is clear that they largely feel that it is difficult to use this aspect as the results tell that (66%) view it as very difficult. The numerical data regarding the respondents' reaction to whether they think that the past continuous/ progressive aspect is difficult or not; it is seen that they even find it more complex (74%) than the present progressive. And in relation to the degree of complexity felt by such respondents, it is of quite a large degree as indicated by those selecting the very complex option (62%). The statistical information concerning the opinion of the respondents on the use of the present perfect, it is noticed in the table that this aspect is also perceived as largely difficult (69%), when the degree of this complexity is also largely considerable (67%) as very difficult. Quite higher than the respondents' reaction to the use of the present perfect, their reaction to whether the use of the past perfect is complex or not, it is shown that it is considerably of a larger degree of complexity (76%). At the same time, the extent of such a difficulty is very large (69%). ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 142 Table 6. The complexity of tense and aspect when used in the two skills of reading & writing Category Reading Writing Yes No Yes No Simple Present 22 (38%) 36 (62%) 23 (40%) 35 (60%) Simple Past 20 (34%) 38 (66%) 28 (48%) 30 (52%) Present Continuous/ Progressive 27 (47%) 31 (53%) 34 (59%) 24 (41%) Past Continuous/ Progressive 26 (45%) 32 (55%) 39 (67%) 19 (33%) Present Perfect 31 (53%) 27 (47%) 41 (71%) 17 (29%) Past Perfect 33 (57%) 25 (43%) 46 (79%) 12 (21%) This section analyzes the questions given to the sample members on whether they see that it is difficult to use tense and aspect in the case of the two skills of reading and writing. The results obtained and presented in table (6) indicate that this complexity is of a lower degree in the case of reading than it is in the case of writing. To go into more details, the figures show that those learners get well with the use of the simple present and simple past tenses as well as the present and past progressive aspects particularly in the reading skill. The results suggest that it is only (38%) difficult for them to get familiar with the simple present in reading, whereas it is also only (40%) complex to use this tense when writing. Meantime, the simple past is also just (34%) complex to get familiar with in reading, and it is just (48%) complex to use in writing. Further, the indication of such a result tells us that such learners have to read materials in English and also write reports and other writings in English, therefore, their ability to recognize tense and aspect, mainly, the ones tested in this research, is of great importance. It is clear that the present continuous/ progressive is just normal for such learners when they read (47%), but it is relatively more difficult than the simple present and simple past when they write (59%). The past progressive is difficult to some extent when such learners read (45%), but it is largely complex (67%) when they write. The present is perfect, however, is greatly difficult in both skills in the way that those respondents agree that it is complex to the extent of (53%) when they read, and (71%) when they write. Addressing their opinion on the complexity of the past perfect, it is seen as being difficult for them to read (57%) and also greatly complex to write (79%). 5. Conclusions Gathered from Discussing the Test & the Questionnaire The research posits a number of questions that have been answered in the discussion attempted earlier, and depending on such a discussion, the following conclusions can be made. 1. It can be gathered that the real problem of the respondents of this study is that they find it a hard task when they attempt to recall the rules of this area of grammar in order to use these tenses and aspects correctly. It is a hard task mentally that they have to think and rethink about such rules, which in turn, has its influence on their learning as a whole. Meantime, they have to revise these rules every now and then, otherwise, they are likely to forget them. 2. Those learners like almost other EFL learners in similar learning settings encounter a great deal of complexity in their learning and use of tense and aspect. This is clearly observed, particularly in the case of the use of the progressive and the perfective aspects in English. 3. The number of errors ascribed to the learners' unfamiliarity with the English aspects is greater than the number of errors ascribed to their low level of mastery of the English tenses. Thus, the English aspect is a greater cause of complexity to such learners than the English tense. 4. The students, taken as the respondents of this research, seem unclear about such uses which were not possibly made clear to them at the earlier stages of learning on how to use tense and aspect. This can be supported by the fact that they had studied English for six years before joining the university, and also they have learnt English for almost two or more years in addition to their learning of English in their specialist courses. However, their level is still below expectation. 5. The Present and Past simple tenses are given more learning and possibly additional practice than the Progressive and Perfective aspects, which happened in the two stages of learning, i.e., the pre-university stage and the university stage. 5.1 Recommendations 5.1.1 Recommendation for the Educational Authorities 1. Educational authorities are required to give priority to this very important component of the English language grammar; teaching English can never do without teaching grammar. 2. Such authorities are urged to provide the teachers of English, mainly at the stages before the university, with adequate training on how to deal with grammar points like this one. In such a training, the learning areas that are of greater complexity to learners should be given a longer span of time and a greater deal of effort. ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 143 5.1.2 Recommendations for Curricula Designers/ Developers 1. Curricula designers and developers are supposed to build the teaching materials in the courses offered to learners like the ones of this study in such a way that they consider the differences between the two languages in the areas of tense and aspect, paying greater attention to the progressive and perfective aspects. 2. They are required to enrich the learning materials designed for their learners with sufficient drills and exercises so that teachers can make use of such drills and exercises so as to give learners adequate chances to practice what they learn. 3. They should provide the learning materials with hints that can aid teachers of how to tackle problems of differences between the target language and the learners' mother tongue. 4. They should present the learning materials in a logical order considering the level of complexity of each tense and aspect. 5. The learning content designed has to be introduced through a sufficient comprehensible input in the way that the daily life of learners is represented in a way or another so that some kind of connection between the learners' daily life and their learning can be established. 5.1.3 Recommendations for Teachers 1. Teachers are supposed to build their teaching to those learners in a way that the areas of greater complexity should be given extra attention and care. To do that effectively, learners should be drilled on the rules of tense and aspect so that such learners can have a clear understanding of the difficulties that they encounter when it comes to use. 2. Teachers should try their best to clarify as much as possible the problems that may result from differences between the language learnt and the learners' mother tongue. 3. Teaching, from time to time, should be linked to students' daily life situations. For example, the students can be drilled on writing sentences about their daily routines so that the simple present can be well learnt. In the case of the simple past, teachers can make use of some historical events and facts that happened in the past as well as activities that were made by students during summer vacations. In the case of the other aspects such as the present progressive, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect teachers can make use of a number of activities that cannot be listed here because they are many. Such drills and activities are discussed and presented in different grammar textbooks. 4. Practice of comparison and contrast is definitely an effective measure giving students a clear way of such uses. Further, it helps learners differentiate and remember easily and quickly such rules. 5. When correcting errors made by learners, these errors must be corrected in the manner that they should not be treated as something bad on the part of learners, but rather as attempted strategies to arrive at the correct use of a rule. References Abbad, A. (1988). An Analysis of Communicative Competence Features in English Texts in Yemen Arab Republic, PhD. Dissertation. Illinois University at Urbana: USA. Al-Buainain, H. A. (1992). 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Foreign and Second Language Learning: Language Acquisition Research and its Implications for the Classroom. CUP: Cambridge. Mukattash, L. (1983). The Problem of Difficulty in Foreign Language Learning, in: Dahiyat, E. and Ibrahim, M. (Eds.). Papers from the First Conference on the Problems of Teaching English Language and Literature at Arab Universities. Amman University: Jordan. Norrish, J. (1983). Language Learners and their Errors. Basingstoke: London. Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. CUP: Cambridge. Nunan, D.(1999). Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall International Ltd.: UK. Oxford, R. (1990). Language Teaching Strategies: what every teacher should know. Newbury House: New York. Rababah, G. (2005) Communication Problems Facing Arab Learners of English, Journal of Language and Learning, 3 (1), 1740-1767. Rutherford, W. & SharwoodSmith, M. (1988). Grammar and Second Language Teaching. New York: Newbury House. Sahu, R. (1999). To Greater Heights: Improving English Language Competence of Yemeni Learners. Retrieved from: http:// www. Yemen Times. com. Yemen Times: Weekly Newspaper. Issue Vol. IX, 5, p. 9. Suleiman, S. (1983). Teaching English to Arab Students at University Level’ in: Dahiyat, E. and Ibrahim, M. (Eds.) Papers from the First Conference on the Problems of Teaching English Language and Literature at Arab Universities. Amman University: Jordan. Swan, H. (1987). Practical English Usage. OUP: Oxford. Telda, Y. & Desta, M. (2014). Reading Stories to Enhance English Grammar Intake: Correlational Analysis, International Journal of English language & Translation Studies, Vol. 2 (1), 92 – 105. Thakur, D. (1987). A Handbook of English Grammar and Usage. Bharat Bavan: New Delhi. Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Longman: Essex. Wallace, M. (2004). Action Research for Language Teachers. CUP: Cambridge. Yule, G. (2000). Explaining Grammar. OUP: Oxford. ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 145 Appendix A Dear student, This test is a part of a research that is conducted for the purpose of finding out the difficulties and/ or complexities that you encounter in the use of the English tense and aspect. Kindly answer the test items as correctly and honestly as possible. Thanking you Section 1: Kindly read each item carefully, and answer it as correctly as possible. A: Encircle the correct verb/ choice. 1. Tareq _________ to France last summer. a. goes b. went c. go 2. Don’t go out. It _________ outside. a. is raining b. rains c. rain 3. Bob usually _________ a sandwich for lunch. a. eat b. ate c. eats 4. They ______ to this city four weeks ago a. come b. comes c. came 5. ______ you a student? 6. c. Is b. Do The students ______ English now. a. learn a. Are b. learns c. are learning 7. Mohammed _________ many games at the age of 15. a. played b. plays c. play 8. While the teacher __________ on the board, Moneer raised his hand. a. writes b. write c. was writing 9. We _________ home at 10 o’clock yesterday. a. arrive b. arrived c. arrives 10. The light suddenly went off while they ____________ TV. a. watches b. watch c. were watching 11. Huda ___________ English since she was six. a. learns b. learn c. has learnt 12. He knew later that he ____________ the door. a. hadn’t locked b. doesn’t lock c. isn’t locking 13. My father and mother _______ two cups of coffee every morning. a. had b. have c. had 14. Faris speaks Arabic, but right now, he ___________ English. a. is speaking b. speaks c. speak 15. We __________________ TV at the moment. a. watch b. watches c. are watching 16. The students ___________ in the classroom for 50 minutes. a. have stayed b. stays c. stay 17. Our class usually ________ at ten every Monday. a. starts b. start c. started 18. On arriving at the airport, the plane __________. a. leave b. leaves c. had left 19. His brother __________ his wallet. a. lose b. is losing c. has lost 20. All the family love their house very much because they ________ in it all their life. a. have lived b. live c. lives 21. By the time they got to the office, the manager ____________. a. had left b. leaves c. leave ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016 146 22. She was unhappy because she ________ the test. a. fails b. fail c. had failed 23. Sami ___________ his homework when his friend visited him. a. does b. was doing c. did 24. While he ___________, the phone rang. a. sleep b. sleeps c. was sleeping Section 2: Read this little text and underline the correct verb/ choice between brackets. I am glad to hear that you ___________ (enjoys/ enjoy/ are enjoying) yourself in Australia these days. Things here are as usual. Your father _____________ (finish/ has finished/ finishes) the work in the garden. Last week while he ________________ (works/ was working/ work), many of our neighbors ___________ (comes/ came/ come) to help him. Your younger brother did not pass the driving test because he ___________________ (didn’t prepare/ doesn’t prepare/ hadn’t prepared) well for it. The whole family will be glad to know what you ____________ (does/ did/ do) every day. Appendix B The Questionnaire (the English Version) Questionnaire on the Difficulties and/ or Conmplexities Encountered by EFL Learners in the Use of the English Tense and Aspect Dear student, This questionnaire includes questions on the difficulties and/ or complexities that EFL learners of English encounter in the use of the present simple and past simple tenses. The questionnaire also includes some other questions on the difficulties and/ or complexities that the same learners encounter in the use of the present, past continuous and/ or progressive, and the present and past perfect aspects. The questions are given below. You are kindly requested to answer the questions completely and correctly. The answers given will be used only for the research purposes and not for any other purposes. Section One: Please tick (∕) the correct choice/ answer. Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 Yes No If Yes, how much difficult is it? Very Just Moderately Difficult Difficult Difficult Do you think that the use of the Simple Present is difficult and/ or complex? Do you think that the use of the Simple Past is difficult and/ or complex? Do you think that the use of the Present Progressive is difficult and/ or complex? Do you think that the use of the Past Progressive is difficult and/ or complex? Do you think that the use of the Present Perfect is difficult and/ or complex? Do you think that the use of the Past Perfect is difficult and/ or complex? Section Two: Please tick (∕) the correct choice/ answer. Q1: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the present simple tense? Is it, for example, in? Reading О Yes О No, Writing О Yes О No Q2: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the past simple tense? Is it, for example, in? Reading О Yes О No, Writing О Yes О No Q3: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the present continuous and/ or progressive aspects? Is it, for example, in? Reading О Yes О No, Writing О Yes О No Q4: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the past continuous and/ or progressive aspects? Is it, for example, in?” Reading О Yes О No, Writing О Yes О No ‫‪ALLS 7(1):135-147, 2016‬‬ ‫‪147‬‬ ‫‪Q5: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the present perfect? Is it, for example,‬‬ ‫?‪in‬‬ ‫‪Reading О Yes О No, in Writing О Yes О No‬‬ ‫?‪Q6: In which skill or activity do you find it difficult and/ or complex when using the past perfect? Is it, for example, in‬‬ ‫‪Reading О Yes О No,‬‬ ‫‪Writing О Yes О No‬‬ ‫‪Appendix C‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺒﺎﻧﺔ‬ ‫‪ ,ƔNJ‬واﻟﺤﺪث‬ ‫‪Ƅ ƵǚLjƐ ǛƺƵǚǃ ƔNJ‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺒﺎﻧﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺎت أو ﻣﻌﻮﻗﺎت اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺰﻣﻦ واﻟﺤﺪث ﻓﻲ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‪ ,‬ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﯾﺘﺤﺪد ب‪Ƅ Ƶǚƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ:‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﺤﺪد ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ب‪ ƷǛҚƵǚƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ, ƺҚƄƺƵǚLjƐ ǛƺƵǚ, ƺҚƄƺƵǚƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ:‬ﺛﻢ‪.ƷǛҚƵǚLjƐ ǛƺƵǚ‬‬ ‫اﻟﻐﺮض ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺒﺎﻧﺔ ھﻮ ﺗﻠﻤﺲ اﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺎت او اﻟﻤﻌﻮﻗﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻒ ﻓﻲ طﺮﯾﻘﻜﻢ ﻋﻨﺪ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻷﻓﻌﺎل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻻت اﻷزﻣﻨﺔ اﻟﻤﺬﻛﻮرة ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ‬ ‫‪) ƔNJ‬‬ ‫‪Ƅ ƵǚƔNJ‬‬ ‫وﻛﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪث واﻟﻤﺤﺪد ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ‪ ,(The Past Simple‬واﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ )‪(The Present Simple‬وھﻲ‪Ƅ Ƶǚƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ:‬‬ ‫‪The Present Continuous/ Progressive, ƺҚƄƺƵǚLjƐ ǛƺƵǚ,The Past Continuous/ Progressive ƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ,‬ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪ƺҚƄƺƵǚƛﬞ ǛƑ ƺƵǚ:‬‬ ‫‪ƷǛҚƵǚThe Present Perfect ƷǛ‬‬ ‫‪ҚƵǚLjƐ ǛƺƵǚ,The Past Perfect‬‬ ‫ﺟﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﺮ ان ھﺬه اﻻﺳﺘﺒﺎﻧﺔ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺌﻠﺔ‪ ,‬اﻟﺮﺟﺎء اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‪ ,‬وﯾﻮد اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ اﻟﺘﺄﻛﯿﺪ ﻟﻜﻢ ان اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺎت ﻟﻦ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻻ ﻷﻏﺮاض اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻓﻘﻂ‪,‬‬ ‫‪. NJ‬‬ ‫‪Ʊ ljӨƬҗƴҸƹ ƻDŽ‬‬ ‫‪ƲNJ‬‬ ‫وﻟﯿﺲ ﻷي ﻏﺮض اﺧﺮ‪ƃ ƸƲƽǃǛƞҗ .‬‬ ‫اﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻨﺎوﻟﮭﺎ اﻻﺳﺘﺒﺎﻧﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ‪Mohammed goes to school every day.‬‬‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ‪Mohammed went to school yesterday.‬‬‫ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ‪Mohammed is learning English now.‬‬‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ‪Mohammed was doing his work last night.‬‬‫ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺘﺎم ‪Mohammed has finished his work.‬‬‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم ‪Mohammed had finished his work.‬‬‫اﻟﻘﺴﻢ اﻻول‪ :‬اﻟﺮﺟﺎء وﺿﻊ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ )‪ (/‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﻞ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺪل ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎرك اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻌﻢ ﻻ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة او اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ‬ ‫درﺟﺔ اﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺔ‬ ‫ﺻﻌﺐ او ﻣﺮﺑﻚ ﺟﺪا‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺘﺎم ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫ھﻞ ﺗﺠﺪ أن اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم ﺻﻌﺒﺎ أو ﻣﺮﺑﻜﺎ؟‬ ‫ﺻﻌﺐ او‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺑﻚ‬ ‫ﺻﻌﺐ او ﻣﺮﺑﻚ‬ ‫ﺑﺪرﺟﺔ أﻗﻞ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‪ :‬اﻟﺮﺟﺎء اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﻻﺟﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺤﺔ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ اﺷﺎرة )‪ (/‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﺧﺘﯿﺎرك‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة؟‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪ О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة‪:‬‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة؟‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎض اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.4‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة؟‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع اﻟﺘﺎم ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.5‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة؟‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ‪:‬؟‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻦ ﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ او ﻓﻲ أي ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﻲ ﺗﺠﺪ ان اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم ﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ او ارﺑﺎﻛﺎ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ‪ ,‬ھﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.6‬‬ ‫ﻻ ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻘﺮاءة؟‬ ‫ﻻ‪ О‬ﻧﻌﻢ ‪О‬اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ؟‬ Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Examining the Impact of Novel Pre-activity Tasks on Macroskills: The Case of Group Discussion on Writing Ability Hooshang Khoshsima Department of English Language, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran E-mail: Khoshsima2002@yahoo.com Esmail Zare-Behtash Department of English Language, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran E-mail: behtash@cmu.ac.ir Mahboobeh Khosravani (Corresponding author) Department of English Language, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran E-mail: Khosravani7@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.148 Received: 11/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.148 Accepted: 16/11/2015 Abstract The main concern of most researchers in the field of second and foreign language teaching is lessening the problems and eliminating the hinders on the way of learning a language. Writing is considered as one of the most challenging and complicated tasks for learners to perform particularly when they have to write in a second or foreign language. Numerous studies were done on the importance of the pre-writing stage and activities which are directly and indirectly related to the theme of the writing. Accordingly, the main aim of this study was to examine the effects of group discussion as a pre- activity task on writing ability. To this aim, 27 Iranian EFL learners, who were at the same level – intermediate- studying at Shokuh and Safir Institutes, Birjand, Iran were chosen randomly. Two groups- one control and one experimental group- were studied. In control group the conventional method was used in teaching writing, while in experimental group, group discussion pre-activity task was administered. After 16 sessions, the obtained data of the pretests and posttests was analyzed by SPSS software. According to the results, researcher strongly concluded that group discussion has no significant effect on writing ability of Iranian intermediate learners. This study can help teachers and syllabus designers in choosing and applying an effective pre-activity task. Keywords: writing ability, pre-activity task, group discussion, EFL learners 1. Introduction Writing is considered as one of the most challenging and complicated tasks for learners to perform particularly when they have to write in a second or foreign language. All of us may experience it when we start to write about something, we face a lot of difficulties especially in the very beginning. In another words, writing is not only to put our pen on paper and place the words in their right place. In fact, writing is difficult for students as it demands other linguistic, cognitive and metacognitive strategies to be used (Rao, 2007). Furthermore, Pishghadam and Ghanizadeh (2006) proposed that although students pass several years in writing classes, still they have a lot of problems in the process of writing. On the other hand, the importance and necessity of writing skill is clear for all teachers and researchers as it enables them to think critically, organize their opinions, and finally to compose what they have in their mind. Rao (2007) indicated the importance of writing in this way, “Writing has always been regarded as an important skill in the teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). On the one hand, it stimulates thinking, compels students to concentrate and organize their ideas, and cultivates their ability to summarize, analyze, and criticize. On the other hand, it reinforces learning in, thinking in, and reflecting on the English language” (p.100). It is believed that most students have difficulty in the very beginning of writing (Mousapour negari, 2011). All the time, students express their complaints that they cannot organize their thoughts and write about something engrossing and relevant to the topic. Although teachers are aware of these problems, they cannot find suitable techniques to eliminate students' obstacles in the processes of writing (Rao, 2007). Before starting to write, as Pishghadam and Ghanizadeh (2006) suggested, students need more preparations and exercises to overcome the difficulties of writing. As a result, teachers should pay more attention on prewriting stage. Recently, a large number of studies are done to examine the effects of prewriting tasks on writing ability. The term ‘pre-writing’ has two different meanings. It can mean the stage ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 149 before children learn writing, which is referred to as hand skills. The other meaning, which is the concern of this study, relates to a pre-activity like group discussion. Using group discussion is a pre- activity task which is known as collaborative learning, cooperative learning, peer learning, group learning, formal learning groups, and study teams (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). Using group discussion as a pre- activity task means setting up some cooperative groups of students in class and asking them to discuss a specific topic with each other. Johnson and Johnson and Holubec (1998) defined a cooperative group as "a group whose members are committed to a common purpose of maximizing each other's learning" (p.72). 2. Review of Literature 2.1 Writing Skill According to Chastain (1988) “Writing is a basic communication skill and a unique asset in the process of learning a second language. Producing a successful written text is a task which requires simultaneous control over a number of language systems.” (p. 244) Many scholars believe that teaching writing should be in a way that stimulates student output and only then should generate teacher response and conferencing (e.g Reid, 1993). According to Widdowson (1983), writing is an interactive process of negotiation. However, providing a coherent and cohesive piece of writing is difficult since, as Zamel (1987) states, writing has a complex, recursive and non-linear nature requiring a variety of micro-skills. This might be a reason why there is no agreement among second language scholars over the best approach to teach or learn it. A considerable body of literature on L2 writing (e.g. Kern & Schultz, 1992; East, 2008; Zamel, 1987) challenges the product approach and, instead, focuses on the process-oriented view. Based on Zamel (1983), researchers have found that the investigation of students’ written products do not demonstrate much about their instructional needs. That is why they are now exploring writing behaviors, which can offer insight into how to teach it. In this view, what is required is the implementation of a supportive environment in which L2 learners are encouraged to take risk and get engaged in creating meaning. In addition, the negotiation on assessment practice is indicative of the conflict between two main approaches towards writing. According to East (2008), “one view is influenced by knowledge-based approaches that favor the static assessment of writing. The advocates of this view use tests that produce a snapshot of the L2 test takers' writing ability and measure knowledge of key components. They emphasize the discriminatory power of the test to predict future success. The other view is affected by the process-oriented approach that focuses on dynamic assessment, which is more learner-centered. Based on this view, the proficiency construct of communicative writing is as an authentic reflection of writing as process.” (p. 37) 2.2 Pre-writing Activities Starting writing is a problem for many, especially young writers. Tompkins (2001) points out that the most neglected stage is the pre-writing stage. Blackburn-Brockman (2001) signalizes that many pre-service teacher education students in a composition methods course confess they did not prewrite seriously in middle and high school, and that many did not pre-write at all. However, it is an important phase in the writing process frequently overlooked by beginning writers. Thorne (1993) indicates that prewriting is the most important skill to emphasize and practice extensively in basic writing classes. She describes basic writers as almost universally neglecting prewriting activities. She suggests some guidelines for teaching prewriting effectively. The term ‘pre-writing’ has two different meanings. It can mean the stage before children learn writing, which is referred to as hand skills. The other meaning, which is the concern of this study, relates to pre-activities like pre-questioning, using visual aids, and group discussion. As the researcher believes, the schema theory which was explained in details in the pre-writing part of this chapter is also directly related to pre-writing activities as well. This claim is mentioned because the ultimate goal of using prewriting activities is activating or developing students’ background knowledge to write more successfully. Therefore, the researcher refers you to the information presented in the pre-reading part of this chapter and does not replicate those aforementioned ideas on schema theory, background knowledge and so on. 2.3 Group Discussion Cooperative learning is one strategy for group instruction which is under the learner-centered approach. Therefore, some of the definitions, perceptions, and studies done in this area are presented in this part as well. To begin, it is worth mentioning that many educators express different the definitions of cooperative learning. For example, Slavin (1995) defines cooperative learning as “an instructional program in which students work in small groups to help one another master academic content.” Brown (1994) says that “Cooperative learning involves students working together in pairs or groups, and they share information .They are a team whose players must work together in order to achieve goals successfully.” In addition, Kessler (1992) proposes the definition of cooperative learning particularly in language learning context. He mentions that “Cooperative learning is a within-class grouping of students usually of differing levels of second/foreign language proficiency, who learn to work together on specific tasks or projects in such a way that all students in the group benefit from the interactive experience.” According to Johnson (2005), cooperation is not assigning an activity to a group of students where one student does all the work and the others put their names on the paper. On the contrary, cooperative learning is a teaching strategy in ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 150 which small groups, which have members with different level, use a variety of learning activities to enhance their understanding of the lesson. Furthermore, Richards & Rodgers (2001) indicated that “a central premise of CLL (Cooperative Language Learning) is that learners develop communicative competence in a language by conversing in socially or pedagogically structured situations” (p.194) In addition, Nuttal (1982) also claims that discussion promotes the active struggle with the text and students learn the processes of critical thinking that good readers use. Group work is ideal, because in small groups, even the weaker students should be active and attend the teaching and learning process. The procedure works in almost every level, and discussion can be in their mother tongue, if students cannot manage it in the foreign language. Some of the scholars and researchers suggest different techniques and guidelines for better performing of groupdiscussion activity. For instance, some of them (Emdin, 2010; Larson, 2000; Mitchell, 2010) believe that classroom discussions must be practiced at the beginning of each school year so students will have a clear understanding of what is expected of them. They also add that the teacher must set the discussion expectations, and the students must understand that they are responsible for their own learning. Also, teachers must provide ownership to each learner’s comment after he or she has spoken. They also mention that the teacher should build a classroom environment in which all are equal participants. Some others (Larson, 2000; Mitchell, 2010) state that students must feel a high level of comfort before being able to communicate their views about a topic with their peers. They also suggest a solution. They say that the best way to facilitate this level of confidence is to allow students time to work in cooperative learning groups before having to speak in front of an entire room of their classmates. Teachers may supervise and observe these first few meetings before actively engaging as a participant in the discussions with the students. Once students are more comfortable with the discussion format, a whole group discussion can ensue which may give them the confidence to share different points of view. Considering all aforementioned definitions, views, and studies done on writing skill, pre-activity tasks, and group discussion, research questions, study method, results, conclusion, etc. are mentioned in the following parts. 2.4 Research Question and Hypothesis RQ. Does group discussion strategy as a pre- activity task have a significant effect on writing ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners? H0. Group discussion strategy as a pre- activity task has no significant effect on writing ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. 3. Method 3.1 Participants The participants of this study are 27 Iranian EFL learners, who are at the same level –intermediate- studying at Shokuh and Safir Institutes, Birjand, Iran. Their age range is among 16 to 25. Both male and female students were entered to this study. These participants were in two classes- 13 participants in the control group and 14 participants in group discussion group. The specifications of these 27 participants are given in table 1. Table 1. Participants’ Specifications Gender Age Male Female 16-20 20-25 Number Percent 10 17 16 11 35% 65% 58% 42% 3.2 Instruments and Materials In this part all instruments and materials which were used for conducting this research will be mentioned. The materials and instruments which used for carrying on this study are as follow. 3.2.1 TOEFL Tests TOEFL test (Test of English as a Foreign Language) is one of the most acceptable and well-known tests all over world. Nowadays, most researchers use TOEFL tests to obtain their required data as there is no doubt about their validity and reliability. TOEFL tests are in two formats: PBT (Paper-based Test) and iBT (Internet-based Test). Although iBT innovated in late 2005, it could replace progressively PBT and CBT (Computer-based Test). By the way, PBT is still in use in some regions. TOEFL test integrates all four skills –reading, writing, speaking, and listening- to measure the overall skill of communicating in foreign language. In details, in a TOEFL test, the testee is subject to a reading test and has to read a text and answer a number of questions, a writing test and has to write properly about a certain topic, a listening test and has to listen to conversations and answer questions, and finally a speaking test and has to speak about a certain topic. ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 151 In this study, the researcher preferred to use a Paper-Based version of TOEFL taken from Longman Preparation Course for the TOEFL Test (the Paper Based Test) (Phillips, 2005). As only intermediate students are involve in this study, at first, the researcher administered a TOEFL proficiency test to all participants to ensure that all of them met the intermediate level. Then, one TOEFL writing ability test was used at the outset of the study as the pre-test in both groups. This pre-test was also used to check the homogeneity of the participants and to ensure that their writing ability was also at the same level. Additionally, one TOEFL writing test was administered in these two groups at the end of treatment as the post-test. The readability scale was used to make sure that the tests are at the same level. 3.2.2 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) Software SPSS software is worldwide software which is used for statistical analysis to a great degree. All essential statistical analysis of this study was done by use of 20th version of SPSS software. The data collected from TOEFL tests were analyzed by SPSS software. 3.3 Procedures In this study, two groups- one control and one experimental group- were studied. In control group the conventional method was used, while in experimental group, group discussion pre-activity task was administered. Both groups met the same level -Intermediate. In each session, writing was taught based on this specific pre- activity task. In the first session, before performing any treatment, one pre-test of writing was administered in each group. Then, the treatments were conducted in 16 sessions. The levels of all tests were checked by readability scale which revealed that all tests were at the same level of difficulty. A TOEFL proficiency test was used to check the homogeneity of the participants. After that, the process of teaching was started and this pre- activity task was applied in the experimental group. In the last session, a writing ability test was administered in each of those two groups. The writing tests were corrected by two teachers. At the end, the obtained data of the tests was analyzed by SPSS software which are revealed in the next part. 4. Results The purpose of this section is to answer the research question which is "Does group discussion strategy as a pre- activity task have a significant effect on writing ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners?". To meet this aim, at first one independent sample t-test was employed to examine the homogeneity of groups. Table 2. Group Statistics Pretest pretest writing scores N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean pretest group discussion group 14 7.5000 1.12233 .29995 pretest control group 6.5577 1.40740 .39034 13 As displayed in table 2, mean score and standard deviation for discussion group are 7.5 and 1.1, respectively. On the other hand, mean score and standard deviations for control group are 6.5 and 1.4. As a result, these groups were similar and homogenous at the outset of the study. Next table tries to prove the same reality by use of inferential statistics. Table 3. Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Pretest writing scores Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed t-test for Equality of Means Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper F Sig. t df Sig. (2tailed) .870 .360 1.931 25 .065 .94231 .48808 -.06290 1.94752 1.914 22.965 .068 .94231 .49228 -.07614 1.96075 As illustrated in table 3, significant value is .065 >.05; so these two groups were not different before starting the treatment and they were homogenous. The next table tries to compare the posttests of experimental and control groups to answer research question. ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 152 Table 4. Group Statistics posttest writing scores Posttest N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean posttest group discussion group 14 7.4821 1.53003 .40892 posttest control group 13 6.6731 1.44476 .40071 Table 4 tries to compare groups by use of descriptive statistics. As mean score and standard deviation for discussion group are 7.4 and 1.5 and for control group are 6.6 and 1.4, it can be concluded that these groups are not significantly different as also shown in next table. Table 5. Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Posttes t writing scores Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed t-test for Equality of Means Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper F Sig. t Df Sig. (2tailed) .081 .778 1.410 25 .171 .80907 .57378 -.37267 1.99080 1.413 24.990 .170 .80907 .57252 -.37008 1.98822 In table 5, df= 25, t= 1.4, and significant value is .171 which is more than .05. As a result, group discussion pre-activity does not affect significantly on writing ability. So the null hypothesis is accepted. In other words, group discussion as a pre-activity task has no significant effect on writing ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. 4.1 Discussion Group discussion as a pre activity task has no significant effect on writing ability. As mentioned before, the unfulfilled effect of this pre-activity can be traced back in talking about other topics in groups or not participating appropriately in groups. The other reason for this failure is proposed by some researchers like Emdin, 2010; Larson, 2000; MarcumDietrich, 2010; Mitchell, 2010. They believe that classroom discussions must be practiced at the beginning of each school year so students will have a clear understanding of what is expected of them. They also add that the teacher must set the discussion expectations, and the students must understand that they are responsible for their own learning. 5. Conclusion As discussed in chapters one and two of this study, the main concern of most researchers in the field of second and foreign language teaching is lessening the problems and eliminating the hinders on the way of learning a language. Consequently, many researchers have found out that using pre-activities in the process of teaching second/foreign languages is helpful. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to examine the effects of group discussion as a preactivity task on writing ability. According to the obtained data of the previous sections, it can be strongly concluded that group discussion has no significant effect on writing ability. References Blackburn-Brockman, E. (2001). Prewriting, Planning, and Professional Communication. English J, 91(2), 51-53. Brown, H. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Chicago: HBJ. East, M. (2008). Dictionary use in foreign language writing exams: Impact and implications. International Journal of Lexicography, 22(3), 344-348. Emdin, C. (2010). Dimensions of communication in urban science education: Interactions and transactions. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. doi: 10.1002/sce.20411 Johnson, D. (2005). Cooperative learning: increasing college faculty instructional productivity. Available Online at: www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/92-2dig.htm. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Smith, K.A. (1991). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction. ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 153 Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (1998). Advanced cooperative learning (2nd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book. Kessler, C. (1992). Cooperative language learning: A teacher resource book. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Larson, B. E. (2000). Classroom discussion: A method of instruction and a curriculum outcome. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 661-677. Marcum-Dietrich, N. (2010). A scientist: Using science symposiums in the classroom. The Science Teacher, 77(4), 43. Mitchell, I. (2010). The relationship between teacher behaviours and student talk in promoting quality learning in science classrooms. Research in Science Education, 40(2), 171-186. Mousapour Negari, G. (2011). A Study on Strategy Instruction and EFL Learners’ Writing Skill. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(2), 299-307. doi:10.5539/ijel.v1n2p299 Nuttal, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Oxford: Macmilan Publishers. Pishghadam, R., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2006). On the Impact of Concept Mapping as a Prewriting Activity on EFL Learners’ Writing Ability. IJAL Journal, 9(2). Rao, Z. (2007). Training in Brainstorming and Developing Writing Skills. ELT Journal, 61(2), 100-106. Reid, J. (1993). Teaching ESL Writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents Prentice Hall. Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thorne, S. (1993). Prewriting: A basic skill for basic writers. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 20(1), 31-36. Tompkins, G. E. (2001). Literacy for the 21st century: A balanced approach. Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall. Widdowson, H. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zamel, V. (1983). The composing processes of advanced ESL students: Six cases studies. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 165-187. Zamel, V. (1987). Recent research on writing pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 21(4), 697-715. Appendices Appendix A (Writing Tests) Writing Test 1 Some people have the dream of traveling to Niagara Falls, while others don't care. What about you? Do you like to see Niagara Falls or not? Support your idea with reasons and examples (In about three paragraphs). Writing Test 2 Some people have the dream of traveling to moon, while others don't care. What about you? Support your idea with reasons and examples (In about 3 paragraphs). Writing Test 3 Nowadays youths prefer to wear jeans. What is your favorite style of trousers? Use specific reasons and examples to support your responses (In about 3 paragraphs). Writing Test 4 What do you know about your brain? Write about different parts of brain and function in details (In about 3 paragraphs). ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 Appendix B (TOEFL Proficiency Test : Sample Pages) 154 ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 155 ALLS 7(1):148-156, 2016 156 Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy The Notion of Unhomeliness in the Pickup: Homi Bhabha Revisited Ali Akbar Moghaddasi Rostami (Corresponding author) Department of Foreign Languages, Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, Iran E-mail: moghaddasirostamiali@yahoo.com Farid Parvaneh Department of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Qom Branch, Iran. Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.157 Received: 19/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.157 Accepted: 19/11/2015 Abstract This study centers on two characters in Nadine Gordimer’s novel The Pickup: Abdu and Julie. Abdu is an illegal immigrant in South Africa and is deported from there to his homeland. Julie who is white woman from a high social class in South Africa meets and falls in love with Abdu and moves to Abdu’s unknown Islamic country. She finds her lost identity in Abdu’s homeland and stays in his country and tries to adapt herself to Islamic laws and traditions, while Abdu feels unhomely in his own homeland and tries to move to the United State. The research sought to analyze these two wandering characters through the notions of unhomeliness, and in-between space. Identity of the two characters was not determined by the country. Keywords: Post-colonial literature, Bhabha, Unhomeliness, Gordimer, Identity 1. Introduction The city Johannesburg as the setting in the novel The Pickup could represent any global city separated from its surroundings and attached to the other global cities by the world market and electronic communication. This process can cause identity crisis .In fact, in this situation there is no place to fix the sense of self. In the Westernized world and in time of globalization man is facing the problem of homeliness. According to Bhabha ‘home’ is perceived to be a place of stable identity where one has been and is understood. In nation and cultures that are experiencing oppression , home is linked to positive version of the past .It means a life before oppression .In other words, ‘home’ is tied to freedom. Bhabha develops the notion of unhomely by referring to some work of post colonial literature that problamatize the idea of the real and stable ‘home’. Bhabha emphasizes on instability of ‘home’ and of the ‘past’. The word ‘unhomely’ is the translation of ‘unheimlich’ which is the opposite of ‘heimlich’. Bhabha argues that the place between the ‘heimlich’ (homely) and ‘unheimlich’ (unhomely) is a post colonial place, a space in which one can see how a person’s identity is a mixture of what is unfamiliar or foreign and what is familiar. This idea echoes the work of Sigmund Freud. To Freud as the subconscious creeps and moves into the conscious, it creates an uncanny moment. It is the same when the world creeps into the home and shakes an identity that was thought to be stable and secure. This shock of recognition is commonly considered to be negative. Alienation is a very painful experience which one thinks to be familiar, but it is not. Bhabha suggests that the alienation which a person experiences in the ‘unhomely’ moment, may also present an opportunity to reevaluate one’s identity. Bhabha talks about his own origins and does not claim a stable and fixed identity. He suggests that Parsis have transformational experiences, and hybrid identity. We should know that homelessness is real as well as metaphorical. I have lived that moment of scattering of the people that in other times And other places, in the nations of others, becomes a time of gathering. Gathering of exiles and émigrés and refugees; gathering on the edge of Foreign cultures; gathering at the frontiers; gatherings in the ghettoes or Or Cafes city centers; gathering in the half-life, half-light of foreign tongues Or in the uncanny fluency of another’s language,(LC :139) Bhabha suggests the uncanny concept as the unhomely, too. He evokes the uncanniness of migrant experience through a series of familiar ideas like- half-life, (the partial presence of colonial identity) , repeats the life lived in the country of origin . However, the repetition is not identical. It introduces transformation and difference. He also says further that ALLS 7(1):157-160, 2016 158 this repetition is a way of reviving that past life and keeping it alive in the present. All the uncertainties, hesitations and ambivalences which colonial authority and its figures are imbued with, are characterized in terms of the uncanny. In other word, the split in political subject can be described as uncanny. Sigmund Freud and Julia Kristeva use the idea of the uncanny. This influenced Bhabha and his sense of the hybrid, post-colonial perspective. According to Bhabha culture has dual identity. On the one hand, it is homely or realistic, asserting its stability and coherence; on the other hand, it is unhomely because it is always changing; it is always made meaningful by others. Culture, to Bhabha, is never coherent and self –sufficient .Though its narratives seem confidence and stable, they are always drawn into displaced relationship. They are in relationship with other cultures, texts, or disciplines. He says migrants can be a good example of this dual nature of culture; they are always situated in relation to both an original culture and a new place and location. Bhabha argues that the uncanny possibly has more power when it is applied to the homeliness of the colonizer, when it is used to explore the foreignness that is central to original and self-sufficient source of colonization. Bhabha points out that the relationship between self and other is always an uncanny one. He says uncanniness is not only a question of place, but also of time, since our sense of national identity is open and static. We don’t ‘own’ our nation, as it is something that is our own and at the same time it is not ours, because its identity is always changing or coming from future. He adds, like culture, Western knowledge is homely and unhomely or canny and uncanny. Bhabha believes in Western and non-Western identities. Because the concept of ‘uncanny’ undermines the stability of all concepts in general, it seems to be a slippery concept. Bhabha is supposed to be an expert in transforming concepts as his theoretical strategies. The slippery means it tends to elude definite theorization. By using canny and uncanny, Bhabha focuses the colonial relationship –as the simple division of self and other. 2. Abdu and Julie looking for home Gordimer demonstrates that belonging and sense of self are not determined by the nation’s borders .Her protagonists locate their sense of self through spiritual, regional, and sexual spaces. Abdu doesn’t feel homely in his country .The most important point is that throughout the story he doesn’t mention his homeland. He named a country she had barely heard of. He is a migrant who lives in South Africa, a foreign territory, and faces in-between and hybrid space. Abdu is under the influences of two cultures, two different worlds: the modern world of West and the world of colonized. He tries to adapt himself with the Western and colonizer, and looking for a home in Western countries specially the U.S .Now he is suffering from dangling and no-belonging position. Even the owner of the garage for whom he is working doesn’t have any respect for him. The employer suggests that Julie not get this homeless guy her friend and partner. For your own good, you are a nice girl, a somebody, I can see .He is not for you .He is not really allowed to be in the country. Abdu and Julie both feel unhomely; one from inside her home and the other while is outside his homeland. Julie has been picked up by Abdu who symbolizes her lost sense of self. Each of the two protagonists reflects and mirrors the other’s lost sense of self. Their love affairs have been formed in in-between situation. He is here, he is not here. It’s within this condition of existence that they exist as lovers’. It is a state of suspension from the pressures of necessity to plan the way others have to plan …… There is no future without an identity to claim it.(Gordimer 37) Abdu the male character of the story is not only homeless in metaphorical sense but he is a real homeless from the very beginning of the story. We know nothing of his country of origin, his real name; is it Ibrahim, Abdu or Abdurrahman? He is also referred to as ‘garage man’ and á grease monkey’. He is also an economist .Where did he get his degree? The university is one that nobody’s heard of. “--An economist having to become a grease monkey I wonder how he learned about cars.”(Gordimer 15) Julie doesn’t really understand where he said he was from .In response to the question about his country of origin he says: I can’t say that –‘my country’-because somebody else made a line and said that is it. In my Father’s time they gave it to the rich who run it for themselves. So whose country I should Say, it’s mine. (Gordimer 15) Because he is a black, from outside, he is exploited by the owner of the garage he is working. The garage employed him illegally –‘black’ that is the word they use. It is cheap for the owner. The owner doesn’t pay accident insurance, pension, and medical aid. So Abdu is treated as a real homeless in Julie’s country. 3. Social and Economical Status of Abdu and Julie Abdu is from a third world country. The community that he grew up is Islamic. It is a primitive society with microbourgeois class. The Islamic culture is dominant. Abdu’s family doesn’t like and approve western and European culture. They think western culture is corrupted. The social class that Abdu belongs to is so inferior to Julie’s. Therefore, he isn’t willing to talk about his family status, his country and the things. Julie is living in South Africa; from a well-to do family with European culture which is the opposite of Abdu’s society. Julie doesn’t feel cheerful in her industrialized homeland. Her father is an investment banker. She doesn’t like her father’s idea .When her father learns she has made love with Abdu, an immigrant from unknown land, he cuts her allowance. When Julie goes to her father and informs him of her marriage and her leaving the country, he gets annoyed and talks about social class distinction: ALLS 7(1):157-160, 2016 159 Make something of your life and all the advantages you’ve had –including your freedom You’re nearly thirty. And now you come here without any warning and simply tell us you Are leaving in a week’s time for one of the worst, poorest and most backward of Third World countries, following a man who’s been living here illegally, getting yourself deported Yes- from your own country…You are out of your mind .What more can I say. You choose To go hell in your own way (Gordimer 98) To Julie, going to Arab country is going to paradise. Here in her ancestor’s country she feels lonely and homeless .She is living at home abroad or abroad at home.(Bhabha) There is a big gap between the two social, cultural and economical statuses .Julie is not free to live in South Africa, what her father says; she feels free in Abdu’s desert land. She sees her true identity in Abdu. Julie desires to go to Abdu’s country, but her family refuses to help him to get legal document to stay there. Julie hates South Africa, the country of exploitation, discrimination, poverty, and cruelty .She would like to marry Abdu and immigrate to her Islamic country as early as possible, so she purchases two tickets which make Abdu so angry. He thinks that Julie can not live with his family and it is impossible for her to adapt their culture. 4. Julia’s Desired Land Though Abdu does not approve of his culture and socio economic system of his country, he tries to follow the traditions and cultural codes as long as he is there. So he wants Julie to go to Magistrate’s Court to marry her formally .He can not take a woman to his family without a formal marriage. Julie feels a strong affinity with Abdu’s family, but she needs to learn the language .She at least knew enough to observe the etiquette that here it was impolite to refuse anything offered.(Gordimer120) .She has sense of home here in Abdu’s country and feel comfortable . She is eager to learn more about his family, relatives, and their traditions. Abdu’s family helps her to comply herself as much as possible with their regulation, rules, and traditions. They want her to cover her head when she is out. Abdu doesn’t feel comfortable in his home land. He is shocked that Julie expresses her interests and willing to stay here in a backward country. For example every morning ,afternoon and evening they hear muezzin is calling for prayer in the mosque and this is bothering for Abdu and wouldn’t like to hear it .He explains to Julie that “that is what we have in the miracle of technology in our place.” (G. 125) Abdu makes fun of his people’s beliefs, ideas, traditions and even their religious ceremony. He thought Julie who is from a developed country and of higher social class would be a great help to locate his home to settle; unfortunately, she is longing to adapt herself and live here. Julie finds her real home and her lost identity when she meets Abdu. Abdu’s sister, Maryam, is helping Julie to pick up the language and customs of the new homeland. Maryam has become fluent in speaking and understanding English. Julie is mingling in new unknown Islamic nation more and more but Abdu is out of this exchange. Abdu is a foreign in his own homeland and finally decided to leave the country without his wife and go to the United State. Therefore their marriage was not based on love. They have nothing to share .Julie accepts the ceremony of the month of Ramadan and performs the ritual of this month. 5. Abdu’s Dream Land Abdu is not free in his own homeland .He is considered as political troublemaker in his land. He made a big mistake to return to his country. Because he escaped from his country to South Africa, he shouldn’t have returned to his country. He thought through his marriage to Julie he could solve the problem and would be able to go to any country that they would like. Unfortunately, Julie found her desired and dreams home. He tried to get of his country but “as he has been refused a passport at this end of the process because there is a record of a political troublemaker as a student against the regime, he hasn’t the first requirement of the many for the visa application.”(GordimerP.176) Therefore Abdu has become captive in his country and trying to escape again and find his true homeland to settle. His uncle, Uncle Yaqub, is a religious man. He has a workshop, and business is great for him; Abdu was said to do repair job and also go on business of buying and selling of American and German second hand automobiles. Uncle Yaqub is against his nephew. He doesn’t want Ibrahim to go and spend time with malcontents who blame the government and authorities. About political malcontents, Uncle Yaqub says: The Lord has given them what a man needs to live a good life in the Faith, their family have Educated them, they can marry and bring up children in security, there are no foreigners From Europe flying flags over our land any longer-what more do they want.. They want to Bring down government. That’s the evil they want.(Gordimer P.189) However, Abdu doesn’t want to live there and doesn’t show any interest to work in his uncle’s workshop. He is considered as a foreigner in his own homeland. In Uncle Yaqub’s point of view, Abdu and his friends who are educated and think of modernity are foreigners ; they are dangerous ,a danger to government and people of their country. 6. Conclusion Gordimer in her recent novel The Pick up metaphorically expresses that colonialism has created a problem in the world. It can not be said the colonialism has completely disappeared from the society. One of the most serious problem of this ALLS 7(1):157-160, 2016 160 age, the post-colonialism period is, unhomeliness. Characters in her novel are wandered and homeless, looking for their true identity to pick up. In the metropolitan area of South Africa this is a big problem. In the process of colonization and social, political oppression many people left their homeland or even on their own home land are feeling unhomely. Gordimer portrays the problem of a white character who represents the colonizer’s and one black character from third world country representing the colonized. References Ashcroft, & Griffiths, G. (1989) The Empire writes back: Theory and practice in post-colonial literatures. London: Routledge. Ashcroft, B., & Griffiths, G (2000) , Post-colonial studies the key concepts. London: Routledge Bhabha, H. (1994) the location of culture London: Routledge. Bhabha, H. (1990) Nation and Narration London: Routledge Cohn, B. (1996). Colonialism and its forms of knowledge: the British in India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Gordimer, N. (2001). The Pickup New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Huddart, D. (2005). Homi K. Bhabha. London: Routledge.Lionnet, F. (1995). Postcolonial representations: Women, literature, identity. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Lodge, (N.D.). 20th century literary criticism: A reader / edited by David Lodge. Loomba, A. (1998). Colonialism- post colonialism London: Routledge. Thurston, B. (1999). Nadine Gordimer revisited. New York: Twayne. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Overcoming Impediments to Learning the Four Language Skills Using Note Books Anne A. Christopher School of Education & Modern Languages, College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia E-mail: althea@uum.edu.my Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.161 Received: 22/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.161 Accepted: 27/11/2015 Abstract The level of awareness of the importance of mastering ESL among the local community is poor, particularly in rural areas. A study was conducted to gather information from English as a Second Language (ESL) learners pertaining to the impediments of English Language learning (ELL) by specifically focusing on the four language skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. The study involved 30 Intermediate Year 5 pupils from a rural primary school. The method involved the use of note books as the medium for the learners to channel various problems which they feel hinder the effectiveness of their ESL learning in the four language skills. The pupils were also asked to suggest ways they think these problems can be solved by themselves, their ESL teachers and their fellow ESL peers. The analysis revealed varying viewpoints on the contributing factors that trigger various problems in learning the four skills as well as measures for mutual language improvement among them. It is hoped that ESL educators, particularly in rural areas will place importance on the various impediments which their ESL learners face and strive to make their learners’ ELL more effective and meaningful. Keywords: ESL, ELL, note books, impediments, language skills 1. Introduction In this second decade of the 21st century, ESL learners in some parts of Malaysia, be it at primary or secondary level are still being taught using exam-oriented methods whereby the teacher focuses his or her lesson by giving great emphasis on getting the students to pass their exams with flying colours. The situation is even worse especially for those who are studying in rural areas where the level of awareness on the importance of mastering ESL among the local community is extremely poor. Usually, at the primary level, English is treated as merely a subject to be passed in the exam, thus, lessons would be conducted by focusing on reading and writing skills since only those two skills are being tested in the exams. Speaking and listening are usually treated as side skills with the general assumption that the students would acquire these skills along the way, therefore, not much attention is paid to them. 2. Overview of KSSR English Language Syllabus for Primary Schools English is taught as a second language in all Malaysian primary and secondary schools in the country. The terminal goal of the English Language curriculum for schools is to help learners acquire the language so that they can use it in their everyday life, to further their studies, and for work purposes. The standardised English Language Curriculum for Primary Schools (KSSR), was introduced in 2011 to replace the KBSR syllabus as an effort to restructure and improve the current curriculum to ensure that students have the relevant knowledge, skills and values to face the challenges of the 21st century. KSSR emphasises on holistic development of the students which encompasses new elements such as grooming of creativity and innovation, entrepreneurship, and integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The Focus is on the 4M: Reading, Writing, Counting and Reasoning as compared to the 3M: Reading, Writing and Counting for the KBSR syllabus. However, interviews with five primary school English Language teachers in rural schools have revealed that English Language lessons are still being taught based on the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. As the English proficiency of the pupils is lacking, teachers are not able to successfully incorporate the elements required for holistic development as outlined in the KSSR syllabus such as Reasoning. 3. Purpose of Study The main purpose of the study is to gather information from English as a Second Language (ESL) learners pertaining to the impediments of their English Language learning (ELL) by specifically focusing on the four language skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. The study also aims to give these ESL learners the opportunity to express their opinions and voice out their frustrations in the course of their ELL experience in class through the use of the note book. ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 162 4. Review of Related Literature Feedback, whether positive or negative, is said to generally have a strong impact on learning. However, the effects vary depending on what type of feedback and how it is given. Hattie & Timperley’s (2007) article gave a conceptual analysis of feedback and examined its impact on learning and achievement, suggesting ways that feedback can be used effectively in the classroom. Several studies have also been done on the effects of feedback on English Language learners, particularly on peer feedback. Mendonca & Johnson (1994) conducted a study on how negotiations take place during ESL students’ peer reviews and how these negotiations influence students’ revision activities. Twelve advanced level ESL learners who undertook a writing course participated in peer reviews where students asked questions, gave explanations and suggestions, restated what was written or said by their peers, and corrected grammatical errors. Students used the comments given by their peers to revise their essays but chose to be selective in what to include in their own texts. Postinterviews which were conducted revealed that, in general, students found peer reviews useful. The study found that including peer reviews in ESL writing instruction is important and valuable, specifically in providing feedback on students’ essays. Hartshorn, Evans, Merrill, Sudweeks, Strong-Krause & Anderson (2010) developed an instructional strategy for improving students’ writing accuracy. A total of 47 advanced-low to advanced-mid ESL students studying at Brigham Young University in the US were the participants of the study. This instructional strategy or “written corrective feedback (WCF)” (Hartshorn et. al. 2010) was aimed at enhancing the accuracy of students’ writing. The performance of two groups of students was compared where for one group the conventional process approach was used and the other had the dynamic WCF approach administered in the writing class. The findings revealed a significant improvement in the writing accuracy of students who went through the WCF approach. More recently, Adams, Nuevo & Egi (2011) examined how learners provide each other with two types of feedback: recasts or implicit feedback, and explicit corrections i.e. explicit feedback. They focused on discovering how different types of feedback and learners’ responses to feedback promote the learning of the past tense and locatives in the English Language. The findings suggest “a limited evidence for a relationship between implicit feedback, modified output, and L2 learning, and evidence for a negative effect of explicit corrections from peers” (p. 42). The findings also reveal that feedback and modified output in learning play a different role in learner-learner interactions from that of native speakerlearner interactions. The studies reviewed bring to mind the role of Cooperative Learning (CL) where relatively small groups work together to strive to achieve common learning goals through cooperation (Dornyei, 1997). It has been found to be an effective approach in second language learning. The studies reviewed, however, focused more on writing and did not address the other skills such as listening, speaking and reading. In addition, there is a lack of similar studies done in rural schools which this study focuses on. The feedback gained from this study is also useful to the teachers in helping them select the right strategies for their ELL classroom. 5. Sample of Study This is a qualitative study hence a large sample is not needed to interpret the results (Creswell, 2008). The sample of this study was a class of Year 5 students from a rural school. There are 3 classes namely Bistari (Advanced), Gagah (Intermediate) and Tabah (Beginners) in Year 5 and students are grouped based on their overall academic attainment through a series of exams and tests for all five subjects that are Bahasa Malaysia (Comprehension & Writing), English, Science, Mathematics and Kajian Tempatan (Local Studies). The 5 Bistari class was chosen with a general assumption that the pupils comprised of those with mixed-abilities, that is, neither too advanced nor too slow. There were 30 pupils in the class with two different ethnic groups; Malay (25 pupils) and Siamese (5 pupils). Since the school is located in a remote area, the level of awareness about the importance of learning English among the community is still very poor. Most of the pupils learn English only for the sake of passing the exam. According to their English teacher, most of the pupils performed well on paper, but when it came to applying what they had learnt spontaneously, usually through speaking, the results were extremely frustrating. Thus, the biggest challenge that every English teacher has to shoulder is to draw the students’ interest to learn English in various ways. 6. The Note Book as the Instrument Each of the students was supplied with a note book and they were reminded to regard the note book as their personal diary to write about their feelings on various impediments which they encountered in learning English. The note book was divided into four sections namely reading, writing, speaking and listening where the students had to fill-up the sections accordingly (Refer to Appendix A). In the briefing session, the pupils were briefed on the purpose of this study as well as what they had to do with the note book. 6.1Using the Note Book in the English Class All the 30 students were provided with a note book. The function of the note book is similar to a diary where they can write almost anything about how they feel regarding any impediments which hinder them from acquiring all the four English skills namely reading, writing, speaking and listening. Each section comprised of a table with three columns where they could fill in the problems, reasons that contributed to the problems and the ways that they think would be helpful to tackle the problems. The respondents were given the options to write in either English or Bahasa Malaysia to make sure that the intended meaning of each of their opinions could be delivered clearly since the focus here was to gather the information rather than evaluating their language performances. They were given a week to complete the ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 163 note book either in school or at home. Prior to the distribution of the note book, a meeting was arranged with the English teacher assigned to teach English in the respondents’ class. The teacher agreed to conduct the English lesson of the target week by emphasizing on all the four skills. By the end of the lesson, the students were given 5 minutes to note down whatever they felt regarding the lesson. 6.2 Analysing the Note Book Contents The note book contents were analysed and categorised according to the learner’s impediments in learning the four language skills namely reading, writing, speaking & listening by concentrating on the problems, reasons as well as the ways to overcome the highlighted problems. Frequency count was used to calculate the responses. 7. Results and Discussion The results of this study reveal the findings of i) the respondents’ views pertaining to the problem they experienced in learning the four language skills; ii) the respondents’ general views on the probable reasons that contributed to the mentioned problem; and iii) the respondents’ suggestions to enhance their learning effectiveness based on the respondents’ personal approaches or views. The actual names of the respondents have been kept confidential. 7.1 Learner’s Language Learning Impediments, Reasons & Ways to Overcome in ESL 7.1.1 Speaking Table 1. Speaking Problems, Reasons and Ways to Overcome among Year 5 Pupils in ESL Learning TOTAL RESPONDENTS 17 Respondents PROBLEMS REASONS Unable to speak fluently · Inadequate/ Limited range of vocabulary · More time is required to think of suitable words/ phrases · Feel like friends are yelling at them 22 Respondents Grammar as stumbling block · Confusion on the correct form to be used in various contexts. · Hesitate to speak due to worries of making grammatical mistakes. 15 Respondents Unable to overcome anxiety & stage fright · · · · 12 Respondents 13 Respondents Confusion on pronunciation Mother tongue interference · · · · WAYS TO OVERCOME · Express on the need to further expand their vocabularies · Penalty on those who portray negative responses · Teacher should explain on related grammatical items that suit the task best. · More exercises to brush up their grammar. All eyes are focused on · Give the learners learner during speaking opportunity to activity which leads to stage perform & work in fright groups Learner inhibitions · Clearly set the rules Mindset of being criticised and goals that tailor due to poor performance to individual needs Domination by more to hit the target. advanced learners. Imperfectly learned · More exposure to pronunciation those items. Focus on delivering · Not stated information correctly · Continuous No restriction from teachers monitoring from Fearful of criticism teachers · Not stated In Table 1, a total of 17 respondents expressed their inability to speak fluently due to inadequate vocabulary which further resulted in them having to spend more time thinking of suitable words/phrases before saying them out. Nagy (1988) stated that the lack of sufficient vocabulary knowledge is obvious and poses a barrier for many students. Besides, the number of these students can be expected to increase as more and more of them fall into the educationally critical category. The respondents also revealed that they could not take it easy when their friends yelled at them when they tried to converse in English due to the local community mindset that only the elite group in the big city speak in English and since they are just ‘kampung’ or village people, the Bahasa Malaysia with the pure Kelantanese dialect should be maintained. Thus, most of them suggested the need to further expand their vocabulary as well as urged their fellow friends to be more open-minded in accepting English as the language that everybody needed to acquire regardless of their family or residential background as some ways to overcome the problem. Several pupils also voiced ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 164 the need for their teacher to penalise those who showed a negative attitude towards pupils who were working hard to brush up their spoken English regardless of their proficiency level since all of them possessed the right to speak freely without being judgemental. Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis (1985) suggests that language learners might be distracted by emotion-related factors in the course of language learning. As such, learners may not be able to absorb the lesson because of their teachers being unapproachable or their classmates’ disruptive and competing attitudes. ‘’I’m so sick and tired to hear Halim, Fauzi and Amran laughed and yelled at me whenever teacher asked me to voice out opinion during our speaking session. They called me ‘Si gagap koya mat saleh (the speaking retarded person who always dream to speak like the Englishman) since I paused a lot to think of suitable words. English diorang pun teruk jugak (their English is not good as well)..they always failed in their English test and refused to say even a word when teacher asked them to. I’m pretty sure that the world would be happier if teacher could just chase them away from her English classes. They’re like parasites that always kill our joy!’’ (Salleh) At the same time, anxiety and stage fright are also stated as one of the problems related to the speaking impediment. In fact, in any speaking task, all eyes would be focused on the speaker which led to the mentioned problems, and again, their psychological state would be challenged with the anxiety of being criticised should their performance be poor. This kind of problem was experienced by 15 respondents in this study. Thus, they believed that they should be given the chance to communicate in a smaller group to avoid such problems. Language teachers should generate a pleasant, lower affective filter and an inspiring study environment leading to higher morale and a greater sense of confidence and achievement among the learners (Krashen, 1982). Meanwhile, 22 respondents claimed grammar as the stumbling block in their speaking practice especially when it came to deciding on the correct form to be applied in various contexts. Several pupils also stated that they felt hesitant to speak due to the fear of making grammatical mistakes. As a result, they preferred to keep their conversation as short and simple as possible so that they would not be underestimated by others, especially the proficient speakers. Most of them expressed their hope that the teacher would explain to them the correct grammatical items to be used prior to the task and also admitted to the need for more exercises to strengthen their proficiency in grammar. Since 95% of the respondents were pure Kelantanese, including the five Siamese, their pronunciation of certain words was also influenced by the local dialect which they have been using in their everyday life. One of the most noticeable sounds that most of them tend to mistakenly produce is the pronunciation from /a/ to /æ/ due to the strong influence of their Kelantanese dialect. This has led to confusion on the pronunciation of certain words due to the imperfectly acquired pronunciation. They concluded that more exposure was needed to tackle this problem. Last but not least, 13 respondents claimed that the interference of their mother tongue did affect their speaking skills in ELL. They revealed that they could not prevent this in certain circumstances especially when it came to delivering information clearly to avoid misunderstanding. In addition, the fact that there was no restriction from the teachers to converse in the target language was also a reason related to such a problem since the respondents need not work hard as they could just respond in Bahasa Malaysia. Therefore, in order to overcome this problem, they suggested that their teacher be stricter in allocating the percentage of using both the English Language and Bahasa Malaysia in class. 7.1.2 Listening Table 2. Listening Problems, Reasons and Ways to Overcome among Year 5 Pupils in ESL Learning TOTAL RESPONDENTS 12 Respondents PROBLEMS REASONS WAYS TO OVERCOME Unable to catch the speaking · · 7 Respondents Unable to decode certain pronunciation · 24 Respondents Unfamiliar with meaning of certain words · 9 Respondents Unable to relate the · information to their life context Unable to focus on 2 · things at the same time 5 Respondents Teacher/ spoken materials spoke too fast Teacher: slow down their speaking pace. · Spoken materials: select ones where the pace is suitable to the pupils’ level. · Repeat the recording several times · Role play the dialogue Poor grasp on standard · To have more pronunciation of unfamiliar exercise and exposure words. in those areas. Inadequate vocabulary · Explain the situation prior to the listening process. · To be provided with sets of vocabularies related to the text. Unfamiliarity with the · Early exposure to the context context prior to listening. Focus more on · Let them read the understanding the text word questions before the by word but end up with recording is played nothing at the end. · Explanation on what ought to be done before and after listening to the spoken text. ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 165 In Table 2, a total of 12 respondents revealed that they were unable to catch what the teacher was saying when their teacher or the recorded voice spoke too fast. Thus, they really hoped that their teacher would consider their dilemma when speaking to them as well as become more meticulous in materials selection so they could cope with the lesson as desired. Some also suggested the use of role-play to reveal the non-verbal clues for better understanding instead of just saying it out in monotone. Meanwhile, 7 respondents highlighted the inability to decode certain pronunciation due to poor grasp on the standard pronunciation of words or phrases using the reduced or “weak form” which they believed could be resolved through exercises and continuous exposure to the language. ‘’I find it so difficult to differentiate the pronunciation of certain words such as ‘can’ and ‘can’t’ because both sound so similar and often lead to confusion. We really need to observe her mouth to see how the words are pronounced. Teacher should use more verbal clues for better understanding I supposed’’ (Nurdiana). 24 respondents mentioned their unfamiliarity with the meanings of certain words due to inadequate vocabulary as the contributing factor to their listening problem. They believed that the problem could be slightly improved if their teacher could provide them with a set of vocabulary related to the spoken text as well as explaining the situation prior to the listening process. ‘’I guess it would be a great idea if teacher could terangkan secara ringkas (brief us with some details) regarding the situation before she plays the spoken text. At least we could get ourselves ready..like today, even the advertisement that teacher plays was short but saya rasa agak kecewa (I felt quite disappointed) because there were quite number of words which I couldn’t understand. If only teacher could let us know earlier that she was going to play the recording on ‘Back to School Advertisement’ maybe I could do some readings on the topic for preparations’’. (Salmiah) In the meantime, 9 respondents expressed their dilemma regarding the inability to relate what they heard to their own lifestyle due to limited exposure to the situation. Thus, they stated that the teacher should at least provide them with some basic necessary details regarding the context prior to the listening process. This would reduce the probability of inaccurate interpretation and enhance the pupils’ involvement in the listening activity (LaScotte, 2015). ‘’I don’t think it is a good idea for teacher to speak about summer camp if we ourselves have zero idea on how the summer season looks like’’ (Noraini) ‘’Learning English is so frustrated when the meaning of certain words which sound so familiar turned to something else which is absolutely impossible to be figured out! Pelik macam mana mat saleh ni boleh gabungkan (I wonder how the Englishmen combine) the words ‘threw’and ‘up’ which I mistakenly thought that it refers to the past tense of throwing something upwards! But then OMG (Oh my God!), teacher said it is an example of Prepositional phrase which carries totally different meaning...it refers to ‘vomitting’ in fact!’’ (Haslinda) Lastly, 5 respondents highlighted their inability to focus on the meaning and message at the same time during the listening task. This is because they tended to concentrate on the meaning of each word which indirectly inhibited their understanding of the message that either the teacher or the spoken text was conveying. As a result, they ended up with nothing. Thus, they expressed their wish to be given the opportunity to read the questions or be briefed on what ought to be done after the listening process as a guideline on what they had to gather from the activity. 7.1.3 Reading Table 3. Reading Problems, Reasons and Ways to Overcome among Year 5 Pupils in ESL Learning TOTAL RESPONDENTS 6 Respondents PROBLEMS 14 Respondents REASONS Unable to concentrate · on the reading process · · Errors in topic selection. Timing error Noise level Unable to fully comprehend the passage · Frequent encounter with unfamiliar words. 9 Respondents Unable to complete the reading on time · Lengthy passage · Not interested in completing the reading 11 Respondents Unable to connect ideas in the passage Unable to retain the information for long · Unfamiliarity with the context of the passage · Retention difficulty: focus more on understanding the word one by one and end up with nothing in the end. 7 Respondents WAYS TO OVERCOME · Teacher should be more creative in selecting the reading materials · Properly plan the schedule. · Teacher should be able to control the noise level. · Brainstorming on related topic prior to the reading process · Use dictionary · The number of words should suit the students’ levels. · Choose interesting materials · Proper material selection. · · Give them opportunity to read the questions prior to reading. Teacher briefly explain the purpose of the reading. ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 166 In Table 3, a total of 6 respondents mentioned that they were facing difficulties in concentrating on the reading because of factors like timing and material selection errors. They agreed that the teacher played a vital role in proper planning and management for two reasons: ‘’Reading requires our mind to be fresh and ready. I would say that having reading activities in the last period before recess is totally tak guna (useless) since our mind and soul is already in the canteen’’ (Hafiz) ‘’I feel bored when the reading material is boring’’ (Suardi) 14 respondents complained about the difficulty in fully comprehending the reading passage due to frequent encounters with unfamiliar words. A reader's knowledge of vocabulary shows how well that reader can understand a text (Freebody & Anderson, 1981). The respondents suggested that this problem could be reduced if they were allowed to refer to the meaning either in the dictionary or through some hints given by the teachers on the unfamiliar words prior to the reading. Meanwhile, 11 respondents stated that they were unable to connect ideas in the passage due to unfamiliarity with the context. Thus, they urged their teacher to be more meticulous in choosing the passage so that the reading activity would be beneficial to them. Finally, 7 respondents revealed their inability to retain the information for long due to retention difficulties. They described this as the action whereby they focused more on understanding the passage by interpreting word by word which in the end, when they were asked to explain what they understood about the passage they would simply shake their heads in despair. Thus, they added that the teacher should clearly outline the purpose of the reading activity so that the respondents know what they ought to do with the reading passage. 7.1.4 Writing Table 4. Writing Problems, Reasons and Ways to Overcome among Year 5 Pupils in ESL Learning TOTAL RESPONDENTS 15 Respondents PROBLEMS REASONS Unable to write the intended meaning · Poor vocabulary 13 Respondents Unable to · differentiate between the sound and spelling for certain words Unable to expand · the points given · Poor vocabulary 14 Respondents Poor writing skills Lack of reading & limited access to informative resources. WAYS TO OVERCOME · Teacher should provide set of vocabularies related to the topic and use it during the brainstorming process. · Not stated · More writing exercise · More reading should be done. In Table 4, a total of 15 respondents revealed that they were unable to write the intended meaning due to lack of vocabulary. Thus, they really hoped their teacher would provide them with a set of vocabulary related to the topic prior to the writing process such as during the brainstorming stage. Meanwhile, 13 respondents expressed their inability to differentiate between the sound and spelling of certain words which was also due to inadequate vocabulary. However, none of them suggested ways to overcome this problem in the column provided. Last but not least, 14 respondents expressed their difficulty in expanding the points given by the teacher due to poor writing skills as well as lack of reading and limited access to informative resources. Thus, they urged the need for more writing exercises as well as more reading effort on their own part. ‘’Writing becomes so difficult sebab (because) I don’t know macam mana nak (how to) use perkataan-perkataan yang diberi (the words given). Even we’re allowed to refer to dictionary, still I don’t know macam mana nak guna perkataan tu untuk buat ayat sendiri (how to use the words to build my own sentences)’’ (Nik Azman) 8. Implications of the Study All in all, the pupils tended to welcome the more open-minded and creative ELL methods by taking their opinions into consideration. The respondents of this study exposed the varying impediments that hampered their ELL for all the language skills i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening together with the contributing factors which triggered the problems. The findings showed that English teachers at the primary level should provide some space for their pupils to voice out the various challenges which could impede their ELL as well as lending an open ear to listen to the ways that they wish their English teacher would adopt to stir their interest in striving to improve their ELL in those four skills. Once these impediments and challenges have been addressed, the teachers in these rural schools can then progress to incorporate the reasoning element as outlined in the KSSR syllabus for primary schools. ALLS 7(1):161-167, 2016 167 9. Conclusion In English language learning, the right of each learner is undeniable. Thus, the learner’s perceptions pertaining to ELL should be seriously taken so that the ESL teachers can plan their teaching strategies in accordance with what the learners hope for because teaching and learning is a two-way process which requires both parties to work hand-in-hand for the betterment of everyone. In fact, reading, writing, speaking and listening are four different language skills to be studied using different methods and approaches. However, all of them are closely related in such a way that the lack of mastery in any of them would directly affect the others as well. By understanding the impediments faced by every learner in every skill, the teacher would get a clearer overview to assist them in planning and implementing the best strategies so that the needs and requirements of every ESL learner can be fulfilled satisfactorily. References Adams, R., Nuevo, A. & Egi, T. (2011). Explicit and implicit feedback, modified output, and SLA: Does explicit and implicit feedback promote learning and learner-learner interactions? The Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 42-63. Cresswell, J. (2008). Educational research (3rd Ed). New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Dornyei, Z. (1997). Psychological processes in cooperative language learning: Group dynamics and motivation. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 482-493. Freebody, P. & Anderson, R. (1981). Effects of differing proportions and locations of difficult vocabulary on text comprehension. Technical Report No. 202. Champaign: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading. Hartshorn, K., Evans, N., Merrill, P., Sudweeks, R., Strong-Krause, D. & Anderson, N. (2010). Effects of dynamic corrective feedback on ESL writing accuracy. TESOL Quarterly, 44(1), 84-109. Hattie, J. & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. California: Pergamon Press Inc. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Essex: Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd. LaScotte, D. (2015). Listening in Context: Incorporating Strategy Instruction in L2 Listening Practice. Minnetesol Journal. Retrieved 20 October, 2015 from http://minnetesoljournal.org/spring-2015/listening-in-context-incorporatingstrategy-instruction-in-l2-listening-practice. Mendonca, C. & Johnson, K. (1994). Peer review negotiations: Revision activities in ESL writing instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 28(4), 745-769. Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Urbana, Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse. Appendix A IMPEDIMENTS TO LEARNING THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS Date/Time (Tarikh/Masa) : _________________________________________ Subject (Matapelajaran) : _________________________________________ Topic (Tajuk) : _________________________________________ Language Skill(s) (Kemahiran Bahasa) : Reading (Membaca)/ Writing (Menulis)/ Speaking (Bercakap) / Listening (Mendengar) What problems do you face in learning each of the skills mentioned above? Complete the table with your problems, reasons that contribute to the problems and suggestions to overcome the problem. Nyatakan masalah-masalah yang anda hadapi berkaitan kemahiran-kemahiran yang dinyatakan di atas. Lengkapkan jadual yang diberi dengan mencatatkan permasalahan, faktor-faktor yang menyumbang kepada permasalahan yang dinyatakan dan sebarang cadangan untuk mengatasinya. SKILL(s) (Kemahiran): __________________________________________________ Problems (Permasalahan) Reasons (FaktorFaktor) Ways to Overcome (Cara Mengatasi) Comments (Komen): List down/ describe the qualities of an effective English Language teacher that you admire the most? (Senaraikan/ terangkan kualiti-kualiti seorang guru Bahasa Inggeris yang anda impikan) Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Reading through Films Madhavi Gayathri Raman (Corresponding author) Dept. of Materials Development, School of English Language Education, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India E-mail: gayathriraman@yahoo.com Vijaya School of English Language Education, The English and Foreign Languages University, Lucknow, India E-mail: vijuciefl@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.168 Received: 26/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.168 Accepted: 30/11/2015 Abstract This paper captures the design of a comprehensive curriculum incorporating the four skills based exclusively on the use of parallel audio-visual and written texts. We discuss the use of authentic materials to teach English to Indian undergraduates aged 18 to 20 years. Specifically, we talk about the use of parallel reading (screen-play) and audiovisual texts (Shawshank Redemption, and Life is Beautiful, A Few Good Men and Lion King) drawn from popular culture in the classroom as an effective teaching medium. Students were gradually introduced to films based on novels with extracts from the original texts (Schindler’s List, Beautiful Mind) for extended reading and writing practice. We found that students began to pay more attention to aspects such as pronunciation, intonational variations, discourse markers and vocabulary items (phrasal verbs, synonyms, homophones, and puns). Keywords: Reading, films, popular culture, ESL classroom, language skills 1. Introduction Certain themes appeal to the human mind across cultures bridging linguistic barriers. They can become a strong binding force inspite of the tensions created by the texts due to cultural differences. Some of the common favourite themes that emerged in our experience of using films in language classrooms are psychological disorders, human suffering, and triumph of good over evil. While English films transport the students to an unfamiliar world and culture, the themes provide vitality and sustenance to class. India due to it’s colonial past and presence of classical English literature in the syllabi even at the school level, is not totally oblivious to literature from other cultures. Indian learners are an interesting case in second language and literacy development. Most adolescent and adult L2 learners in language classrooms in the US and other countries have exposure to the target language and opportunities to listen to and speak English but may have little or no print literacy. In contrast, a large majority of Indian L2 learners are introduced to the language through the print medium. These learners, who often go on to become proficient users of English, learn to write and read their first words even before they articulate them. The learning of first words in the language happens simultaneously with the development of writing and reading without much exposure to the spoken form of the language outside the class. A possible reason for this lies in the history of English language teaching in India, dating back to the work of Michael West and the immense popularity of the Structural method with its overemphasis on the learning of structures through reading and writing. Consequently, listening and speaking received little or no attention in class. Adding to this is the low spoken proficiency levels of the teachers (NCF, 2005) and inadequate infrastructure facilities. Until recently, listening and speaking was not a part of the English curriculum in India. Even now a majority of classrooms tend to be devoid of listening activities. In cases where listening is incorporated in the syllabus, the tasks are limited to boring routine texts like news reports, railway announcements and so on. The use of films in Indian undergraduate classrooms in our case stemmed not so much from a desire to introduce the students to other cultures and texts as from a purely pragmatic decision to combine interesting listening tasks in the classroom with paralinguistic cues to aid learning. The use of authentic materials, and films in particular, for language teaching finds support in a number of studies (Martinez, 2002; Baharani & Sim, 2012; Brinton, 1991; Golden, 2001; Ryan, 1998). Some of the advantages involved in the use of authentic materials in the ESL context are as follows: ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 169 (i) authentic language samples in the form of songs and films serve to bridge the gap between the language classroom and the real world for ESL students. They can also be exposed to language varieties such as British, American, Australian English etc. and this can serve as the basis for discussions in class with regard to pronunciation, stress, intonation and so on. It also helps learners to see how their variety differs from others and which aspects of language they need to work on in order to be intelligible to other non-native or native speakers of the language. (ii) As our study too shows, authentic materials are known to raise the motivation levels of the learners. According to a study by Melvin and Stout (1987), the use of authentic materials for the study of culture not only increased students' motivation to learn but also increased their confidence and helped them to understand the practical benefits of being able to use the language in real world contexts. According to Nunan (1999) and Gilmore (2007), it is essential for learners to have exposure to various kinds of authentic material because it helps to motivate them by bringing content and subject matter to life. (iii) authentic materials in the forms of cartoons and films (Clark, 2000; Doring, 2002; Rule & Ague, 2005; Ryan, 1998; Ismaili, 2013) engage the attention of the learners and present information in a non-threatening atmosphere. By lowering the affective filter (Krashen, 1985), they stimulate discussions and encourage learners to think and speak for themselves. Learners today, and our group in particular, are exposed to a wide variety of media and technology resources, and therefore often lack the motivation to learn or read in the conventional manner. Research on media literacy shows that the strategies that a good reader brings to a text are similar to those that viewers bring to a visual text (Golden, 2001). Students predict, make connections, ask questions, and interpret when dealing with written or visual texts. In both situations, and they arrive at meaning through the details of character, theme, plot, mood, conflict, and symbolism. However, “Film is much more readily accessible than print because of the visual nature and immediacy of the medium, but the very things that films do for us, good and active readers have to do for themselves” (Golden, 2001). This characteristic of films makes it more entertaining and engaging for students in comparison to the printed text and we decided to exploit this feature. 2. The context India is a country of many languages.1 School-going children in India attend one of two kinds of schools: (i) “Englishmedium” schools where English is the “medium of instruction” right from kindergarten onwards, and (ii) “regionalmedium” schools where English is taught as a “subject” as early as in Grade I or as late as in Grade V depending on the state’s language policy. 2 Given the growing importance of English in the context of the globalization of economic opportunities, there is an increasing demand for English. It is no longer being sought just as only a subject or a foreign language, but also as a medium of instruction. This increasing demand for English-medium education has led to a spurt in the number of private “English-medium” schools. Many of these schools are “English-medium” only in name; most often instruction and interaction take place in an Indian language. 3. The sample Forty five students aged 18 to 19 years enrolled in the first year of a B.Tech programme in Hyderabad, India participated in the study. This was a heterogeneous multilingual group consisting of speakers of a variety of Indian languages like Hindi, Telugu, Marathi, Gujrati, Marwari, and Bengali. They came from “English-medium” schools and we found that they could be categorized into two groups: (i) urban learners who had been exposed to English not only as a subject but also as a medium of instruction. These learners had the added advantage of exposure to English with their teachers, peers and parents,3 and (ii) semi-urban learners who had learnt English in so-called “English-medium” schools where the exposure to English was limited to the language class. Their interaction with their teachers, peers and parents was largely in their respective first languages. Hence, our class comprised a mixed-ability group with learners at varying levels: some learners in the group had a score of band 9 on the IELTS while others were judged to be at the Intermediate and Basic levels based on an entry level test. These students were enrolled in a four year undergraduate engineering programme. Their attention was devoted almost entirely towards the core subjects they had to study. Although English was one of the core subjects for the first year, our 1 According to the 1991 census, there are 114 languages and 216 mother tongues, each having a speaker strength of 10,000 and above (Vishwanatham, 2001: 299). 2 A 2003 study by the National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) shows that English is introduced in Class I or III in 26 states or union territories while only 7 states or union territories introduce it as late as Class IV or V (National Focus Group on English - Position paper, 2005: 1). 3 We found that they read extensively in English – novels, comics, newspapers, and magazines. They also watched a number of television programmes in English. ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 170 interaction with them showed that their perception of a language class was limited to one that would help them speak fluently and get rid of the grammatical errors in their spoken language. 4 The syllabus The language syllabus for the first semester comprised entirely of function-based activities. The units were designed by the authors and centered around a theme and a set of language functions. Each unit provided practice in speaking, reading and writing. End-semester evaluation and student portfolios showed that the programme had not succeeded entirely in achieving its objectives of helping students improve their spoken skills. A brainstorming session was conducted with the students to find out their preferences regarding learning objectives for and the kind of teaching materials to be used for the following semester. Students unanimously expressed a need for developing listening and speaking skills. Considering that the group consisted of engineering students aspiring to work in a global environment, many felt it was essential for them to understand various accents, in particular, the American and the British varieties4. With regard to the kind of materials to be used, the students’ choices revealed an interest in literary texts and themes such as human psychology. Movie adaptations of popular books that explored the human psyche were also of particular interest. Students suggested the films they would like to watch during the semester, and thus became major stake-holders in the process of curriculum design. Adult L2 learners know their needs and also are capable of articulating them. Thus, the programme showed the success of a syllabus evolved through the process of negotiation (Clarke, 1991) with the learners in contrast with a predetermined one where learners do not have a voice. This accommodates learners’ needs as they evolve and change during the course. 4.1 Why Use Books and their Filmed Version? Rationale The syllabus for the second semester therefore was based on an informed decision to address student aspirations of being able to decipher native English in its naturalistic context given that the students tended to look up to the native variety of English. In the Indian context, English is the language of official transaction. However, it is not always the language of social encounters. Even in classrooms, students very often use the home language often code-switching into English instead of carrying on a sustained discourse in English with peers (Vijaya, 2008). On the threshold of their professional world, Indian students often become aware of the sudden leap they need to make from using the home language to predominantly English in the official context. This causes language learning anxiety which makes them feel inadequately equipped for the challenge in future. This anxiety can be used to our advantage using material that the students are well-versed and comfortable with as compared to long reading texts that appear to be ominous. Films seem to be the mantra. Films enjoy a wide viewership among the youth. Added to this is the fact that India is the largest producer of films in the world. The love of films inevitably generates a lot of interest and discussion and is therefore an invaluable source of learning material in such a context (Krashen, 1985). Films thus provided the relevant material needed to motivate students and involve them in meaningful task-based activities which they perceive as relevant to their needs and to their world which is often very different from the world constructed for them by a language curriculum. During the initial part of the second semester, students put up a stiff resistance to longer texts and displayed a strong unwillingness to read (Williams, 2004). Films, therefore, appeared to be a way to entice them to reading, the sugar coating on the bitter pill of reading. Films served to bring authentic materials into the classroom that provided ‘comprehensible input’ and stimulated reading (Krashen, 1985). In the second language context, films are the simplest way of bringing the naturalistic context of the target language with its culture into classes. According to Chapple and Curtis (2000), films have many cross-cultural values, enable the development of critical thinking skill and are a rich source of content for language learners. In addition, the motivating feature of films facilitates oral communication skills. Finally, films provide learners exposure to usage (fixed expressions, colloquialisms, redundancy in spoken form, etc.) which is very often not available in classroom interaction. Instances of such usage from the song, I just can’t wait to be King (the Lion King), include “vacant expressions”, “lights are not all on upstairs”, “heart-to-heart”, “wouldn't hang about”, etc. Towards the end of the course, during a feedback session, students reported that they had picked up a lot of new words and expressions - lights are not all on upstairs, heart-to-heart, be caught unawares, brushing up on something, working on something, getting out of wing - that they were unaware of prior to the course. Bingo, a word game played in class based on the difficult and/new words in the Prologue of The Beautiful Mind leading to a discussion on synonymy and collocation, e.g., disrespectful, haughty. Vocabulary teaching on this course combined the incidental and contextual approach exemplified in the two tasks above. By students’ own admission, the approach towards learning on the course motivated them to attempt extended reading and writing projects pitched at a level higher than their abilities. The students who embarked upon the course with reservations about reading and a huge reluctance for writing, ended the course with selecting short stories of their own, re-arranging the order of events in the stories and re-writing them in their own language. For instance, a student at B1 (CEFR) level as per our assessment, attempted Conan Doyle’s “Dancing Figures”. This was in the face of the teachers’ fear that the level of the text may be high for the student considering that the language is not contemporary. This was a clear example of the lowering of the “affective filter” induced by motivation provided by the teachers (Krashen, 1985). 4 This reflects the recent socio-economic milieu in India where majority of engineering graduates prefer to seek admission in Universities or work in America. This was also during the call centre boom in urban India with multinational companies setting up offices and language training centres to train their employees to understand and speak in native accents. ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 171 5. Methodology & Materials: Films and Texts The course finally designed for the second semester was primarily a communications skills course incorporating a play version of the popular novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and an extra module on listening/speaking in the form of movie viewing sessions bearing the student aspirations in mind. Read aloud sessions of the play and language activities based on it were followed by discussions regarding how the play differed from the novel and the film adaptations (Raman and Vijaya, 2009). Film sessions typically happened over Fridays when students finished their classes for the week and did not have any laboratory sessions. Since learners from the semi-urban background were not used to watching English films, the first four films, The Pianist, Shawshank Redemption, Life is Beautiful, and Catch Me If You Can were used to introduce them to the idea of using films as learning material. Initially, students failed to perceive the link between the movie sessions and language learning material. To enable students to establish this link, these films were restricted to oral discussions regarding the plot and characters. The films Lion King and A Few Good Men were accompanied by short pre- and post-listening comprehension tasks. Songs from the former were used to teach vocabulary (fixed expressions, collocation, rhyme and style) and grammar. Excerpts from the latter in conjunction with the movie script were used to teach intonation and word and sentential stress patterns. For instance, students enjoyed practicing the intonation and stress in the dialogue below. (See Table 1 below for sample tasks based on the two films.) Col. Jessup: You don't want the truth. Because deep down, in places you don't talk about at parties, you want me on that wall. You need me on that wall. Schindler’s List The next set of film-based materials centered around the theme of the holocaust and the film Schindler’s List. It was one of the films suggested by the students as many of them had already watched it. The reading materials based on the film consisted of information about Jews, the holocaust, Schindler’s life and his role in saving Jews. Spread across the four skills, the tasks consisted of guessing meaning of words in context, comprehension and aspects of text organization (main vs. supporting idea, referencing, and summarizing), oral presentations (on themes of general interest), and pronunciation. Given their interest in improving their pronunciation, they were introduced to the IPA symbols. Their attention was drawn to sounds which appeared similar across L1 and L2 but were actually different in quality, for instance, the use of glides in native English vs. Indian languages and the linking /r/. At the beginning of every class, five minutes were spent on looking up words that interested them. This led to the incorporation of explicit dictionary work in the syllabus. Beautiful Mind The final set of materials film-based material used was built around the theme of bi-polar disorder and the film Beautiful Mind. Once again, this was a film suggested by the students as it echoed the theme of the play Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. A few of them had already read the novel and a screening of the film was followed by a close reading of the prologue in class. We were pleasantly surprised to find that motivated by the film, a considerable number of students later went on to read the book in its entirety. Pre-watching and while-watching tasks, summarizing, note-making, discussion on themes related to the film, word bingo based on words from the prologue, and writing through summarizing paragraphs were some of the activities taken up. Table 1. Sample tasks and skill/area taught Films ilms A Few Good Men Lion King Sample tasksSample tasks Dialogue: Col. Jessup: You don't want the truth. Because deep down, in places you don't talk about at parties, you want me on that wall. You need me on that wall. Songs: Be prepared (fill in the blanks) I’m gonna be a mighty king Skill/area taught Sentential and word stress Sentence focus Listening comprehension vocabulary, pronunciation Vocabulary – fixed expressions, e.g., “vacant expressions”, “lights are not all on upstairs”, “heart-toheart”, “wouldn't hang about”. Collocations; Rhyme ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 Schindler’s List A Beautiful Mind 1. Eight sentences have been removed from the story. Choose from the sentences below (1-4) the one which fits each gap and write the corresponding number in the box. There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. 2.a. Now read the first paragraph of the Origins of the Holocaust and underline the topic sentence. b. Make a list of reasons the author gives for saying, “The ideas and emotions that lay behind the Holocaust were not new, nor were they uniquely German.” Sometimes it is impossible to understand a certain sentence without reading a previous one. (It need not necessarily be the preceding sentence always.) From the passage above, consider the following sentence: 3. Who was this [Oscar Schindler] Let us look at [the man’s] life and find out for ourselves. Who does “the man” refer to here? You have to read the preceding sentence to understand the reference. Look at the bold underlined words/phrases in the text above and connect them to the appropriate reference in the previous sentences (as shown above). 1. Here is an extract from the Prologue of the novel “A Beautiful Mind” by Sylvia Nasar. Read it carefully. Then listen to the words/phrases called out by the teacher. In the table given to you, find out the meanings for each phrase being called out. As you hit on the correct meaning write the number of the corresponding phrase in the box. When you have numbered all the boxes, raise your hand to indicate that you are done. Your teacher will then see if all your answers are correct. appeared capable of resembling marked by flights of handling very closely lengthy fancy different conversations areas with equal skill good deep worry looked down cold and attempting contrast/ upon/ without to please opposite scorned feelings always forced to be disrespectful established behaving in attempting logical facts/theories a proud to shock or unfriendly surprise way 2. Read paragraphs 1 (of page 14), 1 (of page 17), 3 (of page 18) and from the sentences given below for each paragraph identify the sentence which summarizes each paragraph best. The first one [3 (page 13)] has been done for you. 172 Organization Main and subordinate ideas, supporting details Reference Vocabulary in context Organization 6. Conclusion Motivated in the play to experiment with intonational patterns, read-aloud sessions of the play and the films had a reciprocal effect with students using intonational patterns and stress, pronunciation from films for play practice. This also provided opportunities for explicit teaching of pronunciation and transcription. Many of the students overcame their inhibitions and began to ‘perform’ both in class and outside it with greater ease. Films familiarized them with the schema of the reading text. Reading tasks became more meaningful than a syllabus consisting of a series of isolated texts. Three versions of the same story-novel, film and play-provide a rich ground for genre based discussions as well as a scaffolding for reading comprehension (Raman and Vijaya, 2009). The post-film discussions clarified a lot of questions that the students had regarding culture, themes and way of life. In this way, the language and the culture of which it is an essential part, ceased to be alien concepts to our learners. Our observation and student feedback that movie watching had contributed to vocabulary learning is supported by research which shows that a combination of visual and aural input can be as effective as vocabulary learning based on written input alone (Neuman and Koskinen 1992). Koolstra and Beentjes in their 1999 study found that video which links visual input with meaning, presents the language clearly and accurately, and arouses the interest of the viewers could lead to increased vocabulary learning. Taken together, the research indicates that materials which provide visual and aural input such as movies may be conducive to incidental vocabulary learning. The research also indicated that watching movies may be as effective in contributing to incidental vocabulary learning as reading. Studies have also shown that the added visual support provided by films aids listening comprehension (Mueller 1980; Hanley et al. 1995). In addition, the amount of visual input which is presented in films is likely to facilitate comprehension (Rubin 1994; Chapple and Curtis 2000). A major advantage of films is that they provides a large amount of L2 aural input which ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 173 learners are motivated to use as they can see and hear actual instances of language use (Chapple and Curtis 2000; King 2002; Colwell and Braschi 2006). In an EFL context, where learning is largely through the medium of print, films could be used as a means to improve listening skills, learn vocabulary, and focus on specific language points. Used together, films and books could provide written and aural input that promoted greater vocabulary and language learning. “Contrary to what is often said about the evil nature of money, the message conveyed in Schindler’s List-where Schindler wanted to earn more in order to save more Jews-is that it is alright to make money as long as you spend it in a correct manner. Teachers who are able to integrate this sort of popular culture into classroom sessions can provide a valuable bridge between formal and informal education, and help to bring people and places alive.” (Cheung, 2001) References Baharani, T. & Sim, S. S. (2012). Audiovisual news, cartoons, and films as sources of authentic language input and language proficiency enhancement. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11, 4, 56-64. Brinton, D. (1991). The use of media in language teaching. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Chapple, L., & Curtis, A. (2000). Content based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to film. System, 28, 419 33. Cheung, C. (2001). The use of popular culture as a stimulus to motivate secondary students’ English learning in Hong Kong. English Language Teaching Journal, 55 (1), 55- 61. Clark, C. (2000). Innovative strategy: Concept cartoons. Instructional and learning strategies, 12, 34-45. Clarke, D. F. (1991). The Negotiated Syllabus: What is it and How is it Likely to Work? Applied Linguistics, 12 (1),1328. Colwell, H., & Braschi, M. I. (2006). Using films with mixed level ESL classes. Retrieved February 2012, http://www.englishaustralia.com.au/index.cgi?E=hcatfuncs&PT=sl&X=getdoc&Lev1=pub_c07_07&Lev2=c06_colwe. Doring, A. (2002). The use of cartoons as a teaching and learning strategy with adult learners. New Zealand Journal of adult learning, 30, 56-62. Gilmore, A. (2007). Authentic materials and authenticity in foreign language learning. Lang. Teach. 40, 97-118. Golden, J. (2001). Reading in the Dark: Using film as a tool in the English classroom. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Hanley, J., Herron, C., & Cole, S. (1995). Using video as advance organizer to a written passage in the FLES classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 57- 66. Ismaili, M. (2013). The Effectiveness of Using Movies in the EFL Classroom – A Study Conducted at South East European University. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2, 4, 121-132. King, J. (2002). Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15, 509 - 23. Koolstra, C., & Beentjes, J. (1999). Children’s vocabulary acquisition in a foreign language through watching subtitled television programs at home. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47, 51–60. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language learning and second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon press. Luque, G. (2003). Reading 'Films and' watching 'literary texts: 5 lesson plans for TEFL advanced students' BELLS, Vol. 12. Monograph: The teaching of foreign languages in higher and adult education. Retrieved Feb 2012, http://www.publicacions.ub.edu/revistes/bells12/PDF/art07.pdf Martinez, A. (2002). Authentic Materials: An Overview. Melvin, B. S., & Stout, D. S. (1987). Motivating language learners through authentic materials. In W. Rivers (ed.) Interactive Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press, 44-56. Mueller, G. (1980). Visual contextual cues and listening comprehension: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 64, 335 - 40. National Focus Group on English - Position Paper. (2005). New Delhi: NCERT. Neuman, B., & Koskinen, P. (1992). Captioned television as comprehensible input: Effects of incidental word learning from context for language minority students. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 95–106. Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Raman, M. G., & Vijaya. (2009). The case of a playful text. In Lilia Savova (Ed.), Using textbooks effectively, TESOL Classroom Practice Series. TESOL: Virginia. Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 199 - 221. ALLS 7(1):168-174, 2016 174 Rule, A. C., & Auge, J. (2005). Using humorous cartoons to teach mineral and rock concepts in sixth grade science class. Journal of geosciences education, 53(3), 548-558. Ryan, S. (1998). Using films to develop learner motivation. The internet TEFL journal, 13(11). Available at: http://iTEFLj.org/articles/Rayan-Film.html. Accessed: November 10, 2015. Vijaya. (2008). The noun advantage in English as a second language: a study of the natural partitions hypothesis. Unpublished PhD dissertation. CIEFL, Hyderabad. Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. (2009). The vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, 59 (2), 335366. Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. (2009). The Lexical Coverage of movies. Applied Linguistics, 30 (3), 407 - 427. Williams, B. T. (2004). Are we having fun yet? Students, social class and the pleasures of literacy. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 48 (4), 338 - 342. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Explicit-implicit Distinction: A Review of Related Literature Marwan A. Jarrah University of Jordan, Jordan & Newcastle University, UK Emails: m.a.s.jarrah@ncl.ac.uk; masaljarrah@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.175 Received: 23/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.175 Accepted: 05/12/2015 Abstract This paper sketches out the main views of the major pragmatic approaches (i.e., Grice’s theory of conversation, Relevance Theory, and Neo-Gricean pragmatic theory) on explicit-implicit distinction. It makes clear how this distinction has been differently drawn for utterance interpretation. Additionally, it highlights several corresponding problems that have arisen within such approaches. It demonstrates ultimately that no consensus has been reached on the dividing lines of the dichotomy of this distinction. Keywords: explicit-implicit distinction, Grice’s theory of conversation, Relevance Theory, Neo-Gricean pragmatic theory 1. Introduction Explicit-implicit distinction (E-ID) has recently emerged as one of the pressing issues in contemporary pragmatic theory as well as truth-conditional semantics (see, e.g., Carston 1998 Burton-Roberts 2005, and Dew and Cabeza 2011). When comparing views on E-ID, one finds that there has been no general agreement within the major pragmatic approaches regarding the precise nature of E-ID. For example, semantics vs. pragmatics was isomorphic for Grice with explicit vs. implicit (cf. Burton-Roberts 2006, Attardo 2011, and Blakemore 2014, among others). Differently, for Relevance Theory (RT) (Sperber and Wilson 1986a, 1987a,b, 1995, 1998a, 2002 and subsequent work) pragmatic enrichment has been proven essential to recovery of explicit content, an inherent combination of both linguistically-encoded and contextually-inferred conceptual components (Carston 2002, 2008, Braseth 2010, Carston and UCHIDA 2012, Clark 2013, and Wilson and Sperber 2015). Following this, the current paper reviews some monumental works that attempt to define this two-way distinction. It capitalises on the issue how this distinction has been formulated in various pragmatic approaches, highlighting their corresponding problems relevant to this distinction. It reflects that the differences between pragmatic approaches under discussion are significant. Some have assumed that E-ID follows naturally from language use, while others argue that it is a philosophical artefact and vacuous projection of Grice’s theory of conversation whose theory-internal problems and inevitable complications are incontrovertible (cf. Levinson 2000, Atlas 2005, Horn 2006, and Erdelyi 2012). This review is organised as follows. Section 2 introduces an outline of Grice’s perspective on E-ID. It poses, at the same time, two problems against Grice’s: the total significance of an utterance and the unobserved overlap between A-saying and B-saying. Section 3 discusses E-ID within RT, the current dominating pragmatic practice. It also addresses some problems against RT’s treatment of E-ID, including the definition of ‘explicature’. Section 4 sheds light on Bach’s impliciture. It explores in brief neo-Griceans’ assumptions on Grice’s circle and hence their call to decline E-ID. Section 5 concludes the review. 2. Grice’s E-ID and problems 2.1 Grice’s treatment of E-ID Grice's invaluable views on speaker meaning and, particularly, his theory of implicatures have considerably influenced contemporary pragmatics (Wilson and Sperber 1981: 155). He pioneered a systematic way of distinction between semantics and pragmatics whose actual character and interaction with other linguistic modules were in retrospect messy and far from clear. This systematisation was carried out through a list of dichotomies, parallel ways of bridging the gap between linguistic meanings and what-is-otherwise-communicated (Hadley 1995, Yus 1999, Burton-Roberts 2005, and Ifantidou 2014). Consider the following incomplete list of dichotomies in table 1: ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 176 Table 1. Semantics vs. pragmatics within Grice’s theory of conversation Semantics Pragmatics What is said What is implicated Explicit Implicit Context-free Context-sensitive Truth-conditional Non-truth-conditional Semantics vs pragmatics is equated with saying vs. implicating on one hand and with explicit vs. implicit on the other (Burton-Roberts 2006). Here, what is semantically-encoded is primarily determined by what-is-said, which in turn involves conventional meanings of the words forming the given utterance and its truth-conditional propositional content (Grice 1989).i The speaker commits himself/herself to the semantically-encoded content of his/her utterance (BurtonRoberts 2013). On the other hand, what is implicated cannot be captured by truth-conditional values and, as such, belongs to the realm of pragmatics (Mey 2009). For Grice, the speaker does not commit himself/herself to any nontruth-conditional meanings, which are termed as implicatures. Implicatures are defined as meanings communicated by an utterance with the exclusion of what is said. This being the case, implicatures correspond to the implicit part of E-ID. They are not purely semantically-driven but inferences derived from the explicit content of what is said in addition to some specific assumptions made available by the co-operative nature of ordinary verbal interaction (Levinson 1983).ii Within this treatment of meanings, implicatures do not come out as rigid in nature but are classified into two broad types, namely conversational implicatures and conventional implicatures. iii Consider figure 1, illustrating Gricean typology of speaker’s meaning (adapted from Levinson 1983). Speaker Meaning what is said what is implicated Conventionally Conversationally Generalized (GCI) Particularized (PCI) Figure 1. Gricean typology of speaker meaning In order to differentiate between conversational and conventional implicatures, Grice isolates five properties of the former, i.e., defeasibility (or cancellability), non-detachability, calculability, non-conventionality, and variability (Levinson 1983). Implicatures are defeasible in the sense that it is possible to withdraw an implicature within utterance context, and the speaker does not contradict himself/herself. Consider utterance (1), where the implicature is withdrawn, but the utterance holds no contradiction. (1) Some women were drunk indeed all. Conversational implicatures are non-detachable to certain expressions, given that expressions that share similar meanings can trigger same implicatures as in (2), where both expressions: beautiful and a real beauty rise the same ironical implicature (Sadock 1978: 287): (2) a. She is beautiful. b. She is a real beauty. Calculability means that implicatures can be worked out on the basis of contextual clues and Grice’s Cooperative Principle and its accompanying maxims (Blome‐Tillmann 2013). Non-conventionality, in turn, indicates that implicatures are not part of the conventional meaning of expressions (Noveck 2001). Variability maintains that there are contexts where the speaker utters the same utterance, but the respective implicature does not arise. Relevant to our exposition is the notion that conversational implicatures are subdivided into two types: the Generalised Conversational Implicature (GCI) and the Particularised Conversational Implicature (PCI). The main differences between these two types lie in the role of context in recovering them and the linguistic forms they appeal to. Associating highly with certain linguistic forms, including scalar elements, and relative context-independence are of the prominent properties of GCIs (Grice 1989: 37). By contrast, PCIs are context-dependent with lesser association with linguistic forms (Levinson 1983: 132). In order to appreciate this difference, consider the following example (adapted from Levinson 2000: 17) (3) Speaker A: Where’s John? Speaker B: Some of the guests are already leaving. GCI: Not all of the guests are already leaving. PCI: Perhaps John has already left. The GCI is derived by the scalar relation between all and some, whereas the PCI is determined by certain information sensitive to the specific context of the dialogue. For Grice, GCIs and PCIs are both implicitly-generated even if the ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 177 former is less affected by particularities of the context of the relevant utterance (cf. Levinson 2000 and Schwenter 2014). On the other hand, conventional implicatures are neither variable nor cancellable. Additionally, they are hypothesised to be detachable to certain expressions, including but, however, etc. (Grice 1975 and Potts 2003). Consider the following example, where but is replaced by and that exhibits the same truth-conditional values, but the respective implicature with the conflict interpretation does not arise. (4) a. She is pregnant, but she is not married. b. She is pregnant, and she is not married. Although conventional implicatures are context-independent, stable, non-cancellable aspect of meaning, they are for Grice part of the implicit import of utterances. The pivotal point is that they are non-truth-conditional (Grice 1989 and Bach 1999b). Following this line of thought, Gricean pragmatics is said to incorporate non-truth-conditional meanings in the sense that speaker meaning is calculated with the exclusion of the truth-conditional. However, this analysis of E-ID had not passed unchallenged. Several works highlighted aggravation of this treatment of E-ID. In the following subsections, two major problems pertaining to this treatment, namely Total Significance of an Utterance and A-saying vs B-saying are addressed. (Section 4 addresses another problem related to Grice’s treatment of E-ID, namely Grice’s circle), 2.2 Problems of E-ID in Grice’s 2.2.1 Total Significance of the Utterance For Grice, E-ID is not exhaustive; he introduces the notion of Total Significance of an Utterance (TSU) (Gibbs 1984:279). TSU underlies that speaker meaning is determined by adding what is said (the explicitly-decoded meaning) to what is implicated (the implicitly-communicated meaning). This addition is important so as to pin down exactly what the speaker means (i.e., TSU). Consider Figure 2 which illustrates how TSU is calculated for the utterance ‘Mary has five cats’. Figure 2. TSU for ‘Mary has five cats’ The obligatorily-ordered addition entails that what is implicated (pragmatics for Grice) occurs after what is said (semantics), i.e., pragmatics is post-semantics. Yet, many researchers have maintained that dependence of pragmatics on semantics is risky and even perplexing and erroneous (cf. Wilson and Sperber 1981, Carsten 2002 inter alia). Such works argued convincingly that TSU does not operate in loose/figurative uses which are difficult to accommodate within this way of meaning determination. In metaphorical interpretation, pragmatics is argued to displace semantics altogether since the latter does not play any role in deciding on speaker meaning. Consider utterance (5) (a widely-used expression in Jordan). (5) The man is a whale. In (5), the speaker does not mean that the man is really a whale (a giant sea creature), but he/she communicates that the man is a charismatic person who energetically manages everything around him. Here, pragmatics debunks semantics rather than follows it. The same observation can be extended to irony, meiosis, and hyperbole (cf. Sperber and Wilson 1981: 160, Partington 2007, and Hall 2013). If such is the case, what is implicitly communicated might exhaust entirely what is explicitly encoded. This argument has been further taken by some as evidence against the explicit side of E-ID (Gibbs 2002). By the same token, there is increasingly emerging evidence that hearers do not first compute the literal meaning, then the nonliteral (implicit) meaning, but that they arrive at the latter earlier or in a parallel fashion (cf. Recanati 1995, Giora 2003, and Mazzarella 2015). Such assumptions render TSU’s framework and the reasoning behind it, in general, and the issue whether we are dealing with explicit communication, in particular, vulnerable for refutation. Several studies (e.g., Sperber and Wilson 1986a, 1995, 1998a, 2002, and Carston 2009) have maintained that with adoption of TSU to understand speaker’s meaning, the task for (better) exploration of loose/figurative uses is a large and disconcerting undertaking whose implementation is obscure at best. 2.2.2 A-saying vs. B-saying Burton-Roberts (2005) argues that Grice’s notion of what is explicitly communicated is not well-argued, and it is inherently problematic (2005:390-1). Burton-Roberts states that there are two distinct types of what is explicitly ‘said’: A-saying and B-saying. A-saying (Saying of P) is merely a quotation of the speaker’s utterance, iv while B-saying ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 178 (Saying that P) is an assessment of the thought, one intends to explicitly communicate. Burton-Roberts (2005:390) makes use of the following example to explain the difference between these two different types of sayings: (6) It is twelve: a. ‘It is twelve’ [SAYING-OF-‘P’] b. It was twelve o’clock [SAYING-THAT-P] c. It was midday [SAYING-THAT-P] d. There were twelve men in the cricket team [SAYING-THAT-P] e. …. When the speaker says exactly what was said without any modification, what is said then is A-saying (like 6a). Any modification even partial to what was said is a type of B-saying (as in 6b,c,d). A-saying and B-saying are in clear contrast with what isn’t said, i.e., what is implicated. Along similar lines, Carston (2002) argues that since Grice failed to detect the inherent differences between these two types of sayings, he did not observe the pragmatic mechanisms involved in determining B-saying, which needs a lot of pragmatic work to resolve, including reference assignment and disambiguation. Thus, Grice did not recognise pragmatic intrusion into explicit content of utterances. This lack of recognition is supposedly caused and exacerbated by heavy attention paid to pragmatic contribution to the implicit import (Huang 2007: 189). Most importantly, failure in detecting differences between A-saying and B-saying on Grice’s part motivated other pragmatic approaches, most notably RT, to re-construct totally E-ID (Wilson and Sperber 2002: 260-1). 3. RT’s E-ID and problems 3.1 RT’s account of E-ID In RT, every utterance has a variety of possible interpretations which are basically combinations of explicit content, context and implied meaning (Wilson and Sperber 1998:285). Although RT concedes that a borderline between explicit content and implicit import of utterances must be drawn, RT abstracts away from Gricean views on E-ID. RT exponents argue that explicit content is not equated with linguistically-decoded meaning. In addition, for them all pragmaticallyinferred processes are not constrained to the implicit import of utterances (Carston 2002).v To begin with, RT hypothesises that the first part of E-ID (i.e., explicit) is not fully determined by what is linguistically decoded but also by what is pragmatically (contextually) inferred into the conventional, truth-conditional content meaning. By contrast, the second part of E-ID (i.e., implicit) is solely derivable via pragmatic inference (Huang 2007). In order to capture the explicit side of E-ID in RT, the term ‘explicature’ is innovatively coined. It is motivated by the assumption that the explicit side which is majorly represented in semantic representation (or logical form, Carston 2002: 57) is typically not fully propositional. Sperber and Wilson (1986) originally indicated that the logical form does not exhibit a fixed truth condition but, rather, consists of incomplete conceptual representation which functions as a schema for pragmatic construction of propositional forms (Carston 2004:633). The distinction between explicit-implicit propositions is spelled out as follows (Carston 2002: 124). (7) a. An assumption (proposition) communicated by an utterance is an ‘explicature’ of the utterance iff (i.e., if and only if) it is a development of (a) a linguistically encoded logical form of the utterance, or of (b) a sentential sub-part of a logical form.vi b. ‘Implicature’: An ostensively communicated assumption that is not an explicature; that is, a communicated assumption which is derived solely via processes of pragmatic inference.vii Since explicatures are developments of the logical form which they contain as a proper subpart, they flesh out the given linguistically-incomplete logical form of an utterance, which results in a fully propositional content (Huang 2007: 189). Here, the speaker commits himself/herself to the explicature of his /her utterance (Carston 2002:123). This so being, implicatures are no longer derived from Grice’s Cooperative Principle and its concomitant maxims. Given the negative definition of implicature in relation to explicatures, implicatures are everything which is communicated excluding explicatures. The speaker does not commit himself/herself to any implicatures derived by his/her utterance. Consequently, the explicature-implicature distinction constitutes an exhaustive and mutually exclusive division of communicated assumptions (Burton-Roberts 2005: 398). RT undertakes that explicatures are derived by enriching conceptual representations into propositional forms in five areas: disambiguation, reference resolution, saturation, free enrichment, and ad hoc concept construction (Carston, 2004: 633). For instance, before determining the explicit content of utterance (8), one must first disambiguate the meaning of the word ‘bat’ (an animal or a stick) and assign an appropriate contextual value to the referential expression included (i.e., she). (8) She saw a bat. The potential explicatures for utterance (8) are ‘Vicky saw a baseball bat’, ‘Mary saw a bat (an animal), and so on and so forth. These undetermined explicatures derived gives rise to what Carston (2002:57) labels as ‘Underdeterminacy Thesis’. This concept maintains that linguistic meaning underdetermines what is said; the natural language expressions fall short of encoding (Burton-Roberts 2005: 398). In utterance (9) below, the proposition is partially disallowed by ellipsis which is, in turn, difficult to unpack since the un-encoded elements must be firstly provided. ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 179 (9) France is worse (than what?) Given linguistically-encoded meanings are necessarily incomplete, pragmatics makes essential contribution not only to construction of implicit meanings but also to that of explicit meanings (Carston 2004: 633). viii In relation to this, linguistic semantics (non-truth-conditional) is differentiated from real semantics (truth-theoretic, fully propositional), which both stand for the explicit side of E-ID.ix It is revealing that RT treats conventional implicatures as explicit, and non-truth-conditional meanings are inseparable part of linguistic semantics which comes as two kinds: conceptual vs. procedural (see, Blakemore 1992, Rouchota and Jucker 1998, Ramos 1998, Fraser 2006, and Al-Jarrah et al 2015). Since conventional implicatures are detachable to certain expressions, RT argues that such expressions are linguistically-encoded instructions to the hearer, guiding him/her to Optimal Relevance (Wilson and Sperber 1993:13-8).x Again, the relevance-theoretical approach to E-ID has received criticisms and controversies. In the following subsection, some of these criticisms are highlighted and discussed. 3.2 Problems of E-ID in RT’s 3.2.1 Definition of explicature and development E-ID in the eyes of RT is not without its internal problems. Actually, most of these problems follow from the controversial definition of explicature in relation to implicature (Bird 1997, Capone 2009, and Chaves 2010, inter alia). Burton-Roberts (2005) argues that RT ‘allegations’ on explicatures are intrinsically dubious and difficult to fathom. He argues that explicatures are in RT totally defined in terms of development from the logical form although the notion of development is on its own a black hole at the centre of RT. That is because no clear definition for development has been introduced. This comes at price, given that lack of clear definition for development impugns the entire notion of explicatures. Burton-Roberts (2005) illustrates that if Carston’s (1988) Independence Principle is adopted for the definition of development, a number of intriguing problems related to determining explicatures are unavoidable. In terms of this principle, a communicated proposition is a development of the encoded logical form of an utterance (and thus explicated) iff that proposition (asymmetrically) entails the logical form. Such a definition of development in terms of entailment leaves us, Burton-Roberts argues, impotent to two problematic notions: some implicatures cannot be cancelled, whereas explicatures can be cancelled. 3.2.2 Non-cancellable implicatures Defining explicatures in RT is still contingent on what is encoded despite the fact that former is not isomorphic with the latter (Burton-Roberts 2005:397). Consider the following utterances: (10) a. The mayor is my mother. b. The mayor is a female. Depending on the definitions of explicatures and implicatures and Carston’s (2002) discussion on development, (10b) is hardly treated as an explicature to utterance (10a) since utterance (10b) does not entail utterance (10a) (a female ~├ my mother). Hence, in terms of RT, (10b) is inescapably an implicature. However, when the speaker cancels this implicature, he/she inevitably contradicts himself/herself: (11) *The mayor is a female, indeed a male. Actually, non-cancellability of implicatures is a less promising not trivial issue which contradicts the generally-agreedupon rule that implicatures are pragmatic inferences and thence cancellable. Non-cancelability follows plainly from putative complementarity between implicature and explicature. The former depends on the latter to determine, which in turn depends on development whose nature is not that clear and might be illicit (Burton-Roberts 2005:399). BurtonRoberts (2005) postulates that utterances like (10b) must be explicatures because they exhibit ‘constitutive truthconditional content’ of (10a). He states that to approach the problem of non-cancellability of implicatures, the rule of ‘truth-conditional content of an EXPLICATED proposition is EXPLICATED’ must be adopted. If not, he argues, all of the truth-conditional content of the explicature is treated as an implicature (Burton-Roberts 2005). 3.2.3 Cancellable explicatures Given both notions that explicatures are not fully decided by what is linguistically decoded but also by what is contextually inferred into the conventional, truth-conditional content and the significant notion that pragmatic inferences are defeasible, explicatures must be cancellable (Burton-Roberts 2005:400). Carston (2002:138) concedes that explicatures are cancellable in RT. She argues that this property barely rebuts the notion of explicature because RT rejects, by definition, cancellation as a criterion for defining explicatures. Instead, explicatures in RT dwell on speaker’s commitment towards what he/she endorses (Carston 2002:123). As a result, RT disbands Grice’s idea of GCIs and treats them as real explicatures. However, Burton-Roberts (2005) assumes that depriving explicatures of cancellation as a criterion is untenable. He argues that one cannot cancel what he/she commits himself/herself to without contradicting himself/herself. Additionally, all explicatures would have been treated as implicatures in negative utterances. Consider the following: (12) a. I have had breakfast (logical form). b. I have had breakfast today (explicature). (13) a. I have not had breakfast (logical form). b. I have not had breakfast today (implicature). ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 180 (12b) is an explicature because it entails (12a), the logical form. However, (13b) is an implicature only because it is not an explicature to (13a) not because of logical form in (13a) but because of negation. For several researchers, RT’s treatment of E-ID puts blinder on what should be the truth, the veritable assumption providing the impetus for them to recast RT’s treatment of E-L/D. 4. Bach’s impliciture and the Neo-Cricean’s call to reject E-ID In this section, Bach’s impliciture and the call made by researchers working within Neo-Gricean pragmatic theory to decline E-ID are briefly addressed. 4.1 Bach’s impliciture Problems of explicature, among others, derive some pragmatists to decline RT’s treatment of E-ID. One prominent example is the so-called Bach’s impliciture. Bach (1994, 1999a, 2006, and 2013) criticises the notion of explicature for its theory-internal problems and proposes, instead, the term ‘impliciture’. Bach reports that there is no explicit communication but two distinct kinds of communicated proposition which are both implicit: the standard Gricean implicatures and ‘implicitures’ which are defined as communicated propositions that are ‘implicit in what is said’. Consider the meanings of the mother’s utterance in (14): (14) Child: “Shall I eat this candy?” Mother: “It is harmful” a. It is harmful. (What is said) b. It is harmful to your health. (Impliciture) c. Do not eat it! (Implicature) However, as other proposals on E-ID, the notion of implicitures has received a load of criticism. For example, Carston (2002 and 2008) argues that demonstrative indexicals like ‘she’ are not assigned a specific referent at the level of impliciture, but rather at the level of what of said which comes out as a mix of encoded constraints. Additionally, what is said’ has no role beyond that played by the logical form. The latter is the input to any further context-dependent pragmatic processes that are required to recover the intended utterance meaning, which yields the notion of what is said redundant and without issue. 4.2 Neo-Gricean approach and rejection of E-ID Within the neo-Gricean pragmatic framework, Grice’s E-ID is totally rejected, because it is not amenable to how speaker’s meaning is processed (cf. Huang 2007:203). This rejection is due to the so-called ‘Grice’s circle’, a theoryinternal problem.xi The main argument was built on the Gricean notion that pragmatics is post-semantics (Capone 2006: 646). Levinson (2000: 195) indicates that the circle is generated by pragmatic intrusion into what is semantically encoded; implicatures take their input from what is said,xii which takes, in turn, its input from pragmatics. Resulting circularity makes the E-ID an impossible task to mark since the starting point which is needed in utterance interpretation and which is generally taken to be utterance semantics is no longer held (Capone 2006: 646). Consider Figure 3: Figure 3. Grice’s Circle Moreover, Levinson (2000) argues that Grice gives three preconditions to determine what is said: identifying referents, fixing deictic parameters, and disambiguating the linguistic string in questions.xiii These three preconditions espouses exactly the same inferential mechanisms which characterise Gricean Pragmatics (2000:173), an issue which has been rarely brought to the fore. For example, consider the following utterance: (15) She is ready and she is not ready. It is impossible to indicate whether (15) is a contradiction until the intended reference of each occurrence of she is assigned in addition to unpacking the ellipsis in each clause for ready (ready for what?). Both reference assignment and unpacking ellipsis are two contextually-sensitive processes occurring in pre-what-it-b-said, not post-semantics. For Neo-Gricean, not only does presence of E-ID obfuscate speaker meaning but also appears as an obstacle for utterance processing (cf. Shenghuan 1994, Horn 2006, Huang 2009, 2015, and Capone et al 2015).xiv ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 181 5. Conclusion This essay encapsulated what many prominent pragmatic approaches think of E-ID. For Grice, the explicit content of an utterance is isolated from the implicit import of that utterance. Some main differences between semantics and pragmatics were spelt out by virtue of this distinction. On the other hand, for RT, Grice’s views on the E-ID were rejected and replaced by the distinction between explicature and implicature. In addition, this paper emphasised some problems related to these two perspectives: A-saying vs. B-saying, and TSU for the former, whereas cancellability of explicatures, and non-cancellability of implicatures for the latter. It also shed light on Grice’s circle and Bach’s impliciture. In general, it is clear that the E-ID cannot be a clear-cut division, thanks to unavoidable pragmaticssemantics interface. References Al-Jarrah, R. S., Abu Dalu, A. 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Blackwell, Oxford. Wilson, D. and Sperber, D. (2004). Relevance theory. In Horn, Laurence, and Gergory Ward. (eds.) the handbook of pragmatics. Oxford: Blackwell. 607–632. Wilson, D. and Sperber, D. (2015) "Outline of Relevance Theory." HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business 3: 35-56. Yus, F. (1999) ‘Misunderstandings and explicit/implicit communication.’ Pragmatics 9: 487-518. Notes i With the exclusion of any conventional implicature (Huang 2007: 178) ii In this regard, Grice introduces the Cooperative Principle and its four accompanying maxims of communication, whose consideration or flouting creates implicatures (see, e.g., Grice 1989, Blakemore 1992, and Levinson 1983). iii There are other kinds of implicatures, including implicature of politeness or style that are neither conventional nor conversational (cf. Leech 1983 and Brown and Levinson 1987). iv The notion of A-saying is much observed in legal texts where the legal interpreter translates the legal texts as they are without even stating the B-saying. It is natural then to label the legal interpreter as a photocopying machine (Obeidat and Al-Jarrah 2012). v It is worth mentioning that although Grice remarked that disambiguation and reference assignment fall on the explicit rather than the implicit side, he thought of them as determined by sentence meaning and contextual factors alone, without reference to pragmatic principles or speakers’ intentions (Wilson and Sperber 2002: 261). vi In RT, explicatures are divided into two subtypes: the higher-level (or higher-order) explicature and non-higher level implicatures (Wilson and Sperber 2004). vii In RT, there are two types of implicatures: implicated premises which are contextual assumptions intended by the speaker and supplied by the addressee and implicated conclusions which are contextual implications communicated by the speaker (Huang 2007: 195). viii In the relevance-theoretic account the human cognitive architecture is depicted ‘according to which linguistic semantics is the output of a modular linguistic decoding system and serves as input to a pragmatic processor’ (Carston 2004: 633). ALLS 7(1):175-184, 2016 184 ix It is beyond the scope of this essay to discuss RT’s three-level model of semantic and pragmatic interpretation of linguistic expressions or three strengths of underdeterminacy. x The Conceptual vs. procedural distinction has been a fecund soil for fruitful research. Much literature utilised this distinction to explore the functions and roles played by certain lexemes in utterance interpretation, including discourse markers (Alhaisoni et al 2012, Hammouri et al 2013, Blakemore and Gallai 2014, Taha et al 2014, Al-Jarrah et al 2015, and Alshamari 2015, Al-Shamari 2015, among others). xi Grice’s circle is also a problem for truth-conditional semantics (Capone 2006: 646). xii This notion is supported by Recanati (2003) who explicitly states that: ‘Implicatures are generated via an inference whose input is the fact that the speaker has said that p. Hence no implicature can be computed unless something has been said, some proposition expressed. In particular, no implicature can be computed at a sublocutionary level. We have to compute the truth-conditions first, so as to ascribe a definite content to the speaker’s speech act, before we can infer anything from that speech act.(p.300)’ xiii Levinson (2000) adds other two preconditions of determining what is said: unpacking ellipsis and narrowing generalities (p. 174). xiv Utterance (15) is in fact problematic in terms of the semantic law of non-contradiction, an utterance and its negation cannot be both true in the same situation (Borg 2013), given that the second conjunct of (15) is a negation of its first conjunct. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy The Acquisition of Phrasal Verbs through Cognitive Linguistic Approach: The Case of Iranian EFL Learners Mohammad Javad Ansari Sheikhbahaee University, Iran E-mail: mohammadjavad57@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.185 Received: 20/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.185 Accepted: 08/12/2015 Abstract Cognitive Linguistics has been applied in SLA in order improve the learning/acquisition process of foreign/second language. This quasi-experimental study was conducted to find the impact of the Cognitive Linguistics on learning/ acquiring the Phrasal Verbs among EFL learners at intermediate level. In this study the orientational metaphors were chosen because of their most- frequent usages. These particles were taught through Cognitive Linguistics for the experimental group and the results of the treatment were analyzed by the independent-samples t test. The findings showed that through Cognitive Linguistics the acquisition of Phrasal Verbs were facilitated both in the exposed and unexposed ones. The results showed the positive effect of the Cognitive Linguistics. And finally this paper proposes some pedagogical implications for further study so as to crystalize the other features by means of Cognitive Linguistics. Keywords: Cognitive Linguistics, phrasal verbs, metaphors, prototype theory, particles 1. Introduction Gaining proficiency in L2 features such as grammatical features and vocabulary is often always is in the centre of language acquisition and English is not exempted from it. Traditional approaches and methods all have been applied to implement new ways in teaching in order to improve language performance among EFL/ESL. In most cases these approaches and methods consider the language as containing sub-categories and each of these sub-categories were taught separately, i.e. linguistic paradigm. But the result was not at satisfactory level and some other approaches and methods were proposed and developed by the scholars and the practitioners. One of them is Cognitive Linguistic approach. As Boers (2013) posits, “Cognitive Linguistics treats language and its acquisition as usage-based and as reflecting the general cognitive abilities that operate in our interaction with the world” (p. 211). The relationship between “cognitive competence” and “linguistic forms” is central to Cognitive Linguistics (Mitchell, Myles & Marsden 2013). One of the features making learning English difficult is Phrasal Verbs (henceforth PVs). English learners complain that this feature is among the most difficult areas which cause them to feel uneasy with the target language learning. Among Persian-speaking learners of English PVs always lead the EFL learners to disappointment and, therefore, this paper tries to elaborate on Cognitive Linguistics in order to facilitate the acquisition of PVs. As said before, applying the formal instruction for teaching PVs proved that they had not been so efficient as expected and, thus, the other influential approaches and methods are needed for implementing PVs in the classroom. Cognitive Linguistics is the new school of linguistic thought which seeks to ease the process of teaching and learning. This smallscale study which is the quasi-experimental was conducted based on the Cognitive Linguistics to see whether the traditional method, here is the translation, has any priority over the Cognitive Linguistics. Therefore, six particles were chosen: across, up, down, off, in, and out. These are selected for two reasons: 1. They are considered the most frequent-used particles. 2. The treatment duration was scheduled for ten minutes. The other argument is the criteria for the selection of the orientational particles and the rationale behind this selection. There is no rule-of-thumb to define the fixed frame for this selection. For example, Biber et al. (1999) argue that the most productive adverbial particles are as follows: up, out, on, in, off, and down, whereas in Collins Cobuild Dictionary (Sinclair (1989)) these particles are considered more productive: up, out, in, on and down. Anyhow, Lakoff and Johnson (2003) content that such metaphorical orientations [particles] have basis in the physical and cultural experience and are not arbitrary. They hold that metaphors are conceptual and our thoughts and acts are basically metaphorical. “To them, the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Imre, 2010). Therefore, besides up, down, off, in, and out, the particle across was selected to increase the learning load a bit. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Cognitive Linguistics and the related issues Cognitive psychology represents the new era of thinking appeared to save the educational psychology (Brown, 2014). Cognitive Linguistics is a school of linguistics and cognitive science emerged from the early 1980s. When psychology ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 186 and linguistics merged, this combination not only gave rise to psycholinguistics but also Cognitive Linguistics (Brown 2014). Gries (2008) states that Cognitive Linguistics is one of the alternatives to the linguistic paradigm of generative grammar proposed by Chomsky. Cognitive Linguistics is the study of language based on our experience of the world. This new alternative method has been seen as the complementary to other language methods by some scholars such as Talmy (2000). Ellis and Robinson (2008) acknowledge that Cognitive Linguistics seeks to go beyond the linguistic form “to further explain how language mutually interfaces with conceptual structure as this becomes established during child L1 development and as it becomes available for change during adult L2 language learning” (p. 4). Boers (2013) argues that the cognitive linguistic movement is a reaction to the generative linguistics: The Cognitive Linguistic movement began mostly as a reaction to generative linguistics, which was felt to treat language too much as a special-purpose component, divorced from general cognition and the way language is actually cued. (p.211) On the other hand, Lakoff (1987), and later on Tannen (1990) and Talmy (2003) examined the “cognitive and social backdrop of metaphor”. “Cognitive Linguistics represents a contemporary approach to language, language learning, and conceptual structure” (Evans, 2012). It was a reaction to both generative grammar and formal semantics and, additionally, it is not a single theory but is a broad concept and, as Evans (2012) says, “wherein lies its strength” Later, it will be discussed in detail. Ellis (2013) notes that “cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics have a role to play in informing the ordering of exemplars for optimal acquisition of a schematic construction” (p. 204). So, Cognitive Linguistics holds that learning language occurred from usage involving interplay of language usage and language processing and computational and statistical stimulations of acquisition (Ellis & Robinson, 2008). According to Brown (2014, p. 89), the Cognitive Linguistics approaches are characterized by several themes as follows: 1. Language is not an autonomous faculty. 2. Syntax is not simply an arbitrary set of rules but rather is interwoven with conceptualization and knowledge. 3. Language ability cannot be examined without concurrent consideration of language use. Then, the concepts of metaphor (embodiment), lexicon and grammar reality, concept formation, and usage as a cornerstone for understanding were incorporated by Holme (2012). Doughy and Long (2003) propose that the detailed qualitative analysis is provided by the Cognitive Linguistics in which language in the human is experience and embodiment. Cognitive Linguistics places the central role to the “meaning, conceptual processes, and embodied experience” in language and mind study (Evans, 2007). Talmy (2000) highlights the notion that Cognitive Linguistics addresses the concerns of the following approaches: formal, psychological and conceptual. He goes further and says that the examining of the formal properties of language from its conceptual properties and the relating the findings to the cognitive structures are in the domain of Cognitive Linguistics. Langacker (2010) holds that Cognitive Linguistics belongs to functionalism in contrast to formalism, thus, linguistic systems are analysed based on perception, attention, and categorization. Moreover, Cognitive Linguistics is not a single theoretical framework but it is consisted of two major principles: generalization commitment and cognitive commitment. These two sub-branches of Cognitive Linguistics are cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar. Janda (2010) acknowledges that “Cognitive Linguistics views linguistics cognition as an indistinguishable from general cognition and thus seeks explanation of linguistic phenomena in terms of general cognitive strategies” (p.1). She goes further and says that Cognitive Linguistics is a framework interacting with “academic allies”. According to Janda (2010), Cognitive Linguistics tries to create analysis which is “psychologically plausible”. In this connection, Ellis (2008) talks about the two different cognitive paradigms in the context of SLA: computational model and socioculctural account. He posits that both models share one point in common and believes that these models treat L2 acquisition as similar in nature to other kinds of learning in drawing on a common set of processes. As earlier said, there are two key commitments of Cognitive Linguistics: 1. Generalization Commitment 2. Cognitive Commitment Evans (2007) has provided the comprehensive and precise explanation for both of these concepts as follows that Generalization commitment is one of two key factors of the Cognitive Linguistics. He contends that Cognitive Linguistics “constitutes a commitment to the characterisation of general principles that are responsible for all aspects of human language” (p. 88). This type of commitment is based on the assumption the “general cognitive mechanisms and processes” are reflected in language. Accordingly, “search for common organising principles across different language ‘systems’” is the interesting topic for the cognitive linguistics, such as phonology, syntax, semantics and so on. And finally he says that “such common organising principles include conceptual mechanisms like metaphor, conceptual blending and phenomena such as polysemy. The generalisation commitment stands in direct opposition to the modular approach taken in formal linguistics” (p. 89). In other words, Gries (2008) argues that the generalization commitment “requires cognitive linguists to ‘characterize the general principles governing all aspects of human language’ on all levels of description” (p. 408). On the other hand, the explanation of the cognitive commitment according to Evans (2007, p. 19) includes as following that “[It] represents the view that the principles of linguistic structure should reflect what is known about human ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 187 cognition from other disciplines, particularly the other cognitive sciences (philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence and neuroscience)”. He goes further and believes that the general principles should be reflected in cognitive commitment rather than the specific cognitive principles. This kind of commitment prominent in cognitive linguistics leads to generalisation commitments “the rejection by cognitive linguists of the modular approach to language and the mind adopted in formal linguistics.” (p. 19) According to Gries (2008), “cognitive commitment requires linguists ‘to make one’s account of human language accord with what is generally known about the mind and brain’” (p. 408). The other concept related to the Cognitive Linguistics is the Prototype theory. This theory uncovered in 1970s is one the main concepts taken up by Cognitive Linguistics development posited by Eleanor Rosch. Let’s discuss this concept briefly. The concept of prototype in Cognitive Linguistics goes against the Classical Theory of Concepts. Lewandowska-Tomasczyk (2007) holds that the main tenet of Classical Theory of Concepts is “the definitional structure in the sense that they encode necessary and sufficient conditions for their application” (p.144). For example, bachelor is composed of a set of features: male, adult, and not married. Croft and Cruse (2004) state that the prototypes are the best examples of the categories. In contrast with this theory, the theoretical conception includes the following features proposed by Geeraerts (1989) (as cited in Lewandowska-Tomasczyk (2007, p. 145)): a. Prototypical categories exhibit degrees of typicality; not every member is equally representative for a category. b. Prototypical categories are blurred at the edges. c. Prototypical categories cannot be defined by means of a single set of criterial (necessary and sufficient) attributes. d. Prototypical categories exhibit a family resemblance structure, or more generally, their semantic structure takes the form of radial set of clustered and overlapping readings. Some basic principles are also offered by prototype theory. According to Evans (2007), two basic principles were held by this theory: (1) cognitive economy and (2) perceived world structure. The former principle states that human being attempts to learn as much as possible from his/her environment “while minimizing cognitive effort and resources”. The latter posits that “the world around us has correlational structure” (p. 176). But “today, prototype theory is no longer seen as an accurate view of categorization” (p. 177). However, as Geeraerts and Speelman (2010) acknowledge, “the linguistic development of prototype has brought to the attention a number of non-traditional semasiological features” (p. 24), but this paper is not going to discuss these features and they need another investigation. Until 1990s, cognitive linguistics was static but by the innovation of construct grammar it became dynamic (Janda, 2010). In other words, the fixed rules cannot be assigned to Cognitive Linguistics but there are core concepts in Cognitive Linguistics. The merits of the Cognitive Linguistics include the following: data- and user-friendly of it (Janda, 2010). These core concepts, therefore, are descriptive not prescriptive and the empirical studies are the basic sources for them. So, there is always possible to add another concept fitting Cognitive Linguistics. Therefore, some scholars have used the term Cognitive Linguistics in order to influence on SLA and ESL/EFL teaching. In this connection, some aspects of grammar are more difficult to teach and learn and the teachers and students complained about how to teach and learn these features. PVs are of one the difficult areas in English needed extra attention and according to Boers and Lindstromberg (2006) “particles in English phrasal verbs, and prepositions generally have been a favour object of CL-research into polysemy” (p. 318). According to Biber et al., (as cited in Putz (2007)), four major kinds of multiword combinations constitute the corpus-based grammar of spoken and written English: phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs, and other multiword verb constructions. Putz (2007) states that PVs and prepositional verbs are two major areas of difficulty in language learning because their meanings cannot be derived from their individual elements and, on the other hand, they are required the special attention since they are frequently used in fiction and conversation. Wood (as cited in Herra (2013)) admits this difficulty and says that by gaining proficiency in PVs, the students’ fluency in the target language will be increased. Condon (2008) argues that the arbitrariness of PVs combination and the random nature of particles (Side, 1990) make the acquisition of PVs more difficult for the EFL learners. The difficulty arises when we notice that the meanings of the individual words are different from their combination and PVs, therefore, are required to devise new approaches and methods for teaching. Thornbury (2002) has classified the lexical items into six most important chunks: collocations, PVs, idioms, sentence frames, social formulae, and discourse markers. He acknowledges that some chunks are transparent in meaning from their parts like as old as hill, whereas the meanings of the other chunks are not clear from their parts and thus are much more idiomatic such as PVs, knock off. He put in this way that: Some phrasal verbs are syntactically flexible: I’ll bring up the paper or I’ll bring the paper up. Others are not: I can’t tell the twins apart but not I can’t tell apart the twins. Moreover, the combination bring up has a range of meanings, some literal (I’ll bring up the paper), some semi-idiomatic (Don’t bring that subject up again) and some very idiomatic (They brought their children up to speak Italian). (pp. 115-6) He continues in this way that “phrasal verbs are another instance of fuzziness at the boundary between words and grammar” (p. 123). He provides some typical exercises used in teaching PVs. They are as follows: sentence-gap-fills, rephrasing, and matching. To use the PVs as lexical chunks both accurately and appropriately distinguishes the advanced learners from intermediate ones, as Thornbury (2002) posits. The point here is that the superior results under experimental conditions ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 188 disappear when they are applied in the real classroom and it is not unusual. But the pedagogical implications pave the ways for the instructors and practitioners to find the appropriate ways for teaching PVs. The next point is that the Cognitive Linguistic experiment lasted for the short period of time and this may cause the results only be applicable in the laboratory situations. But its pedagogical implications are considerable and must be taken into account by the teachers and practitioners as well as the researchers. In one experiment, Condon (2008) conducted teaching PVs based on Cognitive Linguistic motivation lasted for two consecutive years, and the results illuminate the fact that the experimental group outperformed in both the pilot and the main experiment. And this shows that Cognitive Linguistic approach enhances the learning PVs. She came to this conclusion that the time investment has a significant advantage for the experiment group. 2.2 Cognitive Linguistics and the Conducted Research Anyhow, a lot of scholars have conducted research in order to examine their new treatment for helping the students to overcome the obstacle, i.e. PVs. In the following lines some papers are discussed. Yasuda (2010) conducted a study for teaching PVs based on the Conceptual Metaphor and the results offer support this notion that the “cognitive semantic approach is successfully transferrable” when language learners encounter with the novel PVs. Schmid and Ungerer (2011) argued for the Cognitive Linguistics and language teaching and believed that the usageaccount of the first-language acquisition establishes the teaching principles and methods: 1. Practice and item-specification help to achieve the rule-based competence by induction. 2. The anchoring notion has the prominent role in Cognitive Linguistic approaches. That is to say, not only are the itemspecific structures represented in suitable situation, but also “their embedding in mind maps” is important equally, if not more. According to Herra (2013), PVs could be taught through explicit and systematic learning and this proved that PVs through contextualized activities. Strong (2013) used sematic approach to teach PVs in which he selected three groups: Group one received paired-associate learning, group two semantic instruction with the meaning of the target particles, and group three received semantic analysis incorporated with image schema group. The results illustrated that regarding the exposed PVs all three groups perform equally. But in respect with the unexposed PVs, the results of the second and third groups’ scores suggested that they did the test successfully. Therefore, Cognitive Linguistics approaches are effective on acquiring PVs. The current study examined the learning and acquisition of PVs through cognitive linguistic approaches. After description of methodology and the results, in discussion section, the main points and the findings of the research would be explained. The point here is that instead of using the prototypical examples for the treatment group the less-frequent ones were used but as shown later the results were at satisfactory level. And this shows that the treatment is fundamental in acquiring PVs not the content of study. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed so as to evaluate the effect of the new method in teaching PVs (the odd number was designated to the exposed PVs whereas the evens to the unexposed ones): H1: The two groups will equally score well on the exposed PVs. That is to say, the familiarity influences on the performance of the students in the control and the experimental groups. H2: The two groups will equally score poorly on the unexposed PVs. That is to say, the unfamiliarity has the negative effect on the performance of the students in the control and the experimental groups. 3. Methodology 3.1 Subjects The participants were 30 university students studied in Qom Azad University with seven-year experience in English in high school. It was believed that they were in the same level of proficiency, i.e. intermediate because all of them took the Azad Entrance Exam. Anyhow, the Oxford Placement Test (2001) was used and those who scored +3 and above were selected. Most were between the ages19 and 35. Then the subjects were divided into two groups: the control and the experimental. The groups consisted of native Persian speakers enrolled in Education administration major. Each group consisted of two males and thirteen females. The session for each group lasted for 25 minutes. 3.2 Procedure The orientational prepositions taught in this study included: across, up, down, off, in, and out. They were embedded in 36 sentences derived from the following sources: 1. The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) 2. Longman Exams Dictionary (2006) 3. Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary (2009) 4. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010) The odd numbers belonged to the exposed category of PVs and the even numbers belonged to the unexposed category of PVs. That is to say, the test consisted of two parts: the exposed and the unexposed PVs. Half of the test consisted of exposed PVs and the remaining one the unexposed PVs. The testees were not aware of this distribution. ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 189 In the control group, the subjects received the translation of the orientational particles with their verbs for 10 minutes and 5 minutes was given for review the exposed orientational PVs and 10 minutes for the test which contained eighteen unexposed orientational PVs as well as eighteen exposed ones (Appendix II). Before the test, they were given the checklist in which the exposed PVs, i.e. the odd number, were written and the students had to write the meaning as the teacher translated the PVs. On the other hand, for the experimental group the new way of PVs teaching was introduced, that is to say, Cognitive Linguistics. In this treatment, the subjects received the new explanation based on the teacher’s classification of the target particles based on their meanings and besides this explanation, the visual aids were also used in order to crystalize the students’ understanding of PVs and be sure that they learned the concepts vigorously. In addition, one example was given for each particle which was not essentially the prototypical ones (Appendix I). Like the control group, the time allocation for implementing the new treatment was 25 minutes like the control group. The checklist was given to the students in which the exposed PVs were written on the page and the new instruction was conducted by the teacher and the subjects had to think deeply about the particles, that is, instead of focusing on PVs’ meanings, the main attention was given to the particles and their meanings. In other words, the particles were explained and categorized according to their functions and the subjects had to work with these concepts so as to crystalize them in their mind. Besides this procedure, the visual aids were also used to make sure that the treatment work effectively. For the final test in addition to the exposed category of PVs, the unexposed category was included in order to see the possible performance difference. The aim of unexposed PVs was to investigate whether the participants would be able to apply new treatment to new PVs with same particles. And the format of the test was fill-in-the-blank. The statistical analysis is based on independent-samples t test in SPSS 22 because there were two items (exposed and unexposed PVs) with two groups (control and experimental). The alpha level was set at 0.05. 4. Results As previously shown, two questions posited by this paper are as follows: 1. Do these two groups _the control and the experimental_ perform equally well on the Cognitive Linguistic-related approaches? 2. Do these two groups score poorly on the unexposed PVs based on the Cognitive Linguistic-related approaches? This section is divided into two parts: (a) Exposed (i.e. seen) PVs; and (b) Unexposed (i.e. unseen) PVs. 4.1. Exposed PVs The descriptive results of the exposed PVs have been summarised in Table 1 and Table 2 for both the control and the experimental groups, respectively. In these tables the number of students, minimum and maximum, mean and the standard deviation were reported. The tables show that the experimental group drastically better performed in the exposed PVs (regarding the mean of the control group, 7.4, and the experimental group, 16.67). Moreover, by comparing the minimum and the maximum scores, the differences between these two groups were evident. The compared means of the both groups reveals that there is great distance between them and it appears that this existing distance is related to the way of presenting the PVs. The interesting point here is that in the experimental group there were some cases in which scored the highest point, i.e. 18. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental Group for the Exposed Phrasal verbs N Exposed Minimum 15 3.00 Maximum 15.00 Mean SD 7.4000 3.85079 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental Group for the Exposed Phrasal verbs Exposed N Minimum 15 13.00 Maximum Mean 18.00 16.6667 SD 1.83874 Then the statistical data were analysed according to the independent-samples t test and the results are given in the Tables 3 and 4. The SD and SEM are also provided in addition to the mean in Table 3. Table 3. The Statistical Description of the Control and Experimental Groups in Exposed PVs N Mean SD SEM Control 15 7.4000 3.85079 0.99427 Experimental 15 16.6667 1.83874 0.47476 ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 190 Based on the Table 4, because the significant level is less than 0.05, we can assume that the group variances are not equal and need to use the second column of t-test results. In our study, we have a t obtained of -8.410, and with 20.069 degrees of freedom, it is significant at the 0.000 level. Table 4. Independent Samples t test for Exposed PVs Equal variances assumed Levene’s Test for Equality of Variables t-test for Equality of Means F 9.993 Sig. 0.004 t Equal variances not assumed -8.410 -8.410 df 28 20.069 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 Mean Difference -9.26667 -9.26667 Std. Error Difference 1.10180 1.10180 95% Confidence lower Mean -11.52361 -11.56448 Interval of the upper Mean -7.00973 -6.96885 Thus we can conclude that these two groups are significantly different with respect to the new method applied and, therefore, the first null hypothesis is rejected and we can say that: The two groups did not equally score well on the exposed PVs. That is to say, the familiarity did not influence on the performance of the students in the control and the experimental groups and the experimental group outperformed than the control group. 4.2 Unexposed PVs The descriptive results of the unexposed PVs have been summarised in Table 5 and Table 6 for the control and the experimental groups, respectively. In these tables the number of students, minimum and maximum, mean and the standard deviation were reported. The tables show that the experimental group drastically better perform in the unexposed PVs (regarding the mean of the control group, 6.5333, and the experimental group, 13.8667). The compared means of the both groups reveals that there is great distance between them and it appears that this distance is rooted to the way of presenting the PVs. The point worth mentioning here is that none of the students in both groups scored the highest point and this proposes that it needs another research to find the reason for this shortcoming in order to improve the students’ ability to score the highest point. Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental Group for the Unexposed Phrasal verbs N Exposed Minimum 15 2.00 Maximum 12.00 Mean SD 6.5333 3.35659 Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of the Experimental Group for the Unexposed Phrasal verbs N Exposed Minimum 15 8.00 Maximum 16.00 Mean SD 13.8667 2.53170 Then the results of both groups were analysed based on independent-samples t test, and the results is provided by the tables 7 and 8. Like table 3, the table 7 illustrates the mean, SD, and SEM of both groups: Table 7. The Statistical Description of the Control and Experimental Groups in Unexposed PVs N Mean SD SEM Control 15 6.5333 3.35659 0.86667 Experimental 15 13.8667 2.53170 0.65368 Based on the Table 8, because significant level is greater than 0.05, we can assume that the group variances are equal and need to use the first column of t-test results. In our study we have a t obtained of -6.755 and with 28 degrees of freedom (df=n-2), it is significant at the 0.000 level. ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 191 Table 8. Independent Samples t test for Unexposed PVs Equal variances assumed Levene’s Test for Equality of Variables t-test for Equality of Means F 2.430 Sig. 0.130 t -6. 755 Equal variances not assumed -6.755 df 28 26.034 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 Mean Difference -7.33333 -7.33333 Std. Error Difference 1.08555 1.08555 95% Confidence lower Mean -9.55698 -9.56456 Interval of the upper Mean -5.10969 -5.10210 Thus, we can conclude that these two groups are significantly different with respect to the new method applied and therefore the second null hypothesis is also rejected and we can say that: The experimental group outperformed with respect to the unexposed PVs. That is to say, the unfamiliarity had the negative effect on the performance of the students in the control group but for the experimental group it made no changes. In sum, it became obvious that the experimental group did better on the PVs test than the control group both in the exposed _seen_ and unexposed _unseen. 5. Discussion and conclusion The premise of this study was to investigate the Cognitive Linguistics impact on learning/ acquiring the grammatical features, here PVs. This study showed that for internalizing PVs the Cognitive Linguistic approach was the mostinfluential device and the teachers and instructors are recommended to use it so as to teach the PVs. The results of this study also postulate this assumption that applying the Cognitive Linguistics in teaching (here, PVs) facilitates the acquisition of problematic features of L2 and as the experimental group of this study showed their performance were better than the control group in which the traditional method, i.e. translation was used to teach the PVs. The findings indicated that the experimental group performed better in the eighteen exposed PVs than the control group and this suggests that the new treatment has had the positive effect on the process of learning and acquisition of PVs. Although both of these two groups were familiar with this type of question _they saw them before_ the performance was meaningfully different when the comparison was made. Furthermore, this difference reveals this fact that the retention is much more considerable among the students of the experimental group received the new treatment by means of Cognitive Linguistic approach. Thus, we can come to this conclusion that the Cognitive linguistics helps the student to learn/ acquire the problematic features in SLA. Regarding the second hypothesis, again it became obvious that the experimental group scored better than the control groups in eighteen unexposed _unseen_ PVs and therefore the positive influence of the cognitive linguistics was evident in this study. As Ellis (2003) acknowledges that the principle of the cognitive linguistics is based on this fact that the language cognition cannot be separated from semantics and the rest of the cognition. All in all, the findings illustrate that the role of the Cognitive Linguistics is prominent and it helps the learners to acquire the problematic features of English at the satisfactory level. Cognitive Linguistics helps the learner to link the form to the meaning of the holistic unit. And building up this direction often always influences the examinee’s performance. The important implication of the new treatment _ Cognitive Linguistic-related approaches is the concept of autonomy. Dornyei (2014) assumes that when the students feel some sort of ownership they are motivated to pursue the tasks, as he states, “autonomy and motivation go hand in hand” (526). In Cognitive-linguistic-related approach it seems that the treatment group became aware of the nature of the particles and their relation with the verb, they would be able to understand the meanings of the PVs. The point worth mentioning here is that in choosing the particles, it makes no different whether to choose the most productive particles or the less-frequent ones such as the particle across. The other research which was carried out in this field and discussed in this paper previously used the most prototypical examples while in this study the researcher used the less-common instances but the overall results were not meaningfully different from the results of the other research counterparts. Of course, the further research has to be conducted to crystalize this claim. And this fact articulates this notion that the vital point in learning the PVs is the way of teaching _ here is the Cognitive Linguistic Approach _ not the selection of the grammatical features, that is, the particles. What the results imply is that the students could acquire PVs through Cognitive Linguistics and elaborated on them in the written exercises, but whether they will be able to use them orally (i.e. conversation) needs to carry out another study and it is beyond the scope of this research. The main limitation of this study, at least to me, is the number of students. It seems that for rigorous results, the longitudinal study is plausible in determining the effect of the new treatment. Anyhow, the pedagogical implications of such studies have begun the new era for the further sophisticated research. The other issue related to the experimental group is that the students could retrieve the correct particles from ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 192 their memory even in some cases they did not know the exact meanings of the verbs. This phenomenon verifies the role of Cognitive Linguistics on the long-term memory in which the information can be stored in it and the learners can use this information whenever they need. Moreover, the concepts of receptive and productive skills arise here. This is beyond the scope of this study to answer this question whether the Cognitive Linguistics’ role is more prominent in receptive or productive skills, as said before, another study has to be carried out. But regardless of speaking and writing abilities, the receptive skills precede the productive one in this case. The further research needs to be conducted in this field in the case of other features like articles. The outcomes of such studies pave the way for better understanding of SLA. And they also point out that whether the problematic areas of language could be facilitated by means of new treatment. Regarding the matter of explicitness or implicitness, based on the findings of this paper, explicitness is more effective than the opposite one; and Ellis (2012) postulates this notion by reviewing the experimental and quasiexperimental investigation into the L2 instruction effectiveness and comes to this conclusion that the explicit instruction is more effective that the implicit type. In total, the effect of Cognitive Linguistics is more prominent and its role cannot be neglected. It goes without saying that, Cognitive Linguistics in the field of SLA could have positive effect, at least, until now, according the findings of the current study and the previous ones. And last but not least, instead of considering the Cognitive Linguistics as a new method it is recommended that it should be used as a complementary aid besides the other approaches and methods. In this case, the further research will be required. And in the end, Lantolf (2011) properly states that cognitive linguistics provides potentially useful sources of scientific knowledge of the concept under study for language instruction. References Boers, F. (2013). Cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary. Language Teaching, Volume 46(2), 208-224. Boers, F., & Lindstromberg (2006). Cognitive linguistic applications in second or foreign language instruction: rationale, proposals, and evaluation. In G. Kiristiansen, G., M. Achard, R. Driven., & F. J. R. de Mendoza Ibanez (Eds.), Cognitive linguistics: current applications and future perspectives (pp. 305- 355). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2008). Cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary and phraseology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Brown, D. H. (2014). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Pearson Education. Condon, N. (2008). How cognitive linguistic motivations influence the learning of phrasal verbs. In F. Boers & S. Lindstromberg (Eds.), Cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary and phraseology (pp.133-158). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Croft, W., & Cruse D. A. (2004). Cognitive linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dornyei, Z. (2014). Motivation in second language learning. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. M. Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching language as a second or foreign language (4th edition) (pp. 518-531). Boston: National Geographic Learning. Ellis (2003). Constructions, chunking, and connsctionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition. Malden: Balckwell Publishing Ltd. Ellis, N. C. (2012). Frequency-based accounts of second language acquisition. In S. M. Gass & A. Mackey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 193-210). Abingdon: Routledge. Ellis, N. C., & Robinson, P. (2008). An introduction to cognitive linguistics, second language acquisition, and language instruction. In P. Robinson & N. C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 3-24). New York: Routledge. Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Evans, V. (2007). A glossary of cognitive linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Evans, V. (2012). Cognitive Linguistics. Retrieved from http://wires.wiley.com/cogsci/ Geeraerts D., & Speelman D. (2010). Heterodox concept features and onomasiological heterogeneity in dialect. In D. Geeraerts, G. Kristiansen, & Y. Peirsman (Eds.), Advances in cognitive sociolinguistics (pp. 23-39). Germany: Mouton de Gruyter. Gries, S. T. (2008). Corpus-based methods in analyses of second language acquisition data. In P. Robinson & N.C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 406-431). New York: Routledge. Herra, C.R. (2013). Phrasal verbs: Their teaching and acquisition. Revisita De Lenguas Modernas. 487-59. Retrieved from http://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/ Imre, A. (2010). Metaphors in cognitive linguistics. Eger Journal of English Studies X, 71-81. Retrieved from http://anglisztika.ektf.hu/ Janda, L. A. (2010). Cognitive linguistics in the year 2010. International Journal of Cognitive Linguistics. Volume 1, Issue 1. 1-30. New York: Nova Science Publisher, Inc. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphor we live by. London: University of Chicago Press. ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 193 Langacker, R.W. (2010). Conceptualization, symbolization, and grammar. International Journal of Cognitive Linguistics. Volume 1, Issue 1. 31-63. New York: Nova Science Publisher, Inc. Lantolf, J. P. (2011). The sociocultural approach to second language acquisition. In D. Atkinson (Ed.), Alternative approaches to second language acquisition (pp. 24-46). Abingdon: Routledge. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (2007). Polysemy, prototypes, and radial categories. In D. Geerarets & H. Cuyckens (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics (pp. 139- 169). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning theories. Abingdon: Routledge. Putz, M. (2007). Cognitive linguistics and applied linguistics. In D. Geerarets & H. Cuyckens (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics (pp. 1139- 1159). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ran, B., & Duimering P. R. (2010). Conceptual combination: models, theories, and controversies. International Journal of Cognitive Linguistics. Volume 1, Issue 1, 65-90. New York: Nova Science Publisher, Inc. Schmid, H.J., & Ungerer, F. (2011). Cognitive linguistics. In J. Simpson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics (pp.611-624). Abingdon: Routledge. Strong, B. (2013). A cognitive semantic approach to L2 learning of phrasal verbs. The language Teacher. September/October. Retrieved from http:// jalt-publications.org/ Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a cognitive semantics. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from http://linguistics.buffalo.edu/ Thornbury, S. (2002). How to teach vocabulary. Edinburgh: Pearson Education. Yasuda, s. (2010). Learning phrasal verbs through conceptual metaphors: a case of Japanese EFL learners. TESOL QUARTERLY , 44(2). Appendix I ACROSS · from one side to the other side travel across DOWN · towards or in a lower place or position, esp. to or on the ground or another surface · to or at a lower level of intensity, volume, or activity bend down IN · · expressing movement with the result that someone or sth becomes enclosed expressing the situation of being enclosed or surrounded by sth lock in OFF · · away from the place in question so as to bring to an end or be disconnected fall off OUT · · moving or appearing to move away from a particular place away from one’s unusual base/residence come out UP · at or to a higher level of intensity, volume, or activity · towards the sky or a higher position lead up ALLS 7(1):185-194, 2016 194 Appendix II · Fill the blanks with the appropriate particles: across up down off in out 1. He jumped ……from his car. 2. We were locked…... 3. I called him but he ran…… 4. She ran…..into the corridor. 5. He look ……at her. 6. The kids were playing by the river and one of them fell….. 7. It’s too wide. We can’t swim……….. 8. We watched the sun went……. 9. Keep ……the grass. 10. She jump……of the chair. 11. Some coins fell …..from my bag. 12. She walked……..the bridge. 13. Let’s go…..this evening. 14. They live….. in the mountains. 15. Turn …… the radio. 16. I pinned the notice……on the wall. 17. Someone parked right ………… the entrance to the driveway. 18. Pick….your clothes and put them away. 19. The roof of their house caved….. during a hurricane. 20. She opened it and took ….a pair of shoes. 21. How many days did you take……? 22. When my name was called, he looked………at me. 23. Could you bring the clothes…for me? 24. He got into his car and drove………. 25. Please sit……. 26. You look nice with your hair….. 27. Fill…..your name and address on the form provided. 28. They can’t swim………. 29. Was the computer on or……..when you left? 30. Tears were streaming …….my face. 31. I must be ……..now. 32. I am going …….for a walk. 33. When’s her flight due….? 34. Lay cards face…… 35. They ran straight…….the road. 36. I got …….of the bed. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Through the Lens of Good Language Learners: What Are Their Strategies? Nurhuda Mohamad Nazri (Corresponding author) Universiti Kuala Lumpur Institute of Medical Science Technology Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: nurhuda@unikl.edu.my Melor Md Yunus Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: melor@ukm.edu.my Nur Dalila Mohamad Nazri Faculty of Major Languages Studies, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia E-mail: dalila@usim.edu.my Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.195 Received: 29/09/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.195 Accepted: 09/12/2015 The research is financed by Universiti Kuala Lumpur. Abstract Often times, many English as Second Language (ESL) facilitators speculate why some learners learn faster than other learners. Provided the students were exposed with the same amount of years in the formal education system in Malaysia, the language instructors curious about the variety of performance in the English language among the learners. This study revealed the language learning strategies used by ten successful ESL learners of a private university in Kajang, Selangor, using Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). The findings indicated that successful language learners are high frequency users of language learning strategies. The total mean of each category showed that metacognitive strategies (Mean=3.964) are among the most frequently used strategies, followed respectively by compensatory (Mean=3.814), cognitive (Mean=3.812), social (Mean=3.700), memory (Mean=3.100) and affective strategies (Mean=2.890) found as the least used strategies among successful language learners. Interestingly, the study also identified that successful language learners used more direct strategies compared to indirect strategies. The findings have significant implications for research on language learning strategies for successful language learners and teacher planning in order to promote and boost the use of strategies among the poor language learners. Keywords: language learning strategies, successful learners, English as a Second Language 1. Introduction English has become an essential language and is given high status in Malaysian education system. Almost every issue pertaining to English language teaching and learning in mainstream curriculum has received a great deal of attention ranging from political parties, policy makers, linguists, educators to parents. Either in academia or career, the mastery of English is compulsory in the ever borderless and competitive world today. Undeniably, every student employs different approaches in learning English as a second language. According to Oxford (1990), theory has proven that strategy use yields to the effectiveness in language learning. The explanation for the statement is that the more aware learners are on the strategies they use, the more adept learners will be. Rubin (1975) suggested that if we are well aware of the strategies used by good language learners, we could try to impart and teach these strategies to poorer learners to enhance their language performance. Rubin (1975) also identified a list of approaches of the good language learners, which based on her findings, are enthusiastic and capable to use hints in order to deduce for meaning, employ a variety of methods to converse or learn from conversation, cope with inhibitions, practice the target language, attend to form and meaning and observe both their own and others’ speech. These strategies will differ depending on certain variables such as level of the task, age of the learners, learning context and environment, learning styles, socio-economic status of the family and cultural differences. She opined knowledge about good language learners will lessen the gap exists between the good and the poorer learner. In search for an answer to this issue, this present study on strategy use was conducted among ten successful English language learners of a private university in Malaysia. The goal was aimed ALLS 7(1):195-202, 2016 196 towards determining the strategies good learners employed as to the ones used the most and least. 2. Literature Review 2.1 The definitions of Language Learning Strategies Language learning strategy has emerged as a field of inquiry in the mid-1970s, when second language acquisition experts began to concentrate on individual variation among learners. The studies on language learning strategies have grown vigorously in the past few decades in ESL context. According to Weinstein & Rogers (1984), learning strategies were defined as understandings or actions that a learner employs during learning that are intended to affect the encoding process to facilitate the attainment, preservation, and reclamation of new knowledge. Correspondingly, another explanation to describe learning strategies is the steps taken by the learners to facilitate the attainment, storage, recovery, or usage of information (O'Malley et. al, 1985). Oxford’s (1990) classifications of the language learning strategies were agreed by many experts to be the most specific and comprehensive thus far. She defined language learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.” (p. 8). Based on her work and others in the language learning strategies field, language learning strategies can be said to have a number of distinctive characteristics. The language learning strategies model of Oxford categorized the strategies into two categories which are direct and indirect. Under direct strategies, she further classified language learning strategies into three broad categories called memory, cognitive, compensation strategies. On the other hand, she has classified metacognitive, affective, and social strategies to be under indirect strategies. Strategies are problem orientated and contribute directly and indirectly to learning. On occasions they are not associated with mental processing or the cognitive functions of the individual, thus rendering them behaviors which can also be either social or affective (Ellis, 1994; Oxford, 1990). Furthermore, they are intentional and usually conscious to the individual, but they may result in outcomes which can be either observed and unobservable (Ellis, 1994; Wenden and Rubin, 1987). 2.2 The Characteristics of Successful Language Learners Rubin (1975), Stern (1975) and Naiman, et al. (1978) discovered the likelihood that great achievement in language learning might be associated to the use of strategies among the successful language learners. Rubin and Thompson (1994) as well as Mohamed Amin (2000) have characterized some broad language learning strategies employed by the successful language learners. According to them, successful language learners always find or even create opportunities to use the target language, make rooms to always practice the language, exploit social means, make effort to convey and get the message across, optimistic and prepared to live with uncertainty, observe their own speech as well as others, solicit language patterns, employ the target language input and make errors work. They also plan and schedule their language learning, read comprehensively and last but not least, they experiment with different learning strategies. In a number of studies, a connection between the effectiveness in the use of learning strategies and language success has been identified. Mohamed Amin Embi et al., (2001) also suggested that good learners were revealed to have a greater use of language learning strategies compared to poor learners. 3. Method 3.1 Respondents In this study, ten students were selected to be the respondents through purposive sampling method. Also known as nonprobability sampling technique, this method was chosen to ensure the sample possessed the same characteristic which was good language learners. This method enabled the transparency of the findings thus established the validity of the study. They were all identified as successful language learners in the university based upon their exceptional grades for English paper in Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) as well as their outstanding language proficiency observed throughout English classes and tests. Each of the respondents fit to the requirement of the study as they were all ESL learners. 3.2 Instrumentation Oxford’s taxonomy was chosen to assess language learning strategies (LLS) in this study. Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) Version 7.0 was used in order to collect information about the topic. The decision to opt for this questionnaire was made on three reasons. Firstly, the questionnaire is perfect to assess language learning strategy used by English as second language (ESL) and English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners with different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Oxford’s taxonomy has been widely used among the Arabic, Chinese, Hispanic and Japanese students. (Touba: 1992, Chang: 1990, Green: 1991, Watanabe: 1990). Secondly, the reliability and validity of the questionnaire have been extensively tested and verified (Oxford, 1992). Thirdly, it was estimated that the questionnaire has been broadly used in major studies across the world involving approximately ten thousands language learners (Kaylani, 1996). The inventory comprises of fifty items on which they marked their responses on a Likert scale of 5 points, ranging from 1 for “Never or almost never true of me” to 5 for “Always or almost always true of me.” The respondents completed the questionnaire in 25 minutes under the supervision of the researcher. 3.3 Data Analysis To determine the frequency of language learning strategies used, a total of mean score was employed. The rating of frequency employed from the SILL was divided into three major categories of use. Mean of 1.0 to 2.4 was considered as low strategy use, 2.5 to 3.4 were characterized into medium strategy use and mean of 3.5 to 5.0 was regarded as high strategy use. ALLS 7(1):195-202, 2016 197 4. Findings 4.1 Overall strategy use Table 1. Mean Scores and Frequency of Language Learning Strategies Usage Strategy Mean Frequency Metacognitive 3.964 High Rank 1 Compensatory 3.814 High 2 Cognitive 3.812 High 3 Social 3.700 High 4 Memory 3.100 Medium 5 Affective 2.890 Medium 6 Total 3.547 Table 1 illustrates the mean of the overall strategy use was 3.547. This depicts the respondents, whom were successful language learners, were high strategy users. The students were also reported to possess high level in the frequency use for four categories (metacognitive, compensatory, cognitive and social) with the mean between 3.70 and 3.964. It was also noted that there were two categories (memory and affective) that were regarded as medium frequency of use (3.100 and 2.890). The most frequently used language learning strategies was metacognitive strategies (Mean=3.964), while affective strategies recorded to be the lowest mean scores (Mean=2.890). 4.2 Individual Strategy Use The total means and the description of frequency use of each item were presented based on their categories. Generally, the statistics showed that a total of 33 out of 50 strategies recorded to be in the high level of use category (Mean=3.50 to 5.00). The 17 remaining items were recorded to be medium frequency of use. 4.2.1 Memory Table 2. Mean Scores and Percentage of Memory Strategy Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Frequency Level I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them. - - 2 6 2 4.00 High (20%) (60%) (20%) I use flashcards to remember new English words. 6 2 2 - - 1.60 Medium (60%) (20%) (20%) The mean scores indicated that four items were at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.60 to 4.00 for these strategies. The item that revealed the highest mean score was “I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them”. Since the medium of instruction in the university was English, the students were to immerse themselves in using the language. Over the years of exposure in the target language, the students were able to develop familiarity with new English words and learned to use them in context. As proven by the result, they agreed that using new English words in a sentence can help to retain them. In contrast, the item that has the lowest mean score was “I use flashcards to remember new English words”. According to Saeed Mojarradi (2014) in his article entitled ‘The effect of using flashcards on ESL students’ ability to learn vocabulary’, he discovered the use of flashcards did not have an effect on students’ ability to learn vocabulary. Furthermore, a study conducted by Baleghizadeh and Ashoori (2011) also indicated there was no significant impact in the use of flashcards towards better learning strategy. The finding of the present study suggested flashcards were not favored as a learning strategy, hence supported the aforementioned literature reviews. Though flashcards might lead language learners to a higher level of vocabulary improvement as suggested by Komachali & Khodareza (2012), it remained to be studied and proven in a more comprehensive study. 4.2.2 Cognitive Table 3. Mean Scores and Percentage of Cognitive Strategy Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Frequency Level I watch English language TV shows or go to movies spoken in English. - - - - 10 (100%) 5.00 High I try to find patterns in English 1 3 3 2 1 2.50 Medium (10%) (30%) (30%) (20%) (10%) ALLS 7(1):195-202, 2016 198 The mean scores designated that 11 items are at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.50 to 5.00 for cognitive strategies. The item that indicated the highest mean score was “I watch English language TV shows or go to movies spoken in English”, while the item that has the lowest mean score was “I try to find patterns in English”. Many researchers discovered the used of movies in a classroom provided exposures to the real language and authentic settings in which the language is spoken (Xhemaili, 2013). They also found that movies hooked learners’ interest and positively increase their motivation to learn English (Kusumarasdyati, 2004). The above findings were consistent and significantly relevant to the results of this study as all ten respondents reflected their opinions as ‘strongly agreed’ that they watched English language TV shows or go to movies spoken in English. This result could be supported by the fact that the respondents had easy and free access to internet connection. As the university provided round-the-clock internet connectivity on the campus and hostel areas, the students had an ideal opportunity to access online movie websites and managed to learn English language from the activity. On the contrary, finding patterns in English appeared to be a hindrance to the students for it might not relate to their needs and purpose in learning English. 4.2.3 Compensatory Table 4. Mean Scores and Percentage of Compensatory Strategy Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Frequency Level If I can’t think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing - - 1 (10%) 2 (20%) 7 (70%) 4.60 High I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English. 2 (20%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 3 (30%) 2 (20%) 3.10 Medium The mean scores specified that four items are at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.50 to 4.60 for compensatory strategies. The highest mean score was “If I can’t think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing”. Oxford (1990) stated that compensation strategies can be applied to overcome knowledge limitations in all four skills. The results suggested all respondents did utilize compensation learning strategy to tackle loopholes of their knowledge on the language, with seven of them interpreted their opinions as ‘strongly agreed’. On the opposite, the lowest mean score was “I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English”. Six respondents were positive towards this strategy while another four respondents were negative. This was probably due to unfamiliarity to the technique which therefore led to minimum exploration. 4.2.4 Metacognitive Table 5. Mean Scores and Percentage of Metacognitive Strategy Statement 1 2 I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better. - - I pay attention when someone is speaking English. - I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English. - 1 8 (10%) (80%) 3 4 5 Mean Frequency Level 4.50 High 4.50 High 2.10 Medium 1 3 6 (10%) (30%) (60%) 1 3 6 (10%) (30%) (60%) 1 - - (10%) The mean scores pointed out that eight items are at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.80 to 4.50. The items that exhibited the highest mean scores were “I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better” and “I pay attention when someone is speaking English”. Interestingly, the students designed and strategize learning process by noticing their own mistakes and paid attention when they listened to English-spoken conversations to help them become better at the language. The results suggested as students developed awareness on how they learn best, they will routine these strategies to efficiently obtain new information, and eventually became autonomous thinkers. Metacognitive strategy can positively impact students by helping them deepen their thinking about the content of the language. On the other hand, the item that has the lowest mean score was “I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English”. Most of the respondents disagreed they scheduled and allocated specific time to study English. Presumably, they did not regard English learning as imperative as other major critical courses they enrolled and therefore, pay less focus to self-study the language. The respondents seemed to moderately delve deeper into the autonomous learning experience probably due to over-dependence on their lecturers to assign tasks and further facilitate language learning. Additionally, as English subjects were only offered in three semesters throughout the whole academic years, the students paid less attention to learn the language right after the completion of the formal classes. ALLS 7(1):195-202, 2016 199 4.2.5 Affective Table 6. Mean Scores and Percentage of Affective Strategy Statement I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English. 1 - 2 1 (10%) 3 - 4 3 (30%) 5 6 (60%) Mean 4.40 Frequency Level High 4 (40%) 4 (40%) 2 (20%) - - 1.80 Medium For affective strategies, the mean scores specified that two items are at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.80 to 4.40. The item that displayed the highest mean score was “I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake”, while the item that has the lowest mean score was “I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English”. Being ESL learners, they were required to use English as a mean to survive their education and communication in the university. Therefore, the tendency of using more affective strategies can be seen relatable to these ESL learners as they had intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to enhance their language proficiency and competency. Majority of the respondents reflected positively to the use of self-encouragement in speaking English even though they concerned about making mistakes. According to Oxford and Nyikos (1989), the degree of expressed motivation was the single most powerful influence on the choice of language learning strategies. Additionally, intrinsic motivation to communicate in the target language is likely to enhance a learner’s learning experiences (Skehan, 2001). Besides, extrinsic motivation can also promote success in acquiring the target language (Gardner and MacIntyre, 1992). The findings in the present study supported the aforementioned statements and strengthened the fact that good language learners possessed an intrinsic motivation in learning a language. Adversely, most of the respondents were unwilling to talk about their feelings in regard to English language learning. The learners might refuse to confide in someone else about their thoughts and feelings as they doubted that might lead other unwanted issue such as low self-esteem. 4.2.6 Social Table 7. Mean Scores and Percentage of Social Strategy Statement If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or to say it again. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk. 1 - 2 1 (10%) 3 2 (20%) 4 1 (10%) 5 6 (60%) Mean 4.20 Frequency Level High 1 (10%) 2 (20%) 2 (20%) 3 (30%) 2 (20%) 3.30 Medium The mean scores directed that four items are at high scale of frequency with mean scores ranging from 3.70 to 4.20 for these strategies. The item that presented the highest mean score was “If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or to say it again”. Learning English in a supportive environment provides ESL learners with many interaction opportunities to practice the language. Asking for clarifications and repetitions as language learning strategies provided a meaningful learning experience to the students. Based on the results, good language learners sought opportunities to practice language and valued communication with other English speakers. As opposed to that, the item that has the lowest mean score was “I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk”, as they might get offended and demoralized in the learning process. This particular result corresponded to the study conducted by Brown (2007), in which he asserted that good language learners learned the target language by assessing their own trails and errors. 5. Discussion of findings The findings of the study revealed that good language learners were high users of language learning strategies. It supported the study carried out by Mohamed Amin Embi et al., (2001) in which he revealed good language learners possessed a greater use of language learning strategies compared to poor language learners. Likewise, ample past studies explored the relationship between language learning strategies and learners’ proficiency in which the findings showed that more proficient language learners used a greater variety of language learning strategies (Rahimi et al., 2008; Griffiths, 2003; Lee, 2003; O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). The total means of each category showed that metacognitive strategies (Mean=3.964) are among the most frequently used strategies, followed respectively by compensatory (Mean=3.814), cognitive (Mean=3.812), social (Mean=3.700), memory (Mean=3.100) and affective strategies (Mean=2.890) found as the least used strategies among successful language learners. Based on the results, it was found that good language learners employed and favored more direct strategies (memory, cognitive and compensation) over indirect strategies (metacognitive, affective, and social). This can be inferred that successful language learners of the said university preferred to use strategies that are seen to have direct impact with the target language. ALLS 7(1):195-202, 2016 200 As Oxford (1990) stated, “all direct strategies require mental processing of the language”. To better understand this system, memory strategies are the techniques used to collect and recover info, transform information in the form of facts to skills. A good example of this is grouping verbs into transitive or intransitive. Cognitive strategies are methods to operate the elements of language and students were able to make sense of their learning. An example of this type of strategy is contrastively analyzing words in mother tongue that have similarities with the words in the target language in terms of sound and meaning. Compensation strategies assist students to tackle loopholes of their prior knowledge in order to maintain conversation. For example, the students try to understand the target language by making clever guesses from the context. Through the use of linguistic clues for instance, a learner may be able to guess the topic of a conversation through the verbs used. Furthermore, they are reported to possess a high frequency of use of metacognitive strategies which interestingly appeared to be the findings in other studies. Such results were said to be gathered in researches done by Haifa (2010), Adel (2011), as well as Jalal and Karev (2011). This result indicated that metacognitive strategies are mostly ideal for these successful students, as the learner autonomy exists for the learners to monitor and govern their own learning process. The findings revealed that the students coordinated their own learning by planning and organizing, as well as evaluating their learning process. The present findings were paralleled to the research done by Tricia Hedge (2000) which she identified seven characteristics of a good language learner. According to her, she believed good language learners in which she referred to as ‘self-directed learners’, were those who responsible for their own learning process, highly motivated, manage and divide time to learn properly, learn with active thinking, know their needs and to use resources independently. Moreover, Holden (2002) suggested that successful language learners were autonomous learners and both cognitively and meta-cognitively aware of their role in the learning process. Age factor could also be one of the reasons for the preference towards this strategy. As the respondents were university students which could be considered as adult learners, their language proficiency progress tremendously and their use of metacognitive strategies amplifies. In other words, they develop better learning skills as they grow older. However, the projection for future research should investigate the correlations between age and strategies employed by good language learners. On the contrary, good language learners in this study were seen to use affective strategies the least. Affective strategies are the strategies to assist learners to manage their emotions, motivation, and attitudes towards learning. They can be achieved through lessening nervousness by using relaxation techniques, self-encouragement and self-reward in order to keep oneself motivated in the learning process, and taking emotional temperature into thoughtful considerations. Past research revealed that some ESL learners were susceptible to be affected by emotional issues such as anxiety, trauma and lack of confidence. Mayes (2003) found strong evidence to support that some ESL students experienced culture shock or trauma, and distressed by certain affective factors such as anxiety, lack of confidence and lack of motivation. The aforementioned finding by Mayes (2003) paralleled with the finding in this study as the learners experienced sensitivity to their emotional needs in the language learning process. The findings also enlightened the fact that good language learners keen to use different strategies in combination. This result was well supported by the study carried out by Nambiar (1996) and Mah (1999) which they have found out Malaysian postgraduate students used the cognitive and metacognitive strategies in mixture. This significant finding is really a stepping stone for the language teachers or facilitators to better understand the reasons lie behind the learners’ differences in the language learning strategy context. Furthermore, the training of language learning strategy can be implemented to poor language learner so that they can enjoy the chance to be at par with their counterparts, since effective and maximum usage of language learning strategies can lead them to learn the language better. 6. Implications Since education is a creative industry, the knowledge of language learning strategies can significantly contribute to the enhancement of the teaching and learning process. Upcoming studies on language learning strategies could explore the new perspective in teaching approach, different variables exist and how these factors might boost or facilitate certain strategies while hindering others. Language instructors or lecturers could employ contexts of learning in order to help learners use a wider range of strategies and also discover new ones. To conclude, language learning strategies possess countless potential in enhancing language learning attainment. Students have to be exposed and taught to employ these strategies in their language learning journey. Lecturers might want to work to increase the awareness among their students on the strategies to equip and facilitate their students with meaningful language learning experiences. 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English Language Teaching, 6(4). Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy A Study of the Spelling Errors committed by Students of English in Saudi Arabia: Exploration and Remedial Measures Paikar Fatima Mazhar Hameed College of Science and Arts, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia E-mail: Fatima.paikar8989@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.203 Received: 02/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.203 Accepted: 14/12/2015 Abstract The craziness of English spelling has undeniably perplexed learners, especially in an EFL context as in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In these situations, among other obstacles, learners also have to tackle the perpetual and unavoidable problem of MT interference. Sadly, this perplexity takes the shape of a real problem in the language classroom where the English teacher has a tough time rationalizing with the learners why ‘cough’ is not spelt as /kuf/ or ‘knee’ has to do with a silent /k/. It is observed that students of English as second/foreign language in Saudi Arabia commit spelling errors that cause not only a lot of confusion to the teachers but also lower the self-esteem of the students concerned. The current study aims to identify the key problem areas as far as English spelling ability of Saudi EFL learners is concerned. It aims to also suggest remedial and pedagogical measures to improve the learners’ competence in this crucial, though hitherto, nascent skill area in the Saudi education system. Keywords: EFL; error-pattern, spelling instructions, orthography, phonology, vocabulary, language skills, language users 1. Introduction I take it you already know Of tough and bough and cough and dough? Others may stumble but not you On hiccough, thorough, laugh and through, Well done! And now you wish perhaps, To learn of less familiar traps? Beware of heard, a dreadful word, That looks like beard and sounds like bird. And dead: It’s said like bed, not beadFor goodness sake don’t call it ‘deed’! Watch out for meat and great and threat (They rhyme with suite and straight and debt). T.S.W.(1970) as quoted in The Study of Language, George Yule (1996) It is true that English language is a-phonetic and arbitrary. It is also true that the current repertoire of the language has an interesting history of how the words came to be what they are. But till the time that the language adopts phonetic spelling, the English teaching communities have to strive to find answers to this peculiar spelling problem of the learners. The larger aim of this study is also to unearth how the current pedagogy (or lack of it) has contributed to the spelling problem and what can be done to rectify it. One question that faces us at the outset is, "Why this fetish of the teachers with correct spelling?" The answer has many reasons worthy of being recorded. One, correct spelling has practical value in everyday life. Communication, however minor, relies heavily on one’s ability to spell simple words correctly. Two, knowledge of words helps improve one’s language. Three, ability with words adds to the power of expression. And four (most importantly in the context of KSA), with spelling proficiency, vocabulary will improve, leading to better fluency and ability of speech. There can be no doubt that spelling, especially for the EFL learners is one of the most important learning component. With growing globalization, young men and women (more so from the developing or semi-developed countries like KSA) are seeking better employment opportunities across the borders. However, many times these aspirants have failed ALLS 7(1):203-207, 2016 204 to secure the desirable positions because of misspelled words in a letter of application even if they excel in their particular area of specialization. In fact, even some teachers fail to land up their dream jobs abroad because of spelling errors and wrong choice of words. Even in ordinary casual correspondence spelling errors end up showing the user in a poor light and causing a bad impression which may be irreparable for the simple reason that smaller the error in language use, bigger the negative impact. Spelling and pronunciation errors and malapropisms are clearly a sign of ignorance. For these reasons we need to work diligently on helping the EFL learners in KSA perfect their spelling and knowledge of words needed in daily life. According to Apel and Masterson (2001) and their views reinforced by studies undertaken in this field by Apel, Masterson and Niessen (2004), patterns of errors can be discerned in English spelling by EFL learners. These errors, they say, reflect (i) poor linguistic competence at different levels; (ii) lack of or poor awareness of phonology; (iii) lack of or poor knowledge of orthography; (iv) poor vocabulary; (v) poor knowledge of morphological and semantic relationships; and (vi) poor knowledge or lower level awareness of mental orthographic images. Research made into this area shows that literary skills that are previously acquired while acquiring the first language (L-1) influence word recognition in Second Language learning (L-2). In still another study by Figueredo (2006), it was revealed that similar influence, as stated by others, of first language (L-1) that is previously acquired by the EFL learners, is manifested on spelling skills in L-2 learning. This study is an attempt to identify the spelling problems of the EFL students and the reasons behind the spelling errors committed by them. The study would further suggest recommendations on remedial measures regarding approach to EFL teaching and other appropriate measures to be taken to improve the situation that would help the students overcome this problem. 2. Literature Review There have been many studies on the four primary English skills viz. listening, speaking, reading and writing but little has been done in the area of spelling. As English teachers who are sometimes flabbergasted by students’ writing that spells Anne Frank’s Diary as Anne Frank’s Dairy (spelt phonetically!), we cannot dispute the fact that spelling matters, especially in the context of learning a ‘foreign language’ such as English in KSA. Abu Seileek (2006) conducted a study to find out the mistakes committed by Jordanian students learning writing English language as second/foreign language. His finding is that most of the EFL Jordanian students face difficulties when they try to write creatively. According to Ibrahem (1978), one of the challenges is with spelling the English words correctly; his view is that learners wrongly spell the words, which result in weird sentences. Abuhamdia (1995) supports and reinforces this opinion and states that in general, EFL teachers at higher education level in Jordan are highly interested in EFL students’ writing performance as the teachers expect their students learning to write English to spell words correctly. Khuwaileh and Shoumali (2000) state that in order to achieve the objectives of teaching EFL in Jordan, the teachers concentrate their effort towards facilitating them with the necessary linguistic skills and use teaching methods needed for advanced writing performance. The authors add that the students face many difficulties when they write, especially in spelling. They cannot express their ideas because they cannot spell words correctly. These researchers note that there is a problem with the Arab students in writing and spelling. In particular, spelling and pronunciation of the words poses a problem for them, because of the difference between Arabic and English accents and related phonetics. They also note that faced with the spelling handicap, the students can neither write well nor speak fluently. Looking at the larger ESL scene, Cook (1999) investigated the most common types of spelling errors in the written work of learners of English and the four major types of spelling errors that learners of English commonly make. These errors were categorized broadly into four major errors: omission (leaving letters out), substitution (replacing letters with incorrect ones), transposition (reversing the position of letters), and insertion /addition (including extra letters). He also discusses spelling difficulties and suggests three main problems which are single words, pronunciation-based, and spelling correspondence problems. Single word problems come from the fact that English consists of many individual words and so learners have to study some words individually. Pronunciation-based problems occur when learners do not know the English sound system and therefore use the wrong letters. Spelling correspondence problems, Cook argues, are “the most difficult aspects of English spelling for many students”. This is true for native speakers of English too – words are harder to spell when the sequence of letters has to be remembered because it does not correspond to the sounds. He highlights four types of spelling errors that learners of English commonly make. These are omissions (leaving letters out), substitutions (replacing letters with incorrect ones), transpositions (reversing the position of letters), and insertion/additions (including extra letters). With specific reference to Arabic, Cook suggests that the most common spelling errors relate to pronunciation and that this is shown through substituted vowels and phonological mistakes. Arabic learners’ problems in English spelling also stem from the differences between the writing systems of Arabic and English (e.g. no capitalisation in Arabic and generally regular correspondence between sounds and letters). These kinds of spelling problems which Arabic speakers have are discussed in more detail in Swan & Smith (1987) and Kharma & Hajjaj (1989). The former, for example, highlight problems Arabic learners of English have with the ‘mirror’ shaped letters (e.g. p and q) and comment on the difficulties which stem from the fact that Arabic is written from right to left (thus learners may write "crwon" rather than crown, "tow" rather than two). Many researchers have investigated various problems encountered by Arab EFL learners, (e. g. Mourtaga 2004; Abdul Haq 1982; Wahba 1998; Abbad 1988; ALLS 7(1):203-207, 2016 205 Rabab’ah 2003). Several studies have been conducted in Arab countries to investigate lexical, phonological, and syntactic errors made by Arab EFL learners (e.g., Abdul Haq 1982; Wahba 1998; Zughoul/Taminian 1984). Furthermore, many researchers such as, Abdul Haq (1982), Wahba (1998), and Abbad (1988), state that Arab learners of English encounter problems in both speaking and writing. But little has been done on spelling problems. This area of study and research is almost ignored at different levels, for example, at the level of curriculum in universities, syllabi, teaching methods, academic activities like spelling competitions in universities, homework, course assignments, dictionary consultation and so on. Ideally, the goal of a spelling program should be to develop writers and readers who have spelling consciousness and good spelling habits” (Hillerich, 1977). It's easy to judge if a good spelling program is part of an elementary classroom, secondary classroom or a higher secondary classroom. Simply ask, "Are children in this classroom engaged in the spelling process: finding words, inspecting words, mastering words, and developing good spelling habits?" (Gentry, 1995). In 1957, Lado hypothesized that errors in the second language (L2) are caused by the interference of the student's native language. Such errors reflect the student's inability to separate L1 and L2. Odlin (1989), James (1980), Brown (1987) pointed out that students’ errors in L2 are caused by several processes. These include transfer, overgeneralization and communication strategies. Transfer refers to the effect of L1 on the learning of L2. In transfer, patterns from L1 are borrowed. Two types of language transfer were identified: negative transfer and positive transfer. In negative transfer (interference) the use of an L1 pattern or rule leads to an error or inappropriate form in L2. Positive transfer occurs when L1 and L2 have the same form. Positive transfer makes L2 learning easier. In Overgeneralization, patterns may be extended from L2 by analogy. Overgeneralization is a process common in both L1 and L2 learning in which the student extends the use of a grammatical rule of linguistic item beyond its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more regular pattern. A communication strategy is used to express meanings using the words and grammar which are already known (Ellis 1985; Davies, Criper, & Howatt 1984) 3. Objectives of the Study Following objectives were outlined at the start of the study: (i) To investigate and classify the types of mistakes that Arab students commit in English in Saudi Arabia (at the university level); (ii) To prove or disprove the hypothesis that Arab EFL learners face MT interference in their acquisition of English spelling; (iii) To suggest remedial measures to tackle the English spelling problems of the Saudi EFL learners to help them attain greater language proficiency. 4. Methodology The respondents of the study were 26 Arab students of English from the College of Science and Arts, Methnab, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, 10 of whom from the Intensive Course Programme and the remaining 16 from level 1 ( 8 students) and level 2 ( 8 students). The subjects were administered a dictation of 50 words of which 32 were English words found to be problematic by the researcher in the course of his teaching various levels in the same College. Eight of these had one silent letter. Another eight had consonant clusters. Yet another eight had diphthongs and the remaining eight had homophones. The remaining 18 words bore phonetic spelling. A basic questionnaire to collect demographic data was also requested of them to be filled. Data was collected during the second semester of the academic session 2014-2015. 5. Analysis and observations Analysis of the responses collected is as follows: 1. Parsing of the words produced show a concentration of errors around diphthongs and silent letter words. 2. 93% of the responses (748 productions out of a total of 832 that was the outcome of problem words dictated to the learners) turned out to be incorrect. 3. Of the 18 phonetically spelt words, 98% (459 out of 468 responses) were produced correctly. This finding corroborates the hypothesis that Arabic speaking learners of English import the characteristic of the MT (Arabic is written phonetically) on their English learning experience. 4. Responses to the problem words characterized by homophones and consonant clusters showed a success rate of 88%, i.e. Only 12% of the responses out of a total of 416 were incorrect: Arabic too has the features of homophony and consonant clusters. Learners applied their knowledge of MT on their EFL experience. 6. Conclusion Here is a tale cited by Yule: …a restaurant manager who has always had trouble with the spelling of English words places an advertisement for a new SEAGH. You see the advertisement and your confusion leads you to ask how he came to form this unfamiliar word. It’s very simple, he says. Take the first sound of the word SURE, the middle sound of the word DEAD, and the final sound of the word LAUGH. You will, of course, recognize that this form conveys the pronunciation usually associated with the word chef. ALLS 7(1):203-207, 2016 206 He says that this unlikely tale may serve as a reminder that the sounds of spoken English do not match up, a lot of time, with letters of written English. This is also the problem dealt by this paper. English spelling is more complex than Arabic spelling. The English spelling and pronunciation system compared with the Arabic language is different. We may take an example: Arabic is written as it is pronounced, whereas many words in English have silent sounds, and words are multi-syllabic. The students are likely to learn to pronounce the word in the wrong way when their teachers do not pronounce them correctly and where no courses are available containing the rules of spelling, pronunciation, especially in the first levels of study. The Arab students, in general, have spelling problems because of the differences between English and Arabic sound systems such as, the number and quality of vowels and diphthongs, consonant clusters in word, initial, medial and final positions. The Arabic diacritic system is different from the English language sound system. Further, these learners randomly capitalize word initial letters: Arabic language system does not have any provision of capitalization whether proper nouns or otherwise. To return to the research questions, we found that this study answered all of the questions. There were four types of spelling errors in students’ writing that the students committed: (i) substitution; (ii) omission; (iii) transposition; and (iv) insertion. The students’ perceptions surround their inability to learn English sounds, spellings due also to silent letters in words, and the sentence structure being different from that of Arabic language. They also perceive that there is lack of conducive environment for learning English as teachers also are not equipped with modern teaching tools and IT devices. On being asked to orally sum up their perception of problems with the Saudi education system, the students revealed that the aim is not to learn the language as an educating experience in context to enable students to interact in English, but merely to pass the examinations. When the teachers’ perceptions was sought on the same, we found that their objections relate to the syllabus being outmoded, methods of teaching traditional and lack of modern gadgets and absence of digital system in many cases. The teachers find it difficult at the university level to cope with the deficiency in English because of limited time allotted for the subject and psychological barriers in the grown up students to revert to the basics of the language that they were given at early stage. 6.1 Recommendations and Suggestions (i) Students should be rigorously trained in listening skills. (ii) The teachers must train the students to ‘see’ the words and syllables in the mind’s eye. (iii) Extensive use of the dictionary with the aim to help students learn the spelling as well as correct pronunciation of words should be encouraged. (iv) Time should be allotted to teach phonics and spelling to the EFL learners to reduce the influence of Arabic spelling on English. (v) Spelling courses should be developed and integrated with the English skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. (vi) Word lists and word banks should be assigned to the students to improve their vocabulary. (vii) Commonly misspelled words should be brought to the notice of students. (viii) The rules of English spelling should be taught to the learners; the learners should be engaged in language games to help bring clarity of spelling. (ix) The learners should receive formal instruction in spelling as it is ignored in English courses (in various programmes) at the University level in many parts of the globe. With these strategies we hope that English spelling errors will decrease and improve language proficiency of the learners. However, further research should be encouraged in the field to unearth the shortcomings, if any, of the recommendations made here. References Abdel Jawad, H. S. (1986). A linguistic analysis of spelling errors made by Jordanian university students, Abhath Al Yarmouk , Yarmouk University, 4(1), 19-31 Mitleb, F., Al Haq, F. & Al-Jarrah, R (1997). Production of English Sentence Stress by Yarmouk university majors. Journal of the College of Teachers, AlMustansiriah University (Iraq), 9, 121. AbiSamra, N. (2003). An analysis of errors in Arabic speakers’ English writings (Vol. 6, pp. 2008). Abuhamdia, Z. A. (1995). Coordination in ESL writing: Is its use culturespecific? Multilingual: Journal of Cross Cultural and Inter-language Communication, 14(1), 25-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mult.1995.14.1.25 AbuSeileek, A. F. (2006). The Use of word processor for teaching writing in EFL learners in King Saud University. Journal of King Saud University. ALLS 7(1):203-207, 2016 207 AlJabri, F. (2006). Common English spelling difficulties of Omani Learners. Sultanate Of Oman:Ministry of Education. AlJarf, R. (2010). Spelling error corpora in EFL. Sino US English Teaching, 7(1), 615. AlJarf, R. (2007) Faulty Strategies of EFL Freshman Spellers. AlSharah, Nayel. (1996). An investigation into EFL students’ perceptions of L2 writing in academic settings. Second Language Acquisition and Writing: A multidisciplinary approach. Proceedings. University of Southampton, UK, pp.110124. Ancker, W. (2000). Errors and Corrective Feedback: Updated Theory and Classroom Practice. English Teaching Forum, 38(4), 20-24. Badr, M. (1990). Comparing Spelling Mechanisms of Beginning And Pre‐Intermediate EFL Students. Bebout, L. (1985). An error analysis of misspellings made by learners of English as a first and as a second language. Journal of psycholinguistic research, 14(6), 569-593.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01067386 Botley, S., Hakim, F., & Dillah, D. (2007) Investigating Spelling Errors In A Malaysian Learner Corpus.Publisher? Chan, A. Y. W. (2004). Syntactic transfer: Evidence from the interlanguage of Hong Kong Chinese ESL learners. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 56-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.00218.x Chiang, P. (1993). How to improve English composition teaching in Taiwan’s high schools:A study of error types and learning strategies. Unpublished Master Thesis: National Kaohsiung Normal University. Yule, G (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Analytical Study of the Status of Myth in the Creation of Literary and Artistic Works Sedigheh Sherkat Moghaddam (Corresponding author) School of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabatabai University South Allameh St., Modiriat Bridge, Saadat Abad, Tehran, Iran E-mail: pardis_m29@yahoo.com Andia Abai School of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.208 Received: 06/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.208 Accepted: 15/12/2015 Abstract The prevalent question raised in literary theories has been the quiddity of literature. However, the question of “what is literature?” is a philosophical issue. On the other hand, the relationship between myth and literature has always been raised by most scholars and many have considered literature a subtype of myths. In this paper, while pointing transiently to the concepts and definitions of myth from the perspective of the great thinkers, with a different view, the role of myth in creation of artistic works is discussed. In this review, the critic attempts to interpret the literary work - or some sources in the text - to its prototype or archetype with its deep structure. With the help of this method, tracing the old or new mythology, distorted or worn, it is understood how they have passed over the whole cultural field and have found their specific formation. Keywords: Literature, Myth, Creation, Imagination, Démythologisation, Remythification, Gilbert Durand 1. Introduction The concept of creating a work of art, most of the time is oscillating between two opposite interpretations. According to some scholars, the ability to create a work, is first of all the product of an artist’s talent and intelligence, in the materialization of her mental images and reshaping and substance in order to grant the manifestation of a work of art. In fact, as Plato points out, creativity is associated with a kind of delirium and uncontrollable inspiration force; the force which originates from specific ingenuity and represents a unique natural order, which allows the real world to look the other way. Contrarily, according to the other group who looks more classical into the issue, creating a literary work, among other things, depends on the will and volition and cumbersome work of the artist, in order to be able to vindicate and complete the specific programs that have already been prepared. It is believed that some of the processes of artistic creation follow these two kinds of processes, because artistic activity is deeply multifaceted, and cannot be accommodated in model-specific frameworks. However, on the other side, we should not deceive ourselves into this duality and separation which, on the one hand occurs between the spontaneous inspirations and somehow is the creator’s want. The creating imagination that is expressed in the language of literature, painting and music, allows us to understand the other aspect of the formation of works, which have found their origin in the heart of myths, because understanding the mythic imagination can help us to understand that at the heart of many of these creations lays a format of life and a cache of hidden secrets, which already organizes even the unsaid things and grows in the mind of the artist and transmits the ability to express. In this way, myth appears as a symbolic structure and especially as a motivating and guiding factor for the work of art. Nevertheless, it should be noted that not every imaginational narration is some kind of myth, and a narration only becomes a myth when it possesses symbolic value. In other words, its meaning should be far greater than it appears. Mythical narratives have two main features. The first feature is their close relationship with reality. Although these stories are fictional and have scientifically deniable properties and characteristics, there are always real aspects and a strong bridge connects them to the realities of life. The second feature of these stories is sustainability. In other words, one narration is converted to myth when it can pass from one period to another, and it incurs some changes in every period, which enriches it without distorting its structure. 2. Myth Now it is better to signify some definitions of myth to make this article more tangible: 1. Myth (Mythe) in French has been adopted from the Greek word “Muthos”, which means speech and event. At first, myth is a sacred story that expresses a truth. The myth states the origin of the human and his place in the world. Understanding the origin of myths is due to theology, studying pedigree of gods as well as cosmology, or the study of the world history events (Djavadi, 2004). ALLS 7(1):208-213, 2016 209 2. Maybe in the beginning, myth was a verbal story (which still remains the same in many parts of the world) and gradually by publishing it in books, has remained unchanged and has experienced a variety of changes more or less in some works. What is important is that a myth tells a story. 3. This story portrays the tale of the unusual and magical elements, which intellectually look completely absurd. These elements, called myth-theme by ethnologists, are the events that can encompass the atmosphere of the story and characters –which are usually humane, divine, and heavenly, in the form of animals and plants or merger of all of themand the meaning of each symbol, must be measured in its symbolic value context. If we assume the myth, its super human characteristics and human in the form of the sides of a triangle, myth as an independent side, in addition to being one of the complementary factors of this geometric shape, due to its breadth of imagination and the ability to interpret, looks like the dominant side. Consequently, in emersion of myth, there are both human and superhuman principles, which in addition to its impact on life, human understandings and his social interactions are effective in his artistic and aesthetic creativity (Grimal, 1988). 4. This story involves both the speaker and listener (i.e. the writer and the reader of the story). It is a belief with religious roots. Throughout history, every belief can lose its flavor. Nevertheless, As soon as in some ways it transforms into a movie or a book, or manifests as a poetry or music, it will have much stronger dimensions. Freud says with certainty in this regard, I know that is not true, however … (Vierne, 1993). 5. A mythical story is not a pure fiction or a false illusion. A myth seeks to find an answer to a question (in its philosophical concept), the question that logic cannot solve. The experts call this question Mythologème. Another point is that the number of these questions is not very large and most of them are about life and death, human relationships, man’s status in the universe or in the society (individual entirety and demos) and the question that “where have human beings come from and where will they go”. In this regard, there are other themes, but these are the foremost important (Vierne, 1993). 6. It should also be noted that these questions cannot reasonably be answered convincingly (The logic that is based on science, and much of the philosophical thinking is based on it). In literary criticism, criticism of “structuralism” (its reference is ambiguous) is the summit. Today, science is considering this issue subtly, and allocates a great place to imagination. An imagination that is not basically dependent upon logic and could be manifested in some arrays of the literary rhetoric, like oxymoron (companionship of two contradictory phrases), for instance: “Darkness lights everywhere” by Budler, and “Black sun” by Nerval, which depict the opposite poles in a common image, to the extent that is does not talk about the gray colour, but on the one hand had expresses a very dark black colour, and on the other hand, a very bright light (Vierne, 1993). It is important that confluence of opposites, which is not only expressed in the Alchemy, but in the third period of imagination as well, according to the theory introduced by Gilbert Durand, all of these points recall Breton Andre’s theory, which is written in his second statement: “It is believed that in a part of the understanding of human, words such as life and death, reality and fantasy, past and future, top and bottom are not in conflict with each other anymore” (Breton, 1924, p. 92). 7. Mircea Eliade, in Volume IV of Mythologique (naked human) states: Myths do not teach anything other than the order of the universe, nature and the origin of man and his destiny, we cannot expect the myth’s metaphysical actions, and myths will not support miserable ideologies. In contrast, the myths we learn teach us much about community and societies where they come from. Myths help us to understand their internal motives and performance and clarify causes of beliefs, customs, and traditions, which were incomprehensible and indiscoverable at the outset. Finally, myths allow us to identify performance methods of human thoughts, which have been implemented over the centuries (Djavadi, 2004). 2.1 Myth and creativity Myths before being used as the fabric of artistic works, use awareness and conscience that belongs to intellectual and cultural climate and are effective in any kind of creative work. Thus, it should be asked that is this due to the fact that the myth and the creation, both have the same originality, and this matter that art creation “poïétique” and myth production belong to the same psychological level (Bilen, 1989). In fact, both for the author and the Visual Arts artist, mythic images are the product of a special creativity and dynamism, because the myths open a window to the creation for the artist. Because -as the science of anthropology and hermeneutics has also mentioned- a myth always matches the discourse, which talks about the origin of life (Eliade, 1969). Mythical history has always shown us the emergence of a law, a universe, a series of events, and a chain of events. The human being, since his creation, and throughout history, to respond to the events that were occurring in his surroundings and to understand what was unknown and fascinating to him, sought for the properties of gods, absolutes, eternities, Timelessness and placelessness. Therefore, we can interpret that myth and legend are the creatures of the human being’s beliefs, and his creative thinking. Thus, the myths and mythical communities fall inside the area of human imagination or his possible world. A world which is very convenient for artistic creativity and its creative areas are beyond the boundaries of reality, time, and space (Assadolahi, 2004). Hence, the myth involves an imagination that is more or less “transient” in order to create any form of creation. Instead ALLS 7(1):208-213, 2016 210 of lying the artist in confusion and in a situation that he has no clue on how to start his book, or what to write, and stands in a perplexing condition, the myth will rush to help him and will illustrate the initial action that creates the context of the story. The first text, which may already be expressed or demonstrated. In fact, the creation will not be achieved unless it is leaned on the story of the first creation. The myth is a cause-cognitive issue. Every myth explains the story of the origin of the universe (Wunenburger, 2005). In all cultures, the study and search for the origin of the universe and the story of the first creation has led to studies of cosmology, which features the origin of creation to the creative power of supernatural objects (either to God or the gods). “Creation”, the first part of the Bible, is narrated in the form of an adventure and a story, which the reader can consider in the real or virtual meaning of the word, or as the transmission of an old-fashioned belief. “In the beginning, Elohim (God in the Hebrew Elohim) created the heavens and the earth. The earth was barren. Elohim said to the light to be, and there was light ...” Here creation of the universe refers to the initial periods of time. The name Elohim is the name of the supernatural God of all human beings, the origin of the earth and time (day and night), seasons, plants, animals, and ultimately humans (Djavadi, 2004). When we look at other stories and narratives about the origins of the universe, we can observe a semblance with the story that was mentioned above, which in turn can be discussed and pondered. It should also be said that the myths do not just deal with stories about origin of the creation, but they are events and adventures that interpret the events of the aftermath of the creation of the universe, which are always related to the preliminary periods and speak about the “existentiaty” of humankind. Apart from mythical awareness and understanding, mythical stories and narratives other than just being able to revive a kind of static and passive, unchanging and iterative mythology, include an inherent generation, which is one of the primary matrices of art. To have a better understanding of this self-generation (self- poïétique), the myth, before being referred to as a literary degree, it is best to refer to its oral nature, because it shows its plasticity. As studies on humanities considering mythology have shown, a mythical narrative regardless of its richness, complexity and being the base of meaning, if it has not transferred period to period, cannot be regarded as a living myth. Thus, the territory of myth is essentially applicable and hermeneutic, meaning that it develops this territory by means of using the intellectual and social practices such as quoting it, listening to it and getting and absorbing (Wunenburger, 2005). From this perspective, first of all, the myth is an anonymous and always current story. Its origin is a forgotten tradition, which addresses every recipient, and its acceptance depends not on the author nor to the identity of its first narrator, who is usually unknown. It is important that the story flows, and can be repeated, and in this way, it will be meaningful for those who transfer it. Therefore, mythical narration does not rely on private matters or those liabilities relating to the creation and transmission. A mythical story is basically impersonal and anonymous, and like an anecdote without an author, is being written in the third person format, and will be expressed again for another group, which are only the transferors of the myth in this theme. Therefore, the first owner of a myth is an accident that passes the big chain of a social group, and thus, generates a story that is not about any peculiar person, but involves many concepts. In this regard, Jung puts it further in his analytical psychology, inferring that an artist like other people, is a human with his own ideas, habits, and his own special daily life. However, when he starts creating, he has no identity, and none of his individual characteristics and features accedes into work. Because the artist plays only the role of a mediator in the transmission and reflection of primitive and eternal symbols and images of previous generations. Ignoring the creativity and personality of the artist in the process of creating works of art is not only limited to Jung's analytical psychology. Many of the prevalent currents and influential figures in contemporary criticism and philosophy such as New Criticism, Heidegger and Existentialism, have also paid special attention to this matter. In this regard, Philip Slyer, the famous mythologist, expresses six great features of a myth, as it appears on the outside of literature, in this way: 1. A myth is a story, a fundamental and constructive narration, and returns to the early times. 2. This narration or story, is anonymous and collective and is associated with mass belief. 3. A myth has a social and religious mission and teaches social principles to the human. A myth also teaches behavioral, moral, and social patterns. 4. A myth is a reality, as mythologists show that the communities that a myth is still alive among them differ from those communities in which anecdotes and stories are considered fantasy and imaginational. 5. A myth as a narrative of story and events, involves the heroes that possess power and fundamental realities. A myth has a distinguishing feature that Loy Stroos emphasizes, and a myth represents a set of contradictions such as ups and downs, insides and outsides etc. (Djavadi, 2004). A myth, undoubtedly, is a reservoir of potential opus, not an immortal memory, which always has to be repeated. A myth is a coherent whole, however, it is subjected to change, but it sets up and maintains its position. Some essential elements are required to create a myth. Without these elements, the structure of the myth would not exist. A myth is a coherent and dynamic set, which based on its specific needs and internal factors, is subject to changes. Consequently, ALLS 7(1):208-213, 2016 211 according to Aristotle, a new work of art cannot change the inherited myths; however, artists should show their creativity, and this dynamism lies on the principle of imitation (i.e. Mimesis). A myth collects countless small creations for its life, in order to be able to survive thanks to its continuous innovations. Mythical creativity is more dependent on its common (generic) symbolic structure than the frequency of substitution of the story- like a fertile and an infertile myth (Wunenburger, 2005). A myth is a series of stories that calls for unveiling and manifestation, and these two factors both belong to their receptor to perform this job both in the present and the future in the best form possible. Lying in a mythical fantasy is like inheriting something in which repetitions and changes are intricately interwoven. A myth whether it is about ancient mythology (primary myth) or about modern mythology, for those who recreate it, is an alive adventure. It activates again in every referral and feeds the literary fantasy. 2.2 Myth, Demythologization, and Remythification Hitherto we found that a myth is an alive source and a never-ending fountain of contents and themes for the creation of works of art. However, most of the times the process of “recreating” is not limited only to resuming and repeating of a story, but on the contrary, implies a dialectical change, which even involves the process of Demythologization. While mythology shows the modern and objective formation of the story, a myth, in itself, is mostly representative of the semantic matrix and symbolic core, which makes it possible to produce stories about a certain structure. Thus, from a branch (phylum) of myth - special and known myth (Oedipus myth, Tristan etc.)- transude various mythological themes and a multitude of branching stories and extremely diverse narrations (Durand, 1996), as a living myth is constantly evolving, because it is more a driving narrator (schème récitatif) and a stereotypical archetype -than being a fabricated story or anecdote- in which different versions of a story can be situated. According to Pierre Brunel, the story of Columba by Mrymh is one version of the Electra myth; also, Daniel Madlna believes that Jehre by Faust follows some characters such as Louis Lambr or Rafael de Balzac Vlantn, hero of Shagreen leather book (Huet-Brichard, 2001). An artist discovers a full set of creatures and events in the core of the past myths, which can be resumed or reapplied. A myth grants potential ideas to the creative mind (logos spermatikos). The myth is not just an example, and does not act as a gun trigger, but it offers a global structure that can be used to produce a variety of works. Hence, myths are as generative grammar of story and the prospect for creative thinking, and should connect and collect this imagination in the form of a specific language. (Guirand & Schmidt, 1996). Nonetheless, the paradox of creation is that a myth will only be creative when it has been demythologized, as long as the primitive stories are centered on faith (e.g. Religious faith), a myth will not be dynamic. Since it is inseparable from identity, it acts like blinds and shutters by repetition. In this regard, the mere act of testimonial and uttering religious faith is against the creative action, because by committing to the content of myth, it will be the ultimate purpose, and there will be no room for creativity. Thus, religious art is impersonal and is basically the guardian of the sacred founding. The creative imagination of the artist will be effectual only when the mythical space becomes a game space, shows all its potentials, and comes out of sanctity (Wunenburger, 2005, p. 71). For example, Tulchyn, author, poet, and scholar of English texts, in his famous story “The Lord of the rings”, has used many myths. In this regard, in the first place, he has demythologized myths by removing myths out of their tissues and then by using scattered mythical structures, brings them together and creates new myths. We can also mention “Der Ring des Nibelungen” by Richard Wagner, which is inspired by Germanic myths. Various performances of operas often have benefited from several concepts and different symbolic aspects of myths, which Wagner has used and has focused on one of these aspects or concepts and has shown them. Hence, story-writing can be considered as a type of activity in which a myth egresses from its primitive holiness and the work becomes an open work. Victor Hugo, in the introduction of the first series of “the myth of centuries” (1859), summarizes the purpose and direction of his work in this way: In this volume, the mythical aspect is precedent and has affected the poems by giving them its own colour and scent. The torch of human tradition has been transmitted, hand to hand, like runners (Quasi cursors) among these poems. This torch, which its flame is a reality, endows unity and homogeneity to the work of art. On the other hand, writing is bilateral, like any other work of art. On one hand, it suspends infinitely the repetition of the myth, and then in a peculiar formation, imports to the text through symbols. Writing, on the other hand, distorts myth by entering it into the text, and this deformation tries to reveal what is hidden in the main discourse. As the reference myth disintegrates and forfeits its original formation, to be displaced by personal possession and recreation, we behold the creation of a story. Here again, we mention Wagner and Wagner’s opera, Parsifal, as an example. He made this work of art based on the book “Wolfram von Eschenbach” (13th century) and Curtin du Trojan (12th century). However, he has presented a personal interpretation, changed the details of the stories, merged and dissolved some characters, and presented notions of time and space, which are fully distinct than those of the medieval. Moreover, the psychology of his personalities has not been mentioned in the main texts. In this way, he has created a sacred drama, which is immersed in a mixture of influences and ideas, and has linked revised Christianity with the basic concepts of Buddhism and the influence of the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (Kinderman & Syer, 2005). Hence, we must ask ourselves what is the fate of myth in the written civilization, and if the entrance to the scope of writing necessitates copying the speech, how copying a myth often becomes an opportunity to rewrite. A process which, in turn, will become a strategy for continuation and even revival of a myth. In summary, whether changing from speech to writing and encountering logos is an opportunity for emergence of a new shape of mythical poïétique, which is alongside with the self-motivated creativity of speech, understanding the relationship between oral and written myth is ALLS 7(1):208-213, 2016 212 inseparable from emergence of different literary genres, especially in the west. In fact, the literary heritage is a place for dialogue and transformation of the religious heritage of the past. It should be reminded, what we consider today as the “modern novel” and has a destroying and autistic role, in fact, uses the mythical foundation, abundantly, to build the story. For example, Alan Gray uses the Oedipus story to write the novel “Eraser tool” and utilizes myth to portray the novel “the labyrinth”. We should also mention that the myth Tzeh is abundantly evident through the story “use of time” by Michel Butor. In any case, even if the intention of the author is a protestation to the primary common movement between myth listeners and readers of the novel, this is not only a testament to the power of myth, but in this rejection, the symbols of stability of myth are clearly visible. However, we should not be satisfied with myths that have been extracted from the heart of Greek and Roman cultures, even if the culture has penetrated into the eastern or western cultures (Vierne, 1993, p. 45). Similarly, can we not assume the novel as a distortion of an oral myth? Undoubtedly, the emergence of the literary form of novel represents the triumph of individual subjectivity and fictional fantasy, in the era of the world’s “frustration”. Nevertheless, even if the novel is a different form of narration, throughout history and in all of its forms, this type of literary has reiterated similar stories from myths and has divided and transferred the culture. Therefore, the literary quotation, other than being limited to the Démythisation, has helped to the positive epiphany of some themes of myth, and has perpetuated them. 3. Gilbert Durand's method It seems that myth has an infinitely variable enigmatic form. When we assume that it has been destroyed, it revives again and its flexibility reduces the intensity of differences and changes. Myth is not a single meaning and eternal structure, which we have maintained with fear and unsteady, but it is a stereotypical archetype that helps imagination to recreate, revive, and make new stories. Nothing better than changes of myths reflects their vitality. Change should be considered in two senses of the word, the internal changes of a myth, and changes of mythical references in the history of culture. On the other hand, this change of myths, not only involves literary and artistic myths, but also involves social and political myths, because all myths throughout history often respond to each other and are interconnected (Wunenburger, 2005). A myth cannot be considered as a fixed and principal narration. It cannot be defined as a primary text, which thereafter has created different shapes and derivative versions. A myth since its appearance has exhibited different shapes and variability of its components. These shapes do not disarrange the “original narration”, which is confined in its unique essence, but they enrich the myth further and endue it in the form of a “mythical narration” (Walter, 2005, p. 65). The methodology of Gilbert Durand’s literary criticism is based on revaluation of the epistemology of myth. In this way, Gilbert Durant restores the ideal version of the Prometheus myth, according to the original mythology-themed, which have fixed quality and quantity and relate to the events, situations and environments - great nature, subtle disobedience, punishment, and the father of mankind, freedom, and immortality. However, in the second phase we can examine their historical fluctuations through several families of myths, which all lead to a rationalist, humanist, progressive, and science-believer ideology. But then again, during all of these reconstructions, the structure of myth, in some situations, has witnessed the distortion of myth themes. In this way, Gilbert Durand noticed the phenomenon of distortion and weariness of myth, which led to its decline in the culture. Consequently, with the help of such an approach, following the footsteps of ancient or modern, common or heretical, and distorted or worn mythology, we can understand how they have passed the past cultural scope, and how systematically, constellations or coherent clusters have been formed through their social or artistic declaration. In this way, we can recognize obvious and hidden myths in a peculiar period of time. The period of life and dominance of these myths can be estimated around three generations. Moreover, on the macro scale (Macro-history) and in the long-term, we can discover the periodic return of a group of myths, which are constantly the common interpreter of social experience (Wunenburger, 2005, p. 80). Thus, Gilbert Durand observes that in Christian Europe, there is a true atlas of cultural geography, which based on a fixed number of poles, contains different typical myths of a certain time. For example, Celtic socio-cultural climate that leads myths to “natural images” or even real images - can be compared with Germanic climate –which leads myths to “internalization”. Therefore, in all of these images, there is a dynamism for plurality, and this will result in a strong presence of myth in a specific culture. At the end of these different routes, we realize that a myth in its heart has a creative figure, which is shapeable in itself, and this creativity, somehow contradictory, is based upon a kind of demythologization. Demythologization here refers to transferring the myth imprecisely and undermining acceptance behaviors, and is an advocate in the tortuous movements of story, which opens room for subjectivity. This results in repossessing the mentality, shape, concept, form, and scope of meaning. However, this creativity is expressed only partially, and part of it remains hidden; so in this way, it makes remythification feasible within the dynamic, directional, and polarized structures, which lead mythopoïétique culturally (Wunenburger, 2005, p. 81). 4. Conclusion At this point, it should be determined that the approach of a myth, via humanities theories and especially literary criticism, whether or not participates in this transformational. This approach probably will change myth in an unprecedented way, and deeper than any past analogy processing, will give it objectivity, and will cause unforeseen epistemological obstacles, which deludes us from the anthropological perspective, about homo sermonis, but because of history’s deception, maybe knowledge of myths or mythology, is the reason for birth of new myths and mythologies- ALLS 7(1):208-213, 2016 213 which are the transformational form of the old mythology- because the humanities logos, unlike any expectation, have realized its limitations again, and have reopened a space for myth. (Wunenburger, 2005, p. 82). References Assadolahi, S. (2004). Myth in the Harmonistic Literature, Myth and Literature (pp. 5). Tehran: SAMT Publishers. Bilen, M. (1989). Le sujet de l'écriture. Paris: Greco. Breton, A. (1924). Manifeste du surréalisme (Vol. 2, pp. 92): Kra. Djavadi, M. H. (2004). Myth in the Harmonistic Literature, Myth and Literature (pp. 40). Tehran: SAMT Publishers. Durand, G. (1996). Introduction à la mythodologie: mythes et sociétés: Albin Michel. Eliade, M. (1969). Le mythe de l'éternel retour: archétypes et répétition (Vol. 120): Gallimard. Grimal, P. (1988). The culture of Iran and Rome's myths (A. Behmanesh, Trans.). Tehran: Amirkabir Publications. Guirand, F., & Schmidt, J. (1996). Mythologie grecque. Mythes et Mythologies. Histoire et dictionnaire, 168. Huet-Brichard, M.-C. (2001). Littérature et mythe: Hachette. Kinderman, W., & Syer, K. R. (2005). A companion to Wagner's Parsifal: Boydell & Brewer. Vierne, S. (1993). Mythocritique et mythanalyse. Iris, 13, 45-46. Walter, P. (2005). Conte, légende et mythe: Imago. Wunenburger, J.-J. (2005). Création artistique et mythique: Imago. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Does Teaching English in Saudi Primary Schools Affect Students’ Academic Achievement in Arabic Subjects? Othman Aljohani English Language Centre, Institute of Public Administration Jeddah, Saudi Arabia E-mail: johanio@ipa.edu.sa Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.214 Received: 03/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.214 Accepted: 18/12/2015 Abstract The global trend of introducing second language learning, namely, English, in primary schools is increasing. In Saudi Arabia, where English has never been taught in primary schools, the government to implement English as a second language at the primary level in 2005; however, this generated controversy. Opposition to the learning of English has been based on religious, cultural, and educational arguments. The latter argument consists of claims that learning English at a young age might influence children’s mother tongue development and influence their academic success. This paper investigates the impact of teaching English in Saudi primary schools on students’ achievement in Arabiclanguage subjects. This quantitative research aims to inform the debate on second language learning in primary schools by studying children’s examination results in the Arabic subject areas of grammar, reading, and writing. The sample consisted of primary school students from years 1 to 6 as well as year 6 students from the last year before (2004) and the first year after (2005) the introduction of English. Student results from four primary schools (two government schools and two private schools) were collected and analysed. This study found no indication of a positive or negative impact of learning English on students’ achievement in Arabic subjects. However, private school students who studied English beginning in their first year of school had better results in the Arabic subjects that were the focus of this research. Keywords: second language acquisition, language impact, ESL 1. Introduction There is a global trend of encouraging learning foreign languages in school. In many parts of the world, students learn one or two languages in addition to their first language as compulsory subjects beginning early in their schooling. This is now the case in Saudi Arabia, where English has been implemented in all primary schools beginning in year 1. However, these developments in Saudi Arabia have generated a great deal of controversy. In Saudi Arabia, some people oppose the idea of teaching children other languages, arguing that languages represent cultures and that they are afraid of their impact on Saudi tradition and culture (Al-Ahmari, 1992; Al-Naser, 1991; AlShammary, 1989). Others oppose language learning for religious reasons, as Arabic is the language of the Quran and some languages represent different religions and religious values (Al-Shammary, 1989). However, the main point in this debate is the impact of foreign languages on the first language acquisition process. Most of those who are opposed to the idea of teaching other languages to young children believe that it might affect their proficiency in their first language and might prevent them from developing it properly (Al-Thaferi, 1999; AlShammary, 1989). They claim that languages should not be taught to young learners until they are adults and fully proficient in their first language to prevent such an effect. They believe that the priority at this age should be the acquisition of the first language, which might be disturbed by the second language learning process. These arguments are contrary to the idea of the critical period hypothesis, which claims that childhood is the best age to begin learning other languages and that younger students learn better than older ones (Long, 1990; Johnson & Newport, 1989; Patkowsky, 1980; Penfield & Roberts, 1959; Lenneberg, 1967). This paper aims to contribute to this discussion by exploring whether the introduction of the English language at the primary level has any impact on students’ academic achievements in their first-language subjects (grammar, reading, and writing). Such an exploration is motivated by opponents’ of this movement claim that introducing English into the curriculum early in primary school will have an adverse impact on students. This study seeks to make an initial investigation of this claim and see whether it may or may not be supported by empirical data. This paper will present a background to the research by discussing policies related to learning English as a second language (ESL) in Saudi primary schools, comment on the history of second language learning in Saudi schools and provide details of the debate surrounding the policies. The literature on the theories and practice of second language learning in the primary years is presented and the research is described. The paper concludes with a discussion of the research’s findings and implications. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 215 2. Background 2.1 English in Saudi schools Before the commencement of the plan to teach English at the primary level in government schools in 2005, English was only taught in Saudi government schools as a foreign language subject beginning at the intermediate level (year 7). It was taught in four 45-minute periods per week in classes of 30 to 40 students who only spoke Arabic. Moreover, all of the English teachers were Saudis or from other Arabic-speaking countries. In private schools, on the other hand, English is taught from the first year of school and even before that if the school has a kindergarten level. Unlike in government schools, class sizes do not exceed 25, and sometimes, there are several students who speak languages other than Arabic. The duration of teaching periods is the same as in government schools, but English is taught five times per week. Moreover, private schools usually have better learning facilities, such as language labs and audio-visual aids, which help students to learn more effectively. However, English in private primary schools is taught as an elective subject that is not counted in students’ overall average grade of the year. In 2005, the Ministry of Education embarked on a six-year plan to implement English at the primary level in government schools (years 1 to 6) by introducing English in year 6 in the first year. However, the plan was stopped after the first year for a number of reasons, such as an insufficient number of English teachers and schools that were not ready for the program. After revision, the plan was resumed in 2011, and the ministry decided to teach English only in the last three years of the primary level (years 4 to 6). 2.2 The debate of English-teaching age in Saudi Arabia There is a strong debate in the educational community in Saudi Arabia about the benefits of introducing English at the primary level. Many people believe in the importance of English as an international language, and they believe that learning English should start from the first year of school, when students are at an appropriate age to acquire other languages (Al-Jarf, 2004). Others argue that teaching English, or any other language, at this early age may negatively affect the students’ proficiency in their first language (Husain, 2002; Al-Ghanim, 2000; Al-Ahmari, 1992; Al-Naser, 1991; Al-Shammary, 1989). The remarkable point in this debate is that both parties tend not to provide any evidence for their arguments. Those who are in favour of teaching English at the primary level do not talk about the reasons why students who graduate from secondary schools have weak levels of English after they have studied it for six years (Jazaeri, Asharq Alawsat Newspaper). They merely talk about giving the students more time in the learning process, as if they are quite sure that this is a problem of time without presenting any evidence to support this view. In fact, studies on the low achievement of Saudi learners in learning English blame the way English is taught and the amount of weekly hours that are devoted to English tuition (Al-Jarf, 2004; Al-Shammary, 1989). On the other hand, opponents of the idea of teaching English in primary schools do not base their arguments on empirical studies that show the impact on the Arabic language of primary-level children learning English (Husain, 2002; Al-Ghanim, 2000; Al-Ahmari, 1992; Al-Naser, 1991; Al-Shammary, 1989). Rather, they tend to couch their argument in terms of how Western values, supposedly represented by the English language, could affect students at this young age. Moreover, when they talk about the impact of the English language on students’ proficiency in Arabic, they do not differentiate between the process of learning other languages and the process of language acquisition. They also talk about English taught in schools as if it were a complete immersion program rather than being a stand-alone subject that students study for 45 minutes four times per week in a completely Arabic society inside and outside of school. 3. Literature Review In this literature review, research on second language learning, the benefits and disadvantages of learning a second language when young, and cultural and religious issues of learning English in primary schools in Saudi Arabia are discussed; further, their relation to this research is explained. There is no doubt that learning other languages has an impact on learners. Learners of other languages are believed to be different from monolingual learners. Meara (1983) argued that a person who speaks two languages does not behave in the same way as a person who speaks just one of those languages. This means that even if the learner’s first language was not influenced by learning a second language, there should be an impact on his or first language or on the way he or uses it, whether this is negative or positive. A government study in Qatar (cited in Al-Mutawa, 1996) conducted by the Ministry of Education to measure the lingual development of Arabic in young learners and how it might be affected by learning other languages showed that students who never studied English had better Arabic comprehension and speaking skills. However, all of the participants scored the same in Arabic achievement in the last year of the study. In 1986, Ashor (cited in Al-Mutawa, 1996) conducted a similar study on year 4 and year 6 students who had studied English in kindergarten for two years before school age in Egypt and found that their academic achievement in their first language was slower compared to those students who did not learn a second language; however, the negative impact disappeared as the students got older. The findings of the above two studies support the idea that any negative impact can be made up in later stages as students progress in their first language. Al-Thaferi (1999) conducted a study to investigate the impact of introducing English at the primary level in Kuwaiti schools on the students’ academic achievements, attitude, and language interference on all language skills. He found that students who had not studied English achieved better grades in Arabic subjects. The study also showed that interference between English and Arabic did exist from English to Arabic in all language skills. In Saudi Arabia, Al-Jarf (2004) surveyed 40 students who were studying in international schools that use English as the teaching language and found that English was the dominant language for all of the students in the sample, especially in reading and writing. Moreover, she found that 35% preferred to communicate in English, while 25% used some English ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 216 words when they spoke in Arabic. She also found that 40% could not speak classical Arabic, 35% could not read or write in Arabic, and 65% had difficulty reading and writing and faced spelling problems when writing in Arabic. They also had trouble expressing their ideas in Arabic and understanding the meaning of words in written text. Finally, 10% of the students in the sample enrolled in King Saud University and faced many problems with the university’s Arabic core courses and with other subjects taught in Arabic. In contrast, there is considerable literature about the positive impact of learning other languages on the first languagelearning process. Many studies argue that those who learn other languages, especially at an early age, have better opportunities to know and learn their first language. Goethe (cited in Vygotsky, 1962) said “he who knows no foreign language does not truly know his own.” Some of these studies talk about the benefits of learning other languages on the learners’ metalinguistic awareness development that helps them not only in their first language acquisition but also in learning any other languages in general. Kecskes and Papp (2000) reported that there are many studies (Grandell, 1993, 1995; Holmstrand, 1979; Kecskes & Papp, 1995; Papp, 1991) suggesting that higher metalinguistic awareness helps learners to develop a more conscious and sophisticated use of their first language system. They also reported that linguists believe that the only important impact of foreign language that is taught in classrooms is on developing students’ metalinguistic awareness. They claimed that not only bilingual learners but also learners of a foreign language in regular classrooms could have enhanced first language development. As students in schools tend to pay more attention to vocabulary development and sentence structure when they learn a foreign language, they usually achieve better results in their first language grammar tests. Clyne (1986) claimed that children who learn a second language earlier have a better chance of developing metalinguistic awareness and can understand and think about their first language functions better than others. Moreover, he said that this early metalinguistic awareness seems to support their reading skills. He claimed that learners of other languages are usually better than monolingual children in differentiating between form and content. Furthermore, the two linguistic systems have helped them to develop verbal flexibility and better divergent thinking. Clyne claimed that teaching second languages in schools should be considered as a way to develop children’s potential. Diaz and Klingler (1987) (cited in Noh, 2001) said that learners who have the opportunity to learn two or more languages at an early age are more likely to develop a greater metalinguistic awareness and exhibit better performance on verbal and non-verbal tasks. Bamford and Mizokawa (1991) (cited in Noh, 2001) argued that this could help the learners to develop their cognitive system. According to Lambart, Genesee, Holobow, and Chartrand (1993) (cited in Noh, 2001), immersion programs have helped students to improve their speaking and writing skills in their first language. Masciantonio (1977) surveyed U.S. research on the effects of Latin instruction and found that learning Latin helped students from all backgrounds in developing their vocabulary and reading skills. Finally, several studies denied any impact of learning other languages on students’ first language. Cummins (1993) (cited in Noh, 2001) argued that students who received bilingual education developed in the first language and had the same academic achievement as those who studied in monolingual programs. According to Kecskes and Papp (2000), the following studies (cf. Burstall, 1970; Burstall, Jamieson, Cohen, & Hargeaves, 1974; Smith, 1967), which focus on children under the age of 12, found that there was no impact of foreign languages on the first language. In 1995, Rodriguez, Diaz, Duran, and Espinosa studied 50 children between the ages of 3 and 5 whose mother tongue was Spanish. They found that those who had been enrolled in programs that taught both English and Spanish were better in the second language while maintaining the same proficiency in the first language as other children who only studied the first language. Some studies (Bjorklund, 1995; Grandell, 1993, 1995; Hoglund, 1992; West, 1993) (cited in Kecskes & Papp, 2000) that tested the Finnish skills of students who studied in a Swedish immersion program in Finland compared students’ skills in their first language with the same skills of the monolingual Finnish students and found that there was no significant impact of foreign language on the first language and the students’ academic achievement. Bregy, Brohy, and Fuchs (2000) studied French-speaking students’ results at the end of year 2 in Swiss schools (these students had started learning German between the ages of 4 and 5). They found that there was no evidence of the impact of learning a second language at this age on the first language or on the students’ academic achievement. A study from a similar context to that of this paper supported these findings. In Kuwait, Eassa and Al-Mutawa (1998) conducted a study to investigate the impact of introducing English on students’ academic achievements in Arabic in year 2 in Kuwaiti schools. They studied the students’ results in Arabic before and after the introduction of English. The study showed that learning English in year 2 did not affect the process of first language (Arabic) acquisition. 4. Methodology 4.1 Theoretical perspective The view of language adopted in this paper is a Vygotskyan one (Vygotsky, 1962): language is viewed as a cultural tool. Children in primary school have a sophisticated understanding of language and culture and will use it in a variety of modes to externalise mental processes and develop shared understandings within a context and with a particular social group. Middle childhood is characterised by an ability to use higher-order language, problem solve, think logically, and persist at tasks. Further, the company of peers becomes increasingly important and influential at this age. This study focused on two boys’ schools and two girls’ schools (for a total of four schools), where children’s knowledge of the Arabic language and culture is supported by their formal use of symbolic systems, which allows them to explicate and elaborate ideas. Second language learning will be impacted by the degree of exposure to the language and the differences between the languages, in this case, Arabic and English. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 217 4.2 Aims There are many ways in which language B (second language) may affect language A (first language). In this paper, where the main focus is on academic achievement in the students’ first language, the investigation will be centred on the students’ results in Arabic-language subjects at school. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the impact of teaching English in Saudi primary schools on the students’ achievements in Arabic subjects (grammar, reading, and writing) by comparing their results in these Arabic subjects before and after the introduction of English in primary school. This part of the study involves gathering empirical data on students’ achievements in Arabic subjects in the school curriculum and analysing it in order to see if there are significant changes in the students’ achievements in Arabic subjects (grammar, reading, and writing) that might correlate to the introduction of English. The study intends to look for marked patterns in groups of learners to see if the times and schools in which English is introduced have any effect on students’ average scores in Arabic subjects. The data is expected to give a clear indication of whether achievement in Arabic learning in the curriculum is affected by the introduction of English in primary school. In this investigation, exam results in Arabic-language subjects will form the data sets, and a comparison of means between groups in the sample will be used to identify overall trends and patterns. 4.3 Research questions The main aim of this paper is to answer the following research questions: 1) Does teaching English in Saudi primary schools affect the students’ academic achievements in Arabiclanguage subjects (grammar, reading, and writing)? 2) If there is an effect on the students’ academic achievements in Arabic-language subjects (grammar, reading, and writing), is it positive or negative? 3) How long does it take for any effect to become apparent? 4) If there is an impact only in the later years, is this a result of learning English or of other factors? The answers to these questions will contribute evidence-based data to inform the debate in Saudi Arabia on the impact of the early introduction of English on students’ academic achievements in these Arabic subjects. 4.4 Participants The study sample consists of 2,000 students from four primary schools (male and female government and private schools) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The students’ results in Arabic subjects were followed from year 1 to year 6 and were evaluated at the end of each year. The paper sample covers the students from year 1 to year 6 and the students in year 6 from the last year before introducing English (2004) and the first year after introducing English (2005). 4.5 Data The data used in this paper was taken from the records of the students’ final grades in their school subjects in Arabic and English. These records were obtained directly from the sample schools with the permission of the Education Department of Jeddah. They consist of the students’ midterm and final tests (60%), quizzes (30%), and homework and in-class participation (10%) (for a final grade out of 100%). 4.6 Analysis Since this study focuses on analysing students’ results in a descriptive way to find the effects of introducing English, if there are any, on the students’ performance in Arabic subjects (grammar, reading, and writing), this will be a quantitative study that mainly analyses the students’ final results in all of the intended subjects and compares them against each other to find out if there are any indications of effect. Students’ results in English and Arabic grammar, reading, and writing were put in a list form that contained the year, the subject title, the students’ level, and their final grade out of 100. The students’ results were classified in spread sheets according to school type, gender, study level, year, and subject. The grade average for each subject and level, and the overall average for all of the subjects, were calculated. However, only the students’ overall averages in all of the Arabic subjects were used, since they reflect the achievement of the students’ Arabic language skills in general. Consequently, the students’ results were analysed collectively by using their overall achievement averages in all subjects. In order be more specific, the following nil hypothesis was created to provide a focus for the examination of the data collected: · Teaching English in Saudi primary schools has no impact on students’ academic achievement in Arabic subjects. The results of the study were analysed in three stages, as follows: a. Same levels in different school systems Students’ results in Arabic subjects (grammar, reading, and writing) for years 1 to 6 from private schools (where English is taught) and government schools (where English is not taught) were compared to determine the patterns of achievement in each school system. Then, those patterns were analysed for differences. If different patterns were found, each of them was observed to see if learning English affected the students’ achievement in Arabic subjects positively or negatively. b. Different levels in the same school system Students’ results in Arabic subjects for year 6 in government schools in 2005 (when English is taught) were compared with their results in Arabic subjects from the previous years (when English was not taught) to see if they maintained their progression pattern in Arabic after they started learning English. Moreover, private school students’ (who study English in all years) results were used as a control group in this stage of the analysis. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 218 c. Same level in the same school system Students’ results in Arabic subjects for year 6 in 2005, the first year of the introduction of the English language as a school subject, were compared with the students’ results in Arabic subjects for year 6 in 2004, the last year before introducing English as a subject, to see if there were any indications of change in the students’ achievement in Arabic subjects. 5. Results 5.1 Student averages in Arabic subjects from year 1 to year 6 (1997–2002) Between 1997 and 2002, English was not taught in government schools, whereas private school students learned English in all years of primary school starting in year 1. In this section, students’ average scores for their Arabic subjects are presented year by year in order to investigate what patterns exist across the school sectors, and since different school sectors introduced English at different times, to see if there is any significant change in the scores in Arabic subjects as well as how they might have been affected by the introduction of English. The analysis covers each year individually to examine the paper’s hypothesis that learning English has no impact on student achievement in Arabic subjects. These average scores are presented in Figures 1 to 6 and are organised by school type. Schools in Saudi Arabia are all single-sex, and there are two school sectors: government schools and independent private schools. There are therefore four types of schools. 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 93% 94% 92% 78% Gov. Boys Gov. Girls Schools Private Boys Private Girls Figure 1. Students’ averages in year 1 (1997) 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 95% 82% Gov. Boys 98% 85% Gov. Girls Private Boys Schools Figure 2. Students’ averages in year 2 (1998) Private Girls ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 219 85% Gov. Boys 91% 91% Gov. Girls Private Boys Schools 96% Private Girls Figure 3. Students’ averages in year 3 (1999) 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 87% Gov. Boys 87% 90% Gov. Girls Private Boys Schools 94% Private Girls Figure 4. Students’ averages in year 4 (2000) 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 77% Gov. Boys 83% 92% Gov. Girls Private Boys Schools Figure 5. Students’ averages in year 5 (2001) 91% Private Girls ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 100 90 80 70 60 Average 50 40 30 20 10 0 220 86% 83% Gov. Boys 92% Gov. Girls Private Boys Schools 92% Private Girls Figure 6. Students’ averages in year 6 (2002) Table 1 depicts the students’ average scores for all Arabic subjects by school type and gender for each year, with the averages presented in percentages. Table 1. Comparison of Students’ Averages in Arabic Subjects (1997–2002) Level Gov. Schools Private Schools (with no English) (with English) Boys Girls Boys Girls Year 1 (1997) 78% 93% 94% 92% Year 2 (1998) 82% 85% 95% 98% Year 3 (1999) 85% 91% 91% 96% Year 4 (2000) 87% 87% 90% 94% Year 5 (2001) 77% 83% 92% 91% Year 6 (2002) 83% 86% 92% 92% Cohort Size* 34–100 33–100 29–100 26–100 19–100 42–90 Note. *Different cohort sizes existed in different schools. The range is presented. These figures show a consistent pattern of performance in which the private school students generally obtain higher averages than their government school peers, with the boys in government schools having lower scores in Arabic in the early years. The differences are not significant, except in the early years, where the boys in government schools have an average that is several percentage points below that of their peers. One trend that can be discerned is that the greatest differences in the averages in most years are between boys in government schools (at the lower end) and girls in private schools (at the upper end). As English was taught in the private schools at all of these year levels and not taught until year 6 in the government schools, there is no pattern of results that seems to be affected by learning English, as the changes in the averages do not clearly coincide with the introduction of English in the respective school sectors. The differences that are evident seem to reflect gender and school type, with private schools getting better results, particularly for boys, in most years. Thus, the strongest claim that can be made from this data in relation to learning English is that the early introduction of English in private schools improves scores in Arabic-language subjects for boys. However, such a claim would be difficult to sustain, as there may be other factors that influence these differences between the sectors. 5.2 Averages by student group If the same data is examined in a different way, by looking at the averages by student group year by year, any change attributable to the introduction of English may be more evident. If the introduction of English had an effect, it may show up as a change in the years in which it is introduced. This would create a pattern of difference between the firstyear results and the later-year results in the private schools as well as a difference in the year 6 results for the government schools. Figures 7 to 10 show the annual averages for each of the four groups. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 221 Figure 1. Progression patterns for government school boys Figure 2. Progression patterns for government school girls Figure 3. Progression patterns for private school boys ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 222 Figure 4. Progression patterns for private school girls While there are some small variations that might fit this pattern, there was no consistent pattern that reflected the introduction of English. Figures 7 to 10 show that the private school girls’ results are significantly lower in year 1 than in year 2, but this pattern is not replicated in the private school boys’ results. If the lower results for the private school girls are the result of teaching English in year 1, this has disappeared by year 2, when this group has the highest of any average in the whole data set. In the government sector, both the boys’ and girls’ averages rise slightly in year 6 from year 5; in both cases, year 5 has the lowest average results. This could result in a claim that the introduction of English in government schools is associated with a slight increase in Arabic language scores, but as these changes may also be seen as part of a pattern that involves some variations in years, it may be difficult to sustain a claim that these changes are attributable to the introduction of English. 5.3 Government school students’ averages in Arabic before and after the introduction of English This section describes data related to students of the same schools in year 6 in 2004 and 2005, the years before and after the introduction of English as a subject in government schools. The averages of the students in government schools in all Arabic subjects in 2004, before learning English, was compared with their averages in 2005, after the introduction of English, to see if there was any variation in their achievement. The students’ averages in Arabic in 2002 that were used in previous sections were used in this comparison to give more validity to the results. The averages of the private school students were used in this stage as a control group to see if the variation in the averages of the government school students (if there is any) happened because of the introduction of English or because of other factors. If the variation (if there is any) was accrued in both types of school, then the reason will be attributed to factors other than learning English. Table 2. Students’ Averages in Arabic-Language Subjects Before and After Learning English Level Government Schools (English Only in 2005) Private Schools (English in All Years) Year 6 (2002) Boys 83% Girls 86% Boys 92% Girls 92% 42–90 Year 6 (2004) 84% 89% 91% 95% 16–100 Year 6 (2005) 82% 89% 92% 95% 23–100 Note. *Different cohort sizes existed in different schools. The range is presented. Cohort Size* ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 223 Figure 5. Students’ averages before and after the introduction of English. The chart of the students’ averages before and after the introduction of English reveals that there are no indications of any change in their achievement in Arabic-language subjects after they learn English (English was introduced in 2005). However, there is a very slight drop (2%) in the government school boys’ average in 2005 (after English), as they achieved 82% compared to 84% in 2004. The averages of the same group in both 2004 and 2005 are not far from their average in 2002 (83%). The government school girls achieved the same average of 89% in both 2004 and 2005 (before and after English). Furthermore, their achievement is slightly better than in 2002 (86%). On the other hand, the private school students show the same stable averages in 2004 and 2005 as well as in 2002. In the private schools, students had studied English in all three years (2002, 2004, and 2005). However, the comparison of their averages with the averages of the government school students before and after the introduction of English indicates that there was no significant difference. The chart shows that all of the students in both school types have the same averages in 2003 and 2004 (when government school students did not learn English) and 2005 (when all of the students in the sample studied English). In conclusion, the introduction of English in 2005 did not affect government students’ achievement in Arabic. The main hypothesis of this study was that there is no impact of learning English in primary school on students’ achievement in Arabic. To examine this hypothesis, the study attempted to answer four research questions. The first question was the most direct one, asking whether or not there is any impact. According to the above information regarding the averages of the students during the three stages of analysis, there is no impact of learning English at the primary level on students’ achievement in Arabic subjects. This is a clear answer to the first question of the study, which will be discussed in detail in the next section. The other three questions of the paper were presented to offer deeper information only in the case that any type of impact was reported. 6. Discussion of the results As mentioned previously, the analysis of the students’ averages in Arabic subjects did not show any sort of impact from learning English at that stage. There are many studies in the literature review section that report similar findings to this study (Smith, 1967; cf. Burstall, 1970; Burstall, Jamieson, Cohen, & Hargeaves, 1974; Swain, 1974; Noh, 2001; Bregy, Brohy, & Fuchs, 2000; Eassa & Al-Mutawa, 1998; Bjorklund, 1995; Rodriguez, Diaz, Duran, & Espinos, 1995; Grandell, 1993, 1995; West, 1993, Cummins, 1978; Hoglund, 1992). However, most of those studies were carried out in different contexts and under different circumstances. This study therefore finds a similar pattern of results for students in other contexts, at least among the schools forming the sample for this study. The main finding of this study is that there is no indication of impact on achievement in Arabic subjects from learning English at the primary level in government schools in Saudi Arabia. However, before discussing the results, possible reasons that might have led to this finding should be noted. Aside from the impact of the foreign language, there are some other external factors that might lead to these findings. Al-Thaferi (1999) stated that the type of impact is not necessarily related to the foreign language itself, as the educational environment could play an important role in determining the level of impact. Other external factors are reported in the literature review. In the case of this study, the nature of learning English in Saudi Arabian schools is not considered in some respects to be a foreign language-learning program in regard to teaching method, the curriculum, and the amount of teaching hours. English in Saudi schools is taught in regular school classes of 45 minutes four times per week in classes full of Arabicspeaking students and presented by Arabic-speaking teachers. Moreover, the English language curriculum is based on traditional language-teaching methods such as grammar translation and audio-lingual methods that do not give the learners the chance to practice using the language itself. In contrast to the few hours spent teaching English, Arabic is taught in an intensive way with a variety of school subjects such as reading, grammar, writing, dictation, composition, and Arabic literature, in addition to religious subjects such as the Nobel Quran scripts and the prophet’s sayings (PBUH), all of which are written in pure, classical Arabic and taught through reading and interpreting their meaning. Furthermore, Arabic is the teaching language of all other school subjects, which makes it the dominant language. All of the above factors create what Krashen (1985) called “a poor acquisition environment.” This situation might prevent any alleged negative impact of learning English on the Arabic language that some people in Saudi Arabia fear. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 224 Moreover, some studies that showed no impact of learning additional languages on the first language have been conducted in foreign or second language environments. This might give some indication that if the first languages of young children who study in immersion programs or learn other languages in their environments have not been affected, then the first languages of young children who study other languages in a formal school environment should not be affected either. 6.1 The positive and negative impact of learning foreign languages The analysis of the students’ averages in the study sample shows that there is no indication of a negative impact from learning English on the students’ achievements in Arabic subjects (grammar, reading, and writing). However, some studies conducted in Arabic countries that investigated the impact of English on Arabic for primary school students did find some impact. The Qatari study (cited in Al-Mutawa, 1996) reviewed in the literature review section found that those students who had not studied English until their last year of primary school were better in their Arabic comprehensive and speaking skills than students who had studied English beginning in their first year of primary school. However, although the students in this study learned English more intensively compared to students in Saudi government schools, the impact did not last for a long time, and their Arabic comprehension and speaking skills improved in the last year of primary school. In fact, they recorded the same achievement level in comparison to the other students who had not studied English. Ashor (cited in Al-Mutawa, 1996) has also noted this finding of making up the negative impact after a period of time. In a study conducted in Egypt for Arabic speakers learning English, Ashor found that student achievement in the Arabic language slowed down after they started learning English; however, he noted that this impact disappeared in later years. Even in immersion programs where the foreign language is considered dominant in the school context, the impact does not last for long. Regarding performance in their first language, Noh (2001) argued that there should not be any longterm difference between students of immersion programs and their counterparts who study in the regular school system. As is clear from the findings of the above studies, the negative impact is temporary and should not be considered a threatening factor. It can be also argued that this impact might be attributed to factors other than the structure of the English language itself. Young learners may give English language learning more interest when they first begin to study it and focus on learning it more than their first language, which may lead to the temporary impact that is usually made up after a period of time when the students get used to the new subject. This increasing interest has been reported by Alma’amori et al. (1983) (cited in Al-Mutawa, 1996), who have referred to the negative impact that they found in their studies as being related to this subject novelty. If we take this argument into account, the findings of those studies are not far from the findings of the current study, that is, nil impact. On the other hand, learning other languages at this age has some positive effects on students’ performance in their first language. Some studies in the literature review support this idea. The best positive effect that students can get from learning other languages is that they know and understand their first language better. Goethe (cited in Vygotsky, 1962) said “he who knows no foreign language does not truly know his own.” In addition, learning other languages can help young learners to develop better metalinguistic awareness that should be reflected in their proficiency of the first language and in learning other languages in general. Teaching other languages to young children, such as English in Saudi schools, should be considered as a way of developing children’s cognitive systems and metalinguistic awareness, both of which help in the acquisition of their first language and in foreign language learning (Clyne, 1986; Bamford & Mizokawa, 1991, cited in Noh, 2001). Although the findings of the current study did not show an impact of learning other languages on the first language, the cognitive benefits might have been shown to accrue if they had been measured. A study in a similar context to the current one supports this idea. In Egypt, Hinna (1967) noted that although there was no impact on the students’ achievement in Arabic, the students seemed to show more progress in their first language acquisition after learning English. Kecskes and Papp (2000) suggested that even learning a foreign language in regular classrooms, as occurs in Saudi schools, could enhance the process of first language development. Regarding the positive impact on student achievement in their first language, although the analysis of the students’ averages in Arabic subjects showed that there was no negative impact of learning English on the students’ achievement in Arabic, the charts showed that private school students who had been learning English since year 1 showed better averages and more stable progression patterns in Arabic. However, this improvement was slight, and this data indicates correlations that cannot be clearly and unambiguously attributed to the introduction of English, as other factors may be involved. 7. Conclusion The findings of this study support its main hypothesis. There was no notable impact of learning English on students’ achievement in Arabic subjects in Saudi government schools that coincided with the introduction of English. Although some of the data indicated that students of the two private schools who had been learning English from year 1 showed a slightly better performance in Arabic subjects, none of the three levels of the analysis indicated changes that were clearly related to the study of English. The main finding that can be asserted from this study is that analysing the results of the private school students (who study English from year 1) in eight different years showed that they did not have worse results in Arabic than their counterparts in the government schools who were not exposed to learning English. ALLS 7(1):214-225, 2016 225 This study contributes to the debate about teaching foreign languages in primary schools in Saudi Arabia. Arguments about the impact of learning other languages on children’s performance in Arabic might reflect much bigger debates in Saudi Arabia. These debates relate to how Saudi society and culture should respond to foreign ideas and influences. As mentioned previously in the introduction, many of the articles that were for or against teaching foreign languages in Saudi primary government schools were not based on empirical studies. Both sides of the debate use English as an example that represents the type of culture that they want or that they are against. Furthermore, many people suspect that investors in commercial language schools might have played a role in the current campaign for the necessity of learning English at the primary level and its importance for future jobs (Al-Naser, 1991; Husain, 2002). The findings of this study and any other studies in the same field are not expected to stop the argument, although they do add empirical data that may inform the debate. 7.1 Future studies The data in this study involved aggregate scores based on a situation in which English is taught in a way that falls short of meeting optimum conditions for learning. Studies to explore other contexts and more details of Arabic language development would add to the empirical data, further informing debates in Saudi Arabia about the desirability of introducing English language learning into the primary school curriculum. References Al-Ahmari, M. (1992). From speaking other languages to losing the identity. Al-Bayan Magazine, 54, 109–110. Al-Ghanim, F. A. (2000). Before we start. Al-Marefah Magazine, 57, 77. Al-Jarf, R. S. (2004). Should we teach English to children under the age of six? Paper presented at early childhood: Characteristics and needs. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Al-Maqoshi, A. (2008, April 29). Between scarcity and glut in the labor market. Alriyadh Newspaper. Al-Mutawa, N. (1996). Attitudes of Kuwait society towards introducing English as a foreign language at primary schools (EFLPS). The ERC Journal, University of Qatar, 9(5), 7–37. Al-Naser, M. (1991). Teaching foreign languages to children. Al-Bayan Magazine, 36, 71–73. Al-Shammary, E. A. (1989). Teaching English in Saudi Arabia: To whom, when and how should English be taught? The Journal of King Saud University, 1(2), 195–222. Al-Thaferi, M. (1999, January 26). The impact of the introduction of English subject on Arabic language in the elementary level in Kuwait schools. Al-Watan Newspaper. Bregy, A. -L., Brohy, C., & Fuchs, G. (2000). Experience d’apprentissage bilingue precoce: Resultats des eleves de Monthey et de Sion a la fin de la 2e Anee Primaire, Annee 1998/99 [Experience of preschool bilingual education: Results from students in Monthey and Sion at the end of second grade, 1998/99 year]. Clyne, M. (Ed.) (1986). An early start: Language at primary school. Melbourne: River Seine Publications. Cummins, J. (1978). The cognitive development of children in immersion programs. Canadian Modern Language Review, 34(5), 855–883. Eassa, M. R., & Al-Mutawa, N. A. (1998). Introducing EFL at primary school and its effect on Arabic. The Educational Journal, 12(46), 115–146. Hinna, F. F. (1967). The impact of learning foreign language on learning the national Arabic language (Unpublished master’s thesis). Faculty of Education, Ayn Shams University, Egypt. Husain, M. (2002). Our children and the foreign languages schools. Al-Bayan Magazine, 122, 45–51. Jazaeri, M. (2003, May 5). The debate of teaching English in elementary level is back. Asharq Alawsat Newspaper. Retrieved from http://www.aawsat.com/print.asp?did=168985&issueno=8924 Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. Kecskes, I., & Papp, T. (2000). Foreign language and mother tongue. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis. London: Longman. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley. Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251– 85. Masciantonio, R. (1977). Tangible benefits of the study of Latin: A review of research. Foreign Language Annals, 10, 375–382. Meara, P. (1983). “Introduction.” In P. Meara (Ed.), Vocabulary in a second language (pp. ii–iv). London: CILTR. Noh, K. H. (2001). An English immersion program in a primary school in Korea. Melbourne: La Trobe University. Patkowksy, M. (1980). The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449–472. Penfield, W., & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and brain mechanism. London: Oxford University Press. Rodriguez, J. L., Diaz, R. M., Duran, D., & Espinosa, L. (1995). The impact of bilingual preschool education on the language development of Spanish-speaking children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 10(4), 475–490. Swain, M. (1974). French immersion programs across Canada: Research findings. Canadian Modern Language Review, 31(2), 117–129. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thoughts and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Interpretation of Whorf from Different Perspectives Yanlong Wang Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China E-mail: wangyanlongneida@sina.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.226 Received: 09/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.226 Accepted: 20/12/2015 Abstract The paper interprets Whorf’s notion by turning to his original writings. Specifically, the paper makes a detailed analysis of Whorf’s notion from anthropological linguistics, which largely deals with his famous distinction between overt category and covert category and his detailed description of the American Indian language Hopi; contrastive linguistics, which implies Whorf’s research pedagogy by which the major differences between Hopi and English were found; and psycholinguistics which shows that Whorf would like to explore the deeper internalized meaning of language so as to uncover the true nature of language in the process of thinking. Therefore, the writer aims to have access to Whorf by rereading his original works and demonstrates what he has actually done in relation with those disciplines mentioned above. Keywords: Whorf, anthropological linguistics, contrastive linguistics, psycholinguistics 1. Introduction As has been known to all, Whorf’s most understanding devotion to linguistics is his linguistic relativity. The paper, however, touches upon Whorf’s other contributions. Specifically, Whorf actually explored the relationship between language and thought in such interdisciplinary fields as anthropological linguistics, contrastive linguistics and psycholinguistics. In this paper, some of Whorf’s writings will be examined with great care to assist readers to have a better understanding towards Whorf’s notion. Firstly, Whorf set about beginning his study of American Indian languages after he met Sapir, his tutor, in 1931. During his academic life, he made such a distinction between overt and covert category and had intensive examination of Hopi language and Mayan language, which actually put linguistic study at a higher level. Secondly, Whorf’s comparison of SAE (Standard Average European) with Hopi makes explicit his innovative research methodology. Traditionally, researchers focused their attention on the comparison among SAE and had no intention of including some other minority languages in their research scope. Whorf’s work is not simply aimed at making linguistic contrast of SAE and Hopi, but explores the implied meaning of those grammatical categories of the languages, which further shows that the different use of grammatical categories may lead to the different world views of the nation. Thirdly, Whorf’s ideas shown in psycholinguistics will be presented in the last part of the paper in which Whorf’s statements about psycholinguistic patterning are explored. 2. Whorf and anthropological linguistics As is known to all that Whorf together with another two outstanding anthropological linguists Boas and Sapir has made great contributions to the development of American anthropological linguistics, and they are all the time regarded as “the great triumvirate of the Boasian tradition” (Foley, 2001, p.199) . What they concern is not limited to the universally known languages such as English, German or French, but to the minority languages which are used by a few speakers. Whorf is the name closely related with the principle of linguistic relativity though much of his work was greatly affected by his tutor Sapir. Sapir (1964, p.128) maintained each language is a formally complete system, the diversity of which makes languages incommensurate with each other to some extent. Although Whorf followed some of his teacher’s practices, yet trained as a natural scientist and taking great interest in the study of languages, he finally developed his research in his own way. He intended to make a contrast between English and Hopi language, aiming to uncover the discrepancy between the two different languages. He went further beyond the lexical comparison, thereby putting forward some famous definitions which are of great significance to the linguistic research. Whorf’s interest in Mayan languages also helps open up his eyes and broaden his horizon in linguistic research. 2.1 Phenotypes versus Cryptotypes Whorf’s clear statement of covert categories or cryptotypes is found in his paper “Grammatical Categories” (Carroll, 1956), which was written during December 1937. In spite of the fact that the publication of the paper was postponed to 1946, the paper was known to his colleagues during his lifetime and gained their respects. By reading Whorf’s original essay, we find that his goal in writing it was that it is desirable to avoid “ [t]he very natural tendency to use terms derived from traditional grammar, like verb, noun, adjective, passive voice, in describing languages outside of IndoEuropean”, mainly because Whorf believed that this practice “is fraught with grave possibilities of misunderstanding”(Carroll, 1956, p. 87). The concepts of covert categories and cryptotypes were thus introduced as part of a larger framework for grammatical analysis. In his paper, he made such a conclusiton that “Conventional ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 227 grammar of American languages” are “based on classical models”, which leads linguists to “restrict attention to the morphemes by which many grammatical forms are marked”. He thus acclaimed that linguists should look for wordclasses which are not marked morphemically but rather “by types of patterning: e.g. by the systematic avoidance of certain morphemes, by lexical selection, by word-order that is also CLASS-ORDER, in general by association with definite linguistic configurations” (Carroll, 1956, pp. 87-88). Whorf, in the anthology compiled by Carroll (1956, p. 55) shared with Boas and Sapir the view that language can organize experience. But he went beyond Boas and Sapir to distinguish two types of classification and all Whorf’s analytical framework was built around these two fundamental distinctions, the one between overt and covert categories and the other between ‘selective’ and ‘modulus’ categories (ibid, p. 93). Next, the detailed analyses will be made of the former including some typical examples. First let us turn to his definition of overt category: An overt category is a category having a formal mark which is present (with only infrequent exceptions) in every sentence containing a member of the category. The mark need not be part of the same word to which the category may be said to be attached in a paradigmatic sense; i.e. it need not be a suffix, prefix, vowel change or other “inflection,” but may be a detached word or a certain patterning of the whole sentence. (Carroll,1956, p. 88) Taking into account Whorf’s definition of overt category, I think an overt category is found with apparent markers in all or nearly all sentences. According to Whorf, if a subject is required in a sentence with its plural form, the paradigmatic principle works. The nouns serving as the subject are not restricted to the selection of those with affixed, for example, ‘s’， vowel change or other inflectional changes, but some individual words, sometimes together with other words, which form a fixed “patterning”, also have this sort of function. In English, for instance, the plural of noun is an overt category because it is either marked by the suffix ‘s’ or a vowel change, or by other features of the phrase or sentence they occur with, e.g. the form of the verbs, the manner of use of the articles. In the plural form, there exists no inflectional ending in the noun fish, but its number may be represented in the shape of the verb (the fish are going to be transported to the big cities) or in the absence or presence of the definite article (fish died, the fish appeared). The overt category can be illustrated with more plural examples. In the sentence “the Japanese left”, the definite article together with lack of a singular marker like Chinese, Indian, represents the plural form. “The potential mode of the verb” is another overt category because it is marked by the morpheme ‘can’ or ‘could’. After an elusive statement of overt categories, Whorf turned to his famous explanation of covert categories. In his essay, he wrote: A covert category is marked, whether morphemically or by sentence pattern, only in certain types of sentences and not in every sentence in which a word or element belonging to the category occurs. The class-membership of the word is not apparent until there is a question of using it or referring to it in one of these special types of sentence, and then we find that this word belongs to a class requiring some sort of distinctive treatment, which may even be the negative treatment of excluding that type of sentence. This distinctive treatment we may call the REACTANCE of the category. (Carroll, 1956, p. 89) According to Whorf’s original intention, covert category is of greater importance in understanding people’s thoughts, thus it deserves more words here. Notice that in this passage, Whorf stressed that covert category is marked in the language. Its marking, however, appears in some certain contexts. In my analyses, Whorf’s markers of covert category include features of position, order in the sentence and negative characteristics. As (Foley, 2001, p.200) summarized, covert categories are those without an ever present formal marker, but are indicated by their possibilities of combination with other words in various constructions. Some examples are given to illustrate this. Intransitive verbs in English are covert category because they do not have a particular suffix or marker that distinguishes them from other types of verbs. For intransitive verbs, some rules cannot apply. Only when some kinds of rules are applied, such as passive voice, causative voice do we realize that some English verbs like go, lie, sit, gleam, sleep, arrive, appear, rejoice share the same characteristic of usage and differ from other verbs, e.g. cook, push, see, give, etc. For example, we cannot use the intransitive verbs in passive sentences. We cannot say it is being arrived or it was gone. Another type of covert category which is analyzed by Whorf is English gender. Personal given names, for example, fall into this category. Foreign languages learners have to learn them before the command of their usage. Specifically, they have to know in advance that “Lily” belongs to “she” group and “Tom” to the “he” group. Whorf concluded that “[t]he mistakes in English gender made by learners of that language, including those whose own languages are without gender, would alone show that we have here covert grammatical categories” (Carroll, 1956, pp. 90-91). In his essay, Whorf also included English adjective in covert category. We also find an interesting fact that Whorf sometimes used an alternative set of terms to refer to overt category and covert category, phenotype and cryptotype respectively. He initially used the term cryptotype in order to emphasize the characteristics and its application: A covert linguistic class may not deal with any grand dichotomy of objects, it may have a very subtle meaning, it may have no overt mark other than certain distinctive “reactances” with certain overtly marked forms. It is then what I call a CRYPTOTYPE. (Carroll, 1956, p. 70) From the statement above, it may be easily concluded that, the term involves two senses, one with obscure meaning and the other with an absence or a lack of overt marking. As for phenotype, Whorf at first meant to use it to refer to the conjunction of clear meaning and regular marking: ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 228 I give the name PHENOTYPE to the linguistic category with a clearly apparent class meaning and a formal mark or morpheme which accompanies it; i.e., the phenotype is the “classical” morphological category. (Carroll, 1956, p. 72) In view of the roles and functions in a language, Whorf also noticed that overt categories cannot be independent of covert categories (Carroll, 1956, p. 105). Each plays a part in providing a full understanding of the category of a language (The Hopi is such a typical language): The meaning of a PHENOTYPE, though ostensibly plain, can really not be completely understood in all its subtlety until the cryptotypes that go with it have been dredged up from their submerged state and their effective meanings to some extent brought into consciousness. Thereupon, the different effects produced by the same phenotype with different crypotypes, and vice versa, result in a more pronounced consciousness and clearer understanding of the phenotype itself. (Carroll 1956, p.109) Commonly speaking, the meaning of phenotype is understood more easily. Nevertheless, phenotypes alone cannot express the meaning entirely without the help of crypotypes. It is when the crypotypes which accompanies the phenotypes are brought effectively into consciousness that the meaning of phenotypes can be clearly comprehended. Further, Whorf observed that ideas were not merely a pile of words, and a language that was simple with overt forms might be actually complicated in its covert categories: It may turn out that the simpler a language becomes overtly, the more it becomes dependent upon crypotypes and other covert formations, the more it conceals unconscious presuppositions, and the more its lexations become variable and indefinable. (Carroll, 1956, p. 83) In my opinion, Whorf’s statement actually indicates that any simple treatment of a language may fail to understand its underlying meanings. The seemingly overt structures in a language are represented by the crypotypes, after his illuminating study of the Hopi language, Whorf found that the Hopi language is analyzed by the concept of cryptotype. Nevertheless, it could not be applicable to all languages (Carroll, 1956, p. 110). 2.2 The Significance of the Recognition of Covert Categories The recognition of covert categories or cryptotypes is of great significance in anthropological linguistics for a couple of reasons. Initially, the belief in cryptotypes means that languages that may seem rather ‘simple’ at the lexicon level might in fact be more complicated at a more covert level (Carroll,1956, p. 83). He argued that investigating covert category might be particularly helpful in uncovering the true nature of linguistic thinking. Thus, linguists are not only paying attention to the research on the SAE, but on some minority languages used in some remote throughout the world. For my part, Whorf’s achievement in covert categories actually paved a way for the subsequent researches. And then, it demonstrates that the differences of languages never lie in the aspect of what the individual words resemble or can do, but lie in the aspect of what they do not or cannot do. This notion was subsequently developed by a wellknown figure—Chomsky who innovatively put forward the notion of “deep structure”(see more in the monograph of Chomsky “The Minimalist Program) . Most importantly, by careful analyses of overt and covert categories, especially the latter, Whorf made an effort to reduce the “superiority of standard average European languages”, aiming to achieve the goal of “brotherhood of thought” (Carroll, 1956, p. 27). 2.3 Whorf’s Studies on Hopi and Mayan Languages Some of Whorf’s writings are related to his research on the Hopi and Mayan languages and cultures. This section is keeping an eye on three essays written in the mid-1930s and the 1940s in Carroll’s collection of Whorf’s work: “An American Indian Model of the Universe”, “A Linguistic Consideration of Thinking in Primitive Communities” and “Decipherment of the Linguistic Portion of the Maya Hieroglyphs”. As we all know, Whorf’s most famous contribution to linguistic theory is his emphasis on the relationship between language and worldview. As Liu (2002, p. 158) describes about Whorf’s linguistic relativity, we see the world in the way that our language describes it, so that the world we live in is a linguistic construct. Whorf believed that the Hopi language and culture contains a theory of the structure of the universe which he often called “metaphysics”. In Whorf’s illuminating study of the Hopi, such a structure is particularly evident when it is carefully examined by someone whose native language is entirely different from it. “Thus, the Hopi language and culture conceals a METAPHYSICS, such as our so-called naïve view of space and time does, or as the relativity theory does; yet it is different metaphysics from either”(Carroll, 1956, p. 58). For Whorf, the aim of linguistic analysis is to depict such a worldview. In his paper “An American Indian Model of the Universe”, it is not difficult to see that Whorf made a detailed statement about the Hopi’s time and space compared with the English structures and system. He affirmed that “after long and careful study and analysis, the Hopi language is seen to contain no words, grammatical forms, constructions or expressions that refer directly to what we call ‘time’ or to past, present, or future…”(Carroll, 1956, p. 57). Therefore, “In this Hopi view, time disappears and space is altered, so that it is no longer the homogenous and instantaneous timeless space of our supposed intuition or of classical Newtonian mechanics”(Carroll, 1956, p. 58). In refuting the traditional view that the Hopi is flawed metaphysics, Whorf summarized that their cultural assumptions or ideas as reflected in their own language illustrated an awareness of time and space which are totally different from that of speakers of English. In other words, there existed different ways of knowing the Hopi and the English speakers. Because Whorf argued that consciousness was determined culturally, and not genetically, he claimed that one could have an understanding of the consciousness of the speakers of a language by a systematic study of their language. Still ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 229 take metaphysics for example, in Whorf’s opinion, “the metaphysics underlying our own language[English], thinking, and modern culture (I speak not of the recent and quite different relativity metaphysics of modern science) imposes upon the universe two grand COSMIC FORMS, space and time…”(Carroll, 1956, p. 59). In Hopi, on the other hand, Whorf accounted for the phenomenon that there were also two grand cosmic forms: objective and subjective. From Whorf’s explanation, objective was “all that is or has been accessible to the senses, the historical physical universe, in fact, with no attempt to distinguish between present and past, but including everything that we call future”(Carroll, 1956, p. 59). The subjective, Whorf maintained, contained “everything that appears or exists in the mind” or the own expression of the Hopi “HEART”. From the above statements, it may be deduced without difficulty that people with different languages have got different ways of looking at the world. Included in the anthology by Carroll, the essay “Decipherment of the Linguistic Portion of the Maya Hieroglyphs” shows Whorf’s interest in the American Indian language, the Mayan language. The essay, which was read before the Section on Anthropological Sciences of the English American Scientific Congress, was aimed at deciphering a brief extract from one of three Maya codices. As Whorf argued, the Maya writing system was represented by a group of signs and combination of signs denoting a particular subject matter(see more in the anthology by Carroll ,1956, pp. 17374). To be specific, those signs refer to numerals, period of time, and terms of the calendar. Whorf observed that mathematical relations were found between the signs and a system of mathematics was constituted by the use of those signs. Whorf, however, paid attention to the grammatical or linguistic relations instead of the mathematical one. Thus, Whorf’s examples of decipherment in his essay were 23 symbols which were chosen from the several hundreds found in the whole Maya literature. Besides the reading of a few individual words, he led us to read a short sentence written in Maya hieroglyphs. Naturally, he put the sentence into English. In terms of his efforts made to decipher the individual symbols and translate the short sentence from Maya into English, Whorf summarized as follows: The importance of this decipherment and translation is quite independent of the interest or lack of interest of the subject matter. As far as concerns the information which this translation gives us about the Maya, or about its own subject matter, it is quite trivial; it is no more than we could have gathered from the pictures alone. Its importance is linguistic and philological—linguistic because it gives information about the structure of a language, as far as the writing can express it, at a certain period of past time; philological because it is precedent to the study of a literature and of culture as reflected in this literature, at a period of past time and in a historical context and perspective. (Carroll, 1956, p. 195) Whorf did believe that once the scholars overcame the linguistic difficulties in the process of decipherment and translation, the study actually became more and more philological. If so, the individual Maya hieroglyphs and grammar would surely play a dominant role not only in reading but also in comprehending “the allusions, the references, the nonlinguistic contexts, the cultural patterns” which he called philology. But Whorf, at the same time, emphasized that linguistics was prior to philology. “Only in this way can we ever hope to understand the history and culture of the Maya” (Carroll, 1956, p. 198). Whorf’s definition of covert categories plays an important role in helping people understand the deeper meaning of such a language as Hopi. In his statement, it is because the interaction of the overt categories and covert categories that people understand the language better. The covert categories are more important that overt categories if people want to explore the internalized meaning of a language. 3. Whorf and contrastive linguistics The previous researches seldom concentrate on Whorf’s notion towards contrastive linguistics. Actually, contrastive method is a major way for Whorf to investigate the different languages and, because of the use of this, his goal of contrasting English and Hopi is achieved. Although Whorf is not the first to give an exact definition of contrastive linguistics in the academic circle, his devotions to contrastive linguistics are never ignored. 3.1 Whorf’s Definition of Contrastive Linguistics Whorf did not express too much on the subject of contrastive linguistics in his essays. Only when reading his paper “Language and Logic”, do we find that Whorf distinguished “comparative linguistics” and “contrastive linguistics”. He wrote: Botanists and zoologists, in order to understand the world of living species, found it necessary to describe the species in every part of the globe and to add a time perspective by including the fossils. Then they found it necessary to compare and contrast the species, to work out families and classes, evolutionary descent, morphology, and taxonomy. In linguistic science a similar attempt is under way. The far-off event toward which this attempt moves is a new technology of language and thought. Much progress has been made in classifying the languages of earth into genetic families, each having descent from a single precursor, and in tracing such developments through time. The result is called “comparative linguistics.” Of even greater importance for the future technology of thought is what might be called “contrastive linguistics.” This plots the outstanding differences among tongues—in grammar, logic, and general analysis of experience. (Carroll f, 1956, p. 240) Obviously, contrastive linguistics is derived from comparative linguistics. As a matter of fact, it is because of this great distinction between “comparison” and “contrast” that “contrastive linguistics” finally formed and developed. As far as Whorf is concerned, researchers have made great advances in the classification of the languages across the world. Great attention has been drawn to the origin and the diachronic developments of each language. The researchers aim to find the changes of a language from its past to the present time or perhaps during a certain period of time. However, ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 230 great importance is attached to the term “contrastive linguistics” which investigates the huge differences among languages in grammatical structures, logic and experience. My understanding is that the shift from comparative linguistics to contrastive linguistics means a revolutionary step, which may help linguists find more similarities and differences across languages so as to establish a link among them. 3.2 Whorf’s Contributions to Contrastive Linguistics Whorf naturally arrived at several conclusions based on his linguistic relativity. Firstly, in order to have an understanding of human’s wisdom, it is of necessity to study and contrast a variety of languages, especially those which are extremely distinctive in nature because diversity exists in languages and human’s thinking modes. In his paper, “science and linguistics,” Whorf claimed: If a rule has absolutely no exceptions, it is not recognized as a rule or as anything else; it is then part of the background of experience of which we tend to remain unconscious. Never having experienced anything in contrast to it, we cannot isolate it and formulate it as a rule until we so enlarge our experience and expand our base of reference that we encounter an interruption of its regularity. (Carroll, 1956, p. 209) Again he added: When linguistics became able to examine critically and scientifically a large number of languages of widely different patterns, their base of reference was expanded; they experienced an interruption of phenomena hitherto held universal, and a whole new order of significances came into their ken. (Carroll, 1956, p. 212) Secondly, Whorf was then worried about the contrastive linguistics which focused on the Indo-European languages on which the formation of one tongue was based. The rather startling conclusion is not so apparent if we compare only our modern European languages, with perhaps Latin and Greek thrown in for good measure. Among these tongues, there is unanimity of major pattern which at first seems to bear out natural logic. But this unanimity exists only because these tongues are all IndoEuropean dialects cut to the same basic plan, being historically transmitted from what was long ago one speech community; because the modern dialects have long shared in building up a common culture; and because much of this culture, on the more intellectual side, is derived from the linguistic backgrounds of Latin and Greek. Thus this group of language satisfies the special case of the clause beginning “unless” in the statement of the linguistic relativity principle at the end of the preceding paragraph. (Carroll, 1956, p. 240) This passage implies that modern European languages belong to the same family and they all date back to one speech community. As time went by, they formed a common culture. Whatever aspects the researchers study those languages, one fact they cannot neglect is that all those languages they focus on are derived from Latin and Greek. If they do so, they may be confused by the research direction of the contrastive linguistics. Whorf even mentioned that when “modern Chinese or Turkish scientists describe the world in the same terms as Western scientists” do, they have not corroborated from their native posts of observation. Rather, “they have taken over bodily the entire Western system of rationalizations”. Thus, he severely criticized the idea that in the future the world would be governed in one language. He further stated: For this reason I believe that those who envision a future world speaking only one tongue, whether English, German, Russian, or any other, hold a misguided ideal and would do the evolution of human mind the greatest disservice. Western culture has made, through language, a provisional analysis of reality and, without correctives, hold resolutely to that analysis as final. The only correctives lie in all those other tongues which by acons of independent evolution have arrived at different, but equally logical, provisional analyses. (Carroll 1956, p. 244) Thirdly, Whorf concluded that in conducting contrastive research and analysis among languages, those languages which are structurally different from our mother tongue, English, had to be selected. He wrote: But the difficulty of appraising such a far-reaching influence is great because of its background character, because of the difficulty of standing aside from our own language, which is a habit and a cultural non est disputandum, and scrutinizing it objectively. And if we take a very dissimilar language, this language becomes a part of nature, and we even do to it what we have done to nature. We tend to think in our own language in order to examine the exotic language. Or we find the task of unraveling the purely morphological intricacies so gigantic that it seems to absorb all else. Yet the problem, though difficult, is feasible; and the best approach is through an exotic language, for in its study we are at long last pushed wily-nilly out of our ruts. Then we find that the exotic language is a mirror held up to our own. (Carroll, 1956, pp. 137-138) With these statements, the writer is going to lead the readers to look at Whorf’s most thoroughgoing examples. By reading his essays, it is known to us that Whorf approached the empirical studies of his view that language may influence thought into two ways: firstly, the typical Boasian method of contrastive analysis of individual examples in particular languages; and secondly, a comprehensive and detailed comparison of a set of linguistic systems in two languages, with the aim of reaching such conclusions that the differences in languages may lead to different modes of habitual thinking, the conceptualization of experience, of their speakers. In order to provide an illustration of his first research method, he contrasted Shawnee, an Algonkian language of eastern North America, and English. Shawnee has two verbs, both of which based on the same root. If they are translated into English, the two meanings of the two words are different. It seems that the two English sentences have nothing in common in that they are expressed in two ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 231 different verbs. According to Whorf, it was because of these differences in the selection of verbs that English speakers are unlikely to conceptualize these expressions as having much in common. Nevertheless, in Shawnee, the same verb root is used, making its speakers to conceptualize the expressions as quite similar. Based on the above study, I think that translation must be a thorny problem for communication. House(2000, p.73) once suggested that if languages display such striking grammatical differences ,and if-as Whorf maintains-linguistic form has a truly “tyrannical hold” upon our way of thinking and perceiving, one might conclude that the theoretical possibility of translating , either from and into SAE and American Indian languages , or from and into many other languages, seems to be denied. According to Whorf, the grammatical differences will actually predispose speakers of Shawnee and English to conceptualize them in different terms, Shawnee as alike, English as unlike: “facts are unlike to speakers whose language background provides for unlike formation of them” (Carroll, 1956, p. 235). In his essay, “The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behaviour to Language” (Carroll, 1956, pp. 134-59), a global comparison of linguistic systems in two languages, the Hopi and English, and habitual ways of thinking shown in cultural practice is found. In his essay, Whorf contrasted the linguistic patterns and habitual thought or experience of Hopi with what those of he calls Standard Average European (SAE), holding the view that few differences were found among English and other European languages in terms of the characteristics that he is studying. Whorf contrasted English and Hopi with respect to the grammatical category of number, pointing out that the plural category in English applies to both perceptually tangible objects, like men and imaginary groupings, such as cycles, like days, which are never perceptually tangible. Whorf’s elaboration of this can be found next: In our language, that is SAE, plurality and cardinal numbers are applied in two ways: to real plurals and imaginary plurals. Or more exactly if less tersely: perceptible spatial aggregates and metaphorical aggregates. We say ‘ten men’ and also ‘ten days.’ Ten men either are or could be objectively perceived as ten, ten in one group perception—ten men on a street corner, for instance. But ‘ten days’ cannot be objectively experienced. We experience only one day, today; the other nine (or even all ten) are something conjured up from memory or imagination. If ‘ten days’ be regarded as a group it must be as an “imaginary,” mentally constructed group. Whence comes form this mental pattern? Just as in the caste of the fire-causing errors, from the fact that our language confuses the two different situations, has but one pattern for both. When we speak of ‘ten steps forward, ten strokes on a bell,’ we are doing the same thing as with ‘days.’ CYCLICITY brings the response of imaginary plurals. But a likeness of cyclicity to aggregates is not unmistakably given by experience prior to language, or it would be found in all languages, and it is not. (Carroll, 1956, p. 139) Whorf’s description presents Hopi as being fundamentally different. The grammatical categories of plurals and cardinals are only used with nouns referring to object-like entities while ordinals are used to count the tensors: “first day,” “second day,” “third day,” and the like. Whorf presented a summary of this thus： In Hopi there is a different linguistic situation. Plurals and cardinals are used only for entities that form or can form an objective group. There are no imaginary plurals, but instead ordinals used with singulars. (Carroll, 1956, p. 140) According to Whorf, when the Hopi speakers count, they are not counting the actual number of objects, but counting successive reappearance of the same thing. Whorf explained this as such: Time is mainly reckoned “by day”(talk,-tala)or “by night” (tok), which words not nouns but tensors, the first formed on a root “light, day,” the second on a root “sleep.” The count is by ORDINALS. This is not the pattern of counting a number of different men or things, even though they appear successively, for, even then, they COULD gather into an assemblage. It is the pattern of counting successive reappearances of the SAME man or thing, incapable of forming an assemblage. The analogy is not to behave about day-cyclicity as to several men (“several days”), which is what WE tend to do, but to behave as to the successive visits of the SAME MAN. (Carroll, 1956, p. 148) Whorf provided some evidence to believe that English speakers conceive of units of temporal intervals as countable tangible objects. He noticed that the “fashion of speaking” that English speakers use to talk about time clearly exhibited this conceptualization (Whorf, 1956, pp.152-156): we spend /save/lose/buy time; time is money; I never have enough time. Besides, Whorf claimed that our very conception of history is due to our conception of objectivized time: But OUR objectified time puts before imagination something like a ribbon or scroll marked off into equal spaces, suggesting that each can be filled with an entry. Writing has no doubt help toward our linguistic treatment of time, even as the linguistic treatment has guided the uses of writing. Through this give-and-take between language and the whole culture we get, for instance: 1. Records, diaries, bookkeeping, accounting, mathematics stimulated by accounting. 2. Interest in exact sequence, dating, calendars, chronology, clocks, time wages, time graphs, time as used in physics. 3. Annals, histories, the historical attitude, interest in the past, archaeology, attitudes of introjection toward past periods, e.g. classicism, romanticism. (Carroll, 1956, p. 153) Hopi culture shows a different conceptualization according to Whorf. It is known that their view of time intervals is of ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 232 cycles repeating the same man or thing. Hence, each day is not in nature different from the last. That is why Hopi society does not understand the English proverb “tomorrow is another day”. In their understanding, the return of the day is the same as the return of the same person. Unlike the English speakers who pay attention to change, they lay emphasis on the continuity and persistence. After his intensive and detailed comparative study of English and Hopi linguistic and cultural patterns and their habitual thinking, Whorf is led to draw the following conclusion: Concepts of “time” and “matter” are not given in substantially the same form by experience to all men but depend upon the nature of the language or languages through the use of which they have been developed. They do not depend so much upon ANY ONE SYSTEM (e.g. tense, or nouns) within the grammar as upon the ways of analyzing and reporting experience which have become fixed in the language as integrated “fashion of speaking” and which cut across the typical grammatical classifications, so that such a “fashion” may include lexical, morphological, syntactic, and otherwise systematically diverse means coordinated in a certain frame of consistency. (Carroll, 1956, p. 158) From what we have read in Whorf’s original works, we may easily find that those ideas mentioned above constitute the fundamental contents of Whorf’s notion towards contrastive linguistics. The writer here cites Pan Wenguo and Tan Huimin(2005) as saying that contrastive research, to a large extent, strays too far from Whorf’s initial ideas mainly because the researchers opted the languages similar to their own language as objectives consequently little differences were found among the languages. Recently the writer read monograph concerning Chinese linguistics in which the author makes an effort to differentiate Chinese from English . in his choices of research objects, we see that those languages are different in nature and do not belong to the same familiy(see more in Shen Xiaolong’s monograph). In summary, Whorf maintained that linguists had studied the Indo-European languages for such a long time that they might use the generalized “formulas” to handle relations with other languages which have a “superficial similarity” with Indo-European languages but actually differ greatly from them. Thus contrastive analysis of different languages in nature is the core of Whorf’s study and contrastive study of languages is his methodology throughout his research activities. . Whorf and psycholinguistics Sapir (1921)had asserted that languages are diverse in the way that they structure reality, but he did not fully developed this thesis that these linguistic differences may have influence upon certain modes of thought(Carroll, 2008, p.396). As far as the studies on Whorf are concerned, some of them are focusing on his ideas from the psychological aspect. Whorf himself once said that he was the first man to recognize the submerged layer of meaning. Thus, since his time, quite a few psycholinguists have concerned with the more deeply convolved aspects of grammatical structures. Whorf’s insight into psycholinguistics can be seen in his essay “A Linguistic Consideration of Thinking in Primitive Communities” in which he explored mainly the interrelationships among language, culture and cognition. In this essay, Whorf first criticized the research limitations of ethnologists, who studied a primitive community, arguing that what they emphasized was not the psychological aspects but seemingly easier matters when it comes to the questions: “What do these people think? How do they think? Are their intellectual and rational process akin to ours or radically different?” (Carroll, 1956, p. 65). Meanwhile, Whorf added that the study of a native community from psychology alone was not enough and the problem of thought and thinking was fundamentally cultural. To be more specific, Whorf regarded thought and thinking as a “cohesive aggregate of cultural phenomena” which was defined as a language. With this point, we find that Whorf would like to investigate thinking through linguistics. In Whorf’s opinion, the research was best approached through the joint efforts of linguists such as Franz Boas, Leonard Bloomfield and Edward Sapir. Whorf also focused his attention on the work of the psychologists, one of whom was Carl Jung who distinguished four basic psychic functions. According to Jung, two psychic functions were rational: thinking and feeling; and two were irrational: sensation and tuition. Whorf further explained those four functions and categorized them from either linguistic or nonlinguistic perspectives. He affirmed that “it is evident to a linguist that thinking defined by Jung, contains a large linguistic element of strictly patterned nature, while feeling is mainly nonlinguistic, though it may be a vehicle of language” (Carroll, 1956, p. 66). After his conclusion that sensation and intuition were nonlinguistic and that feeling was mostly non-linguistic, he maintained that language played a pivotal role in the process of thinking and it was the means to understand the psychic function of thinking, “we are thus able to distinguish thinking as the function which is to a large extent linguistic” (Carroll, 1956, p. 66). Whorf then made a mention of SILENT thinking (thinking without speaking). He claimed that silent thinking was seldom discussed deeply. Traditionally, people thought silent thinking was no more than suppressed talking or some mumble words, a view which is similar to the linguistically simple “common sense”. The latter does not realize that talking itself means using a culturally complicated structure system. As is known to all, sense or meaning is not actually a pile of words or morphemes, but they are from the “patterned relations” between words or morphemes (Carroll, 1956, p. 67). According to Whorf, words and morphemes were only motor reactions. Once they were used to make up the categories and patterns on which linguistic meanings dwelled, the words and morphemes were not motor reactions, a process which the individuals did not observe. After the elaborate analyses of the relations between words or morphemes and thought, Whorf drew such a conclusion that: It is not words mumbled, but RAPPORT between words, which enables them to work together at all to any ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 233 semantic result. It is this rapport that constitutes the real essence of thought insofar as it is linguistic, and that in the last resort renders the mumbling, laryngeal quiverings, etc., semantically de trop. (Carroll, 1956, p. 67) Subsequently, Whorf pointed out that the real analysis of language relied on scientific grammar, not on motor quiverings corresponding to suppressed words and morphemes, or on actual words and morphemes. An example concerning gender in English is given. “He” and “she” are only motor reactions of the English gender pronouns. The gender nouns, such as boy, girl, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother, husband, wife, including tens of thousands of given names like Tim, Tom, Jack, Lucy, Lily, Diana cannot be seen obviously by their forms, that is, they have no apparent grammatical mark of gender. But the speakers of the English language can readily divided them into the proper “he” or “she” group. Of course they need not do so intentionally but on these occasions where a special discourse really needs the speakers’ clear classification. Why is it so? Whorf argued that it was because of this linkage-bond that each of the thousands of gender nouns was connected exactly with the word “he” or the word “she.” Whorf explored it from the psychological stand, concluding that: These thousands of linkage processes rallying around the common point of the pronoun and ramifying to all the thousands of nouns of one gender form a sort of psychic complex belonging to (1) the nonmotor and nonactualized realm, (2) the thinking function in Jung’s definition, (3) the linguistic and cultural order. (Carroll, 1956, p. 68) Whorf did not go further to give a full account of the mechanisms of such a complex. He just affirmed that habitual consciousness was a dominant factor in classifying two sex classes. And then, his descriptions of overt and covert categories, which are discussed at large in the previous section, have been appreciated by a number of psychologists and linguists, one of whom is Penny Lee whose comments on Whorf’s “cryptotype, psycholinguistic patterning”(Carroll , 1956, p. 74) are: No one to my knowledge, however, has commented on the possibility that had Whorf lived to clarify and elaborate his ideas on ‘psycholinguistic patterning’, psycholinguistics might have developed with very different characteristics to the discipline which did eventually emerge under that name. (Lee, 1996, p. 160) Whorf stressed that “Awareness of psychological undercurrents is the last thing to arrive in the conquest of linguistic understanding, both in the individual and in history” (Carroll, 1956, p. 73). To document this assertion, Whorf sketched a history of linguistics stressing that the idea of “psycholinguistic patterning and language as part and parcel of a culture” (Carroll, 1956, p. 74) was ignored until d’Olivet. According to Whorf, from the ancients to d’Olivet, linguistics could be characterized as mere dealing with “formal and overt structures” (Carroll, 1956, p. 74). He also credited d’Olivet with reorganizing “the treatment of verb conjugations on a psycholinguistic basis” Carroll (1956, p. 75). Whorf acknowledged the scholarship of a James Byrne (1820-1897), an Irish scholar “who independently found, or thought he found, a correlation between language structures and two types of mentality, one quick-reacting, quickthinking, and volatile, the other slow reacting, slow-thinking, but more profound and phlegmatic” (Carroll, 1956, p. 77). However, Whorf concluded that Byrne could not “have a sui generis configurative report on language as d’Olivet had done” (Carroll, 1956, p. 77). Whorf claimed that Boas in his handbook of American Indian languages (1911) “showed for the second time in history, but for the first time in a scientific manner, how a language could be analyzed sui generis and without forcing the categories of ‘classical’ tradition upon it” (Carroll, 1956, p. 78). In the third part of this essay, Whorf maintained that the linguistic survey of thinking in the primitive communities was significant for anthropology in two respects. First, the investigators with both ethnological and psychological-linguistic backgrounds were encouraged to carry out such a survey in order to achieve a fertilizing effect on one another. Such a combination of the two may lead to a successful analysis of the discovery made by ethnologists that the Hopi speak about clouds in their rain prayers, etc., as if clouds were alive into a grammar which can explore the deeper meaning of the linguistic form. With this, Whorf was led to the following conclusion: Language thus should be able to analyze some, if probably not all, of the differences, real or assumed, between the mentality of so-called primitive peoples and modern civilized man. (Carroll, 1956, pp. 79-81) These are all questions, essentially anthropological, to which a liaison between ethnology and psychological linguistics would seem to offer the soundest approach. Second, the reason why linguistic consideration of thinking in primitive communities is of significance for anthropology is that it is closely related with the future development of the human being. Whorf embraced the view that “the future developments of thinking are of primary importance to the human species” (Carroll ,1956, p. 83). There are possibilities that are open to thinking and that are inevitably bound up with systems of linguistic expression. It is with those possibilities that people recognize relationships at the mental or intellectual level. As time goes by, the relationships will become much wider, more significant. Obviously, Whorf argued that it was of necessity to exercise the linguistic consideration of thinking because the knowledge that the survey unlocked was not confined to the academic circles and it might exert great influence on the history. We may find that Whorf’s linguistic research has gone beyond language itself. Superficially, he explored some individual examples of Hopi, but actually, he aimed to find out the internalized meaning of the linguistic forms, which exactly manifests his philosophy of language. ALLS 7(1):226-234, 2016 234 5. Conclusion Although nearly a century passed after the year Benjamin Lee Whorf was born, his theory complex is of great interest to linguists and researchers. Whorf’s arguments have evoked a great many heated discussions and disputes in the academic circle. However, according to Lee (1996, 2000), the linguistic relativity is just part of Whorf’s abundant ideas. Apart from the relativity principle, Whorf’s ideas are interpreted in many domains. Specifically, Whorf actually explored the relationship between language and thought in such interdisciplinary fields as anthropological linguistics, contrastive linguistics and psycholinguistics. With these, Whorf’s ideas are presented in some different perspectives. Although Whorf died young and did not leave as many paper as we had expected, he propelled us to set foot upon a number of domains with relation to linguistics. It is with his great contribution that we are able to begin to explore deeper in those fields. References Carroll, D. W. (2008). Psychology of language. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Carroll, J. B. (Ed.). (1956). Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT press. Chomsky, N.(2012). The Minimalist Program. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press; The MIT Press. Foley, W. A. (2001). Anthropological linguistics: An introduction. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. House, J. (2000). Linguistic relativity and translation. In M. Putz & M. H. Verspoor (Eds.), Explorations in linguistic relativity (PP. 69-88). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lee, P. (1996). The Whorf theory complex. Amsterdam and Philedelaphia: John Benjamins. Lee, P. (2000). When is ‘linguistic relativity’ Whorf’s linguistic relativity? In M. Putz & M. H. Verspoor (Eds.), Explorations in linguistic relativity (PP. 45-68). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Liu, R. Q. & Feng, Z. X. (2002). The theories and schools of linguistics. Nanjing: Nanjing Normal University Press. Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace Sapir, E. (1964). Conceptual categories in primitive languages. In Hymes, D.(ed), p.128 Wardhaugh, R. (2000). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Pan，W. G & Tan, H. M.（潘文国， 谭慧敏），2005,《对比语言学：历史与哲学思考》，上海：上海教育出版 社。 Shen, X.L. (申小龙)， 2008，《汉语与中国文化》,上海：复旦大学出版社. Yao, X.P.（姚小平）, 2002,人类语言家沃尔夫的遗产—读《论语言、思维和现实》,《外语教学与研究》(1)： 75-77. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story: Echo/es of Contemporary Subversive Culture Naqibun Nabi (Corresponding author) Department of English, Comilla University Kotbari, Comilla-3506, Bangladesh E-mail: nabi0462@gmail.com Firoz Ahmed Department of English, Comilla University Kotbari, Comilla-3506, Bangladesh E-mail: firozahmed093@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.235 Received: 14/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.235 Accepted: 21/12/2015 Abstract The post-world war II American social and cultural setting was ambiguously featured with enforced conformity in the name of prosperity and Americanization of the nation. Despite of this fact, American writers, especially, dramatists conveyed their message against this fixation through variety and intellectuality. Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story is one of those literary assets which dedicatedly cut through the illusions of contemporary American social and cultural ethos. Here, his characters are seen struggling constantly with their insecurities and existential angst in the society. He presents America, the so-called ‘Land of Free and Home of Braves’ (note 1), in such a portrayal that unveils the traps of cages and confinement underneath. The target of this paper is to trace Edward Albee’s heightened awareness about the postwar American socio-cultural reality evident in The Zoo Story. It also looks for the voice in which the text echoes out the anti-communist, materialistic, gender-coded boundaries, coupled with paradoxical media representations, religious bordering and how Albee challenges these issues with an anti-establishment tone. Keywords: subversive culture, anti-communism, media, religion and homosexuality 1. Introduction Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story potentially opens a chance to be interpreted as a critique of the American society, and its ambiguous dominant culture. In The Zoo Story Albee presents two characters who belong to two different far ends of the same post-war American society. Peter, seemingly comfortable in his own social status, is passing an undisturbed afternoon at New York central park, when suddenly, Jerry, the other protagonist, intrudes amidst Peter’s solitary moments. Eventually, Jerry invokes Peter to listen to his very own story and through their further conversation both of them come across to experience the absurd ‘zoo’ world. Finally, Jerry provokes Peter in many ways to face the realities unknown to him which results into uncovering the mask that Peter’s contemporary American society has been wearing. Albee’s target was to criticize the contemporary socio-cultural falsity through Jerry and Peter’s encounter. The ‘zoo’ referred by Jerry is the symbolic representation of the contemporary society where individuals are condemned into cages made of dominant social and cultural norms, values, traditions and beliefs that deceptively overlook controversial issues of post-war American society, for instance, ravishing consumerism, class distinction, minority issues, civil rights, and so on. Thus, at the end of the drama where Peter stabs Jerry to death, Jerry’s attempt was to unleash the animal inside of Peter which indicates the dehumanization process of American society formulated by the politicized cultural embodiments. In the post war decades, America was constantly changing on political, social, cultural strands as Fredrick R. Karl (2004) says, “change was becoming so much more rapid that it could no longer be readily assimilated. The sheer pace of change was so disruptive; it was soon conflated with loss of values or associated with conspiracy and subversion” (p.24). Apparently, the society seemed culturally conservative reflecting traditional and religious beliefs like church, community, marriage, and family. However, the ambiguity was evident when these beliefs were being disseminated publicly through media and cultural embodiments to serve two very deceptive purposes. One was to confirm unquestionable conformity in anti-communist nationalistic view of new America, so that it can easily manipulate the public to adopt a capitalistic consumer culture. The second purpose was to disregard the ‘other America’ created inside the new post-war America that constantly came up with issues for instance, civil rights, women rights, gay and lesbian rights and religious rights. A counter culture against the establishment rose up at that time, which was strategically disregarded by the contemporary socio-cultural practices, to represent the questionable issues into unquestionable ones, as “the civil rights, poisonous racial and minority issues and run away corporate power would expose all the fault lines of the country” (Karl, 2004, p.23). Like his contemporary literary companions Allen Ginsberg, Tennessee Williams, ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 236 Arthur Miller, O’Neil and many others, Edward Albee also ventured in that post war American society, particularly in the decades of 50s and 60s, experienced that ‘other America’ which was most obviously initiated from the new subversive cultural patterns radically created from the new establishments of post-war American socio-cultural platform. Albee’s early one-act plays were “attacking the cherished myths of his own country” (Kolin, 2005, p.16). His characters in The Zoo Story are alienated from their society and sometimes from their own selves, as a consequence of the modernist extravagant culture of materialism and social classes. Therefore, “Albee’s targets were materialism, racism, artificial values, complacency, lack of communication, and the debilitating effects of illusions”. (Kolin, 2005, p.16) This paper attempts to study, particularly, the subversive post-World War II American society and its culture echoing in Edward Albee’s play The Zoo Story. Major political turning points, rapid modern approaches to life styles, evolving social ethos, media uprising with the permanence of the wonder machine called television, and burning issues regarding gender and sexuality were the identifying features of 50s and 60s in America. The process of Americanization was in pursuit under these events and issues. The Zoo Story tries to look underneath this cloak of Americanization to reinterpret it from a different angle to show how much distorted the society and its norms are. The foremost concern of this paper is to identify and address echo/es like, anti-communist political attitude fostering capitalistic conformity, television used as a weapon to politicize the representation of Americanization in an unquestionable way, minority issues created through sexual and even religious preferences in the text to understand the contemporary socio-cultural context. 2. Echo/es of Anti-communist, Capitalist, and Patriarchic Cultural Attitudes Bigsby asserts that The Zoo Story is “socially derived” (as cited in Horn, 2009, p.82), as Albee wrote it in his early career during the post-war period. However, as the time was critical for America, major changes were occurring in a very fast pace particularly in 50s and 60s. Though the war was over and hope for future was there but the cold war against Soviet Union was brewing tension. In the early 50s republican senator Joseph McCarthy and his infamous army ‘Red Scare’ launched a crusade against communism and its allies. The rampant of McCarthyism ran almost all over America, leaving a deep trail over the political history of America. The anti-communist crusade and a dubious public sentiment regarding it affected the socio-cultural life of post-war America. Hunting down the ‘godless’ communists, stopped and made people afraid about supporting any kind of ethos or conception related to communism which paved the way to absolute conformity under anti-communist command. Karl (2004) notes, “Such establishments created radically new cultural patterns with often undesirable consequences” (p.31). It was quiet alarming as Karl (2004) states again, “America was becoming more conservative more reliant on traditional beliefs, even religious and more narrowly American, nationalistic even chauvinistic” (p.22). The cultural norm was to follow a coherent and homogeneous lifestyle, based on a promise of American prosperity. People started their post-war life with traditional and conservativeness along with homogeneous codes by means of church, community and family inspired by authority. The American masculine ethos of patriarchal society also helped to conform readily to these cultural codes unquestionably. So, the anti-communist political chauvinism, homogeneous social, cultural and religious codes of lifestyle, the patriarchal psyche and heteronormative identity made American people fixed to the process of Americanization which confirms the participation in undoubted conformity to American dream and prosperity. Karl (2004) proclaims about the period that there “is a sense of counterfeit, the deceptive, the fraudulent, the artificial and the imitation” (p.21), which reveals the ambiguous and double faced construction of ethos and codes of American culture and society. Finally, Karl (2004) presumes “the final legacy of McCarthyism was that government had proved itself the enemy of government, an idea which escalated in the 60s into the counterculture.” (p. 36). Thus, the existence of a divergent anti-establishment cultural stand can be assumed in that period. “Such discontent began to merge with a more widespread rebellion in the early 60s” (Karl, 2004, p. 36), regarding ethnic, gender and sexuality based identity issues, civil rights issues; paradoxical homogeneity which started personifying that counterculture. Edward Albee experienced and caught that fire of 50s and 60s in his early plays. In The Zoo Story, as Kolin (2005) states, “Albee’s voice was distinctively American, pressing for social change and reform.” (p.17). And as a critique of the ambiguous and double faced construction of American cultural code in his society, Albee’s works were remarked as the “modern capacity for ugliness, hate and evil, Albee’s plays seem to say, lurks beneath the well-brushed veneer of post-war American society” (Bell, 2004, p.124). More indicatively, Kolin (2005) remarks “The Zoo Story politically pummeled American conformity with scathing satire and ideological fervor” (p.16) that comes to meaning when Peter, the ‘bourgeoisie gentleman’ from the establishment, met with the ‘anti-establishment hero’, Jerry. On their first meeting, their social classes are prevalent through their attitudes and body language. The apparel with tweeds, hornrimmed glass smoking pipe and a book in hand determines Peter who is “dressed in the uniform of the indentured capitalist” (Kolin, 2005, p. 23) where Jerry’s “not poorly dressed but carelessly” (Albee, 1960, p. 22) attire suggests his rejection to any establishment code that demands order. Later, through Jerry’s chronic interrogation Peter’s modern lifestyle is apparent. Peter’s wife, daughters, pets, job, salary, fashionable house, favorite authors suggest Peter’s typicality as “a modern version, in middle class stereotype of everyman.”(Zimberdo, 1962, p.10) Thus, through Peter’s character exposition, the passive modern American cultural code of the post-war American society is manifested. On contrary, Jerry’s laughably small room, empty photo frames, eccentric neighbors, pornographic playing card set and extreme ‘need’ to talk really reveals him as someone who is “living on the margins of society” (Kolin, 2005, p.19). As the play illustrates, he is opposite to Peter, an example of anti-establishment, perhaps the victim of modern establishment and completely unable to conform to it as Peter does. ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 237 The post-war American socio cultural devotion to conservativeness and traditional values are also evident in Peter’s characterization when he admits his ‘catholic’ taste of reading, and when Peter rejects Jerry’s interrogation about his private sex life. Thus, Albee shows how the society chooses the individual’s choices according to its own fabrication in order to put the people like Peter into the compartmentalization process. As a victim of compartmentalization, Peter wants to confine himself in his self-made prison as he admits “I don’t express myself too well” (Albee, 1960, p. 27). To cover up his compartmentalization Peter “desires to build a world of illusion which furnishes an escape from his personal insufficiencies” (Haredasht, Hajjari and Shahidzadeh, 2015, p.15). He shrinks himself from Jerry when Jerry offered his story regarding landlady’s dog. Peter can understand neither the reason nor the emotion behind that dog’s story. Peter does not even care to listen because “Peter tries to avoid talking about any subject that has real relevance, anything that has roots penetrating the carefully prepared mask which he presents to the world, and even to himself ” (Zimberdo, 1962, p.11). Jerry’s anti-establishment and countercultural attitude is forbidden for Peter that shows his conformity to Americanization and admittance of the compartmentalization. Vorlicky (1995) says, “Peter’s manipulation in the speech act symbolizes… a withdrawal from temporal, spiritual or social reality” (p.125). As a consequence, “Peter does not acknowledge any relationship between his own needs and those of others until his personal survival is challenged” (Vorlicky, 1995, p.128). So, Peter’s violent self-defense for his materialistic possession (the bench) seems very natural because the relationship that has been reduced to power struggle also demands conscious sharing, sacrificing and communication with others who are more in need of those. However, the capitalistic American society denies this sharing and sacrificing only to confirm to the constant demand of materials and belongings in modern socio-cultural life. Vorlicky (1995) quotes Bigsby’s remark, “the play seems to stand as an indictment of materialism”. (p.127) The materialistic principal of the post-war America infused its culture with a capitalistic patriarchy as depicted through Peter’s sharp concern about his masculine identity. For Jerry this is another illusion in which Peter and contemporary Americans like him are entangled. And Jerry thinks “the only way to get through to them is by means of intruding their cage and making them aware of their false belief” (Haredasht, Hajjari and Shahidzadeh, 2015, p.17). Jerry insults Peter’s Masculine identity by devaluing Peter’s home, wife, children and all possessions. Jerry was “Hoping to jolt Peter out of his gender coded identity into a kind of primal confrontation, Jerry appeals to the ‘male animal’ within Peter.” (Vorlicky, 1995, p.126) Therefore, Jerry tries to probe and confront Peter’s masculine identity by taking possession of his regular bench. Through Jerry’s voice, “Albee intentionally questions not only Peter’s value but those of the capitalistic patriarchy into which American men are socialized.” (Vorlicky, 1995, p.127) In this test so far, Peter is the representative of the establishment, the conformed and imprisoned American soul while Jerry, the counterculture hero represents the ‘other America’ which was constantly in struggle with establishment. Jerry’s open, self-disclosing statements about his sexual preferences, his anti socio-cultural behavior towards both animal and human being, and his anti-capitalistic existence, all are meant to break the compartments created by society and culture, to reach modern Americanized souls like Peter. Thus, Jerry learns that modesty and being friendly are not enough; so, he applies cruelty to communicate with Peter. Vorlicky’s (1995) statement supports this as he says, “in a final effort to connect, Jerry assumes that Peter’s other side will respond to the power plays of violence” (p.126) whilst “Jerry on the other hand is seen as desperately desiring to ‘know’, to reach an understanding with another” (Nilan, 1973, p.55) Through Jerry’s anti-establishment attitude, his incapability to communicate with the establishment and alienation as result, Albee wanted to turn the spotlight towards the other, the disregarded or repressed corner of the post-war American society whose disappointment is represented through Jerry’s image. Albee’s The Zoo Story echoes out this subversive ambiguous socio-cultural attitude referred as establishment, as well as, show how a countercultural embodiment was also active in the social structure. He also challenges the vision of American audience that is constructed by the made-up illusions. 3. Re/constructed consciousness through media in The Zoo Story The presence of Albee’s critical view towards contemporary media in The Zoo Story manifests the dominance of media as a cultural factor, and its power of manipulation in constructing the capitalistic socio-cultural approach. When Peter referred to Time magazine, Jerry commented, “Time magazine is not for blockheads”. (Albee, 1960, p.24) Jerry’s comment criticizes media’s ability of creating boundaries socially and culturally. By creating differences between educated elite class, and the blockheads, the media patronizes the compartmentalization and the so-called normative behavior once again. By compartmentalizing and separating the self, media shapes a complex way of controlling. Thus, media acts like a representative of one portion of society and becomes the voice of heterosexual and normatively structured society. Shams and Pourgiv (2013) elucidates, “Between the years 1945-1960, America was a prosperous society where the consumer culture urged the Americans to compete for owning luxury items, homes, cars and televisions. Popular television presented an image of idyllic suburban prosperity. The TV shows of the time depicted white middle class nuclear families in which the father was an organization man, the wife looked after the family and home, and the traditional gender roles were maintained” (p.02) In post war America, by the popularity of television, a massive power to manipulate and subvert the socio-cultural pattern was emerged at that time. Peter admits in The Zoo Story that his family has two televisions in possession, which informs the growth and consumption of this machine regarded as a materialistic factor that confirms one’s social class and cultural identity. Television created a class consciousness “in the USA, at least, television viewing integrated ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 238 viewers into capitalistic society, by reinforcing its norms and marginalizing deliberative analysis” (During, 2005, p.115). Referring to Theodor Adorno’s argument on television During (2005) states again, “television reduced its audience’s capacities to reflect on and critique society and culture” (p.115). As a representative of the ‘establishment’, Peter’s life is also impregnated with television, and other media representations of American society that constructed him to conform more, and be unconscious about subjects like Jerry. Television imprints a profound image of standardized world in Peter’s life as well as the class conscious public. As During (2005) illustrates, “television possess a great power of seduction that the distinction between its dream world and the reality becomes confused” (p.115). The popular television programs in post war decades were designed to distract the public eye from major critical issues rising inside of society. Issues like, civil rights, women rights, minor community, religious preferences and other divergent issues were being controlled politically at that time, where media and television were used as a weapon to represent the ‘affluence’ America. This fabrication was meant to disregard those issues, and to pretend they do not exist at all. In Support to that, Bailey (2005) states, “While images presented by entertainment television on family, various comedy TV serials fostered the idea that the American life style made people happy, the real world did not reflect these idealistic family portraits”. (p.34). Therefore, the people were manipulated to live upon television’s impossible standards. And Peter, who lives a modern standard Americanized life style, in a sense, is inflicted by the television and media’s politicized representation of American hegemonic ideologies. Definitely, in the process to maintain that life style and fantasized world, consumerism and capitalism confirmed their place inside the socio-cultural pattern. Jerry criticizes this capitalistic media-represented fantasized world, when he comments on Peter’s knowledge about pornographic playing cards, “it’s that when you’re a kid, you use the cards as a substitute of a real experience and when you’re older you use real experience as a substitute for the fantasy” (Albee, 1960, p.32). In both ways, the fantasy remains the same and the demand and consumption of that fantasy is constant. Dr.Turki (2009) verifies, “to be murdered is more effective in media than to commit suicide” (p.9). Jerry’s urgency towards media coverage of his own death in a public place is presented as a protest by Albee. Jerry’s attempt to be seen in TV and published in news papers is the only way that he found to communicate with establishment and to be regarded by it as well. Dr.Turki (2009) remarks, “he wanted someone to kill him so that his death will be reported in the media, and in this way he will be identified” (p.9). Jerry’s dead body is the manifestation of the certain devalued social class that is, struggling with the modern capitalistic structure, patriarchy and heteronormativity. So, his death news, which may convey reasons also, would be a possible way to wake up the American socio-cultural consciousness that is spell-bounded and fantasized by the authority through media. 4. Sexuality in The Zoo Story The Zoo Story illustrates the world as a ‘zoo’, where an individual’s activity, especially sexuality, is limited to within the so-called fixed and universal ‘normative bars’ of the society that tries to define an individual from its own perspectives and interests rather than taking or allowing the individual’s perception and choices. Instead of considering individual’s sexuality “as a fluid, fragmented, dynamic collectivity of possible sexualities” (Tyson, 2006, p.335), the society tries to define individual’s sexuality through ‘heterosexuality’ as a part of social dominance, and hegemony. In this ‘zoo’ world, “heterosexuality is cultivated through prohibition, and these prohibitions take as one of their objects homosexual attachments, thereby forcing the loss of those attachments” (Butler, 1997, p.136). Jerry’s homosexual identity and his alienation caused by it, is remarked by Jaf and Zaihong (2014) stating, “Alienating a person ‘a being’ for their sexual preference is the root cause of social discrimination and labeling of ‘otherness’ ” (p.462). Thus, for both Albee and Jerry, this heterosexual world only sees other orientations of sexual desires of an individual as a ‘pervert’ or ‘savage’ activity, and tries to give a sense of ‘shame’ to its very own citizens, if their choice of determining their own sex and sexuality are not matched with the predefined social sexual behavior, for instance- Jerry downs his “head in shame that puberty was late…I (Jerry) was homosexual.” (Albee, 1960, p.31) With the intention of implementing heterosexuality as a normative sexual behavior, society tries to introduce its intention through many mediums as like ‘a pack of pornographic playing cards’ (Albee, 1960, p.29) that gives infantile sexual pleasure and fantasy to the kids or juvenile ones, as a matter of fact, they are very much suggestive to drive the kids’ psychology towards heterosexual pleasure. On contrary, when this heterosexual pleasure fails to meet up the desires of an individual, or, an individual makes his/her own choice, he or she becomes alienated from the society, as like, Jerry who lives at ‘a laughably small room’ in a ‘village’[Peter’s mockery] (Albee, 1960, p.28). Jerry’s heterosexual parents’ disastrous marriage sets a disharmonic overtone in his life, and his so-called savage and pervert nature make him a national enemy, who is very infectious and dangerous for the ‘heterosexual’ society. Because of one’s sexual behavior, the society keeps aside its individuals like Jerry from its mainstream face, and puts a shadow of discrimination between them and societal functions in its so-called free and open world. Bona (2004) elucidates, “In the United States after 1950, Joseph McCarthy's House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) classified homosexuals along with communists as dangerous, claiming that they were at risk of blackmail and therefore potential subversives who should be ostracized from government or made subject to punishment through incarceration.” (p.210) Albee puts an echo of the contemporary society in The Zoo Story that shows how the executive order 10450 of 1953, a bill uses sexual perversion as a ground to dismiss homosexual people from the federal and government position, affects the life style of the people like, Jerry, and being marginalized. Upon the basis of sexuality, the McCarthy commission declares a war against homosexual people and provides more opportunities to the Peter-type people, who enjoy much ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 239 more benefits by selling their heterosexual attitudes or killing the rights of others. As a counterpart of Jerry, Peter is a representative of heterosexual community, who has a typical family and his own zoo. Though homosexuality ‘seems perfectly simple to’ Peter, he doesn’t wish to negotiate or give same status to Jerry, for example- as a means of power struggle, Peter does not wish to give up the same ‘bench’ to Jerry, which he (Peter) thinks as his own belonging. The ‘zoo’ world is so eager and blind to take control over its own animals. It tries to define individual’s choices in their own perspectives, whether it works or not, they simply try to impose their own dogmas as bars. Sometimes, people get so much occupied by themselves to believe these so-called norms that they cannot understand other’s emotions that can be hurt in attempt to fulfilling those norms. In this drama, Hussein (2007) confirms, “She (the landlady) wants to use Jerry as the tool to satisfy all her sexual desire” (p.61). And she does it every day by repressing Jerry’s preference. Jerry becomes “the object of her (landlady) sweaty lust” (Albee, 1960, p.33). Here, the landlady’s mind is preoccupied by the fixed behavior that implies a man can find his pleasure in a woman’s body and vice versa. So, although Jerry was longing for human contact but he denies the landlady, because, “evasion on the part of Jerry and naïve imaginings of nonexistent sexual interactions cannot be deemed as human relations” (Hussein, 2007, p.61). Jerry is also in a hurry when he utters “I was queer… [Very fast] …queer, queer, queer” (Albee, 1960, p.31). This fast paced talk of Jerry indicates the anomaly of the current societal functions where expressing one’s own preference is intimidated. Therefore, Jerry being a queer is subjugated because, “to queer is to challenge heterosexuality as a naturalized social-sexual norm and …hegemony of ‘straight’ ideology” (Jaf and Zaihong, 2004, p.462). The ‘normal’ society considers this as ‘abnormal’. Thus, Jerry is thrown by the society in a place where “animals are indifferent to me (Jerry)…like people” (Albee,1960, p.35). Jerry is surrounded by a vacuum where he has to shout to someone in a park to make an interaction. Jerry shouts as, “I’ve been to the zoo. [PETER doesn’t notice.] I said, I’ve been to the zoo. MISTER, I’VE BEEN TO THE ZOO!” (Albee, 1960, p.23). It seems that Jerry is that animal who lives in a cage where he has the so-called freedom within his confinement, in Jerry’s voice: “I went to the zoo to find out more about the way people exist with animals, and the way each other, and with people too. It probably wasn’t a fair test, what with everyone separated by bars from everyone else, the animals for the most part from each other, and always the people from the animals. But, if it’s a zoo, that’s the way it is.” (Albee, 1960, p.43) As a counterpart of Jerry and a possessor of heterosexual societies, Peter regards the ‘bench’ as his own property as like his society sees the determination of gender and sexual behavior as its own rights. While there is an option to have a bench for each of them, he is ‘quivering’ and says that Jerry has “no right to take it away from” him. As like Peter, the contemporary society has no concern about “what other people need” (Albee, 1960, p.46) rather they try to ‘fight’ for the mere things and convert it into a power struggle. Homophobia grabs ‘GROWN-UP’ Peter so much that he tries to call policeman who are actually “all over on the west side of the park chasing fairies down from trees or out of the bushes”. (Albee, 1960, p.45) Additionally, ‘fairies’ is used as a slang word for queer people at that contemporary time. It seems Edward Albee’s Jerry tries to put his own very existence in front of Peter fostered by the idea, “we’re here, we’re queer – get used to it” (note 2), a famous queer slogan. Likewise, Jerry’s action appears to be inspired by Camus’ celebrated philosophy, “I rebel, therefore, we exist” as he fights for his existence and brings out the ‘animal’ part of Peter by being killed in Peter’s hand. Therefore Jerry actually dragged Peter down to his (Jerry) own level ,designed by peter’s society, to make him oriented with the queer identity. 5. Religious issues in The Zoo Story The ‘zoo’ world uses religion as one of the most effective bars corresponding to command to create control over people. Hussein (2007) comments, “Albee here, in the voice of his alienated character Jerry, expresses his indictment and accusation of the whole world including God” (p.63). On contrary, Albee depicted Peter as a believer in conservative religion that only permits heterosexual orientation and sees homosexual orientation as a sin to humanity. His society uses religion as a tool to separate the homosexuals from the society by giving different interpretations of the Biblical references. The contemporary religious institutes condemn homosexuality and say it is detestable, while Bible places love instead of taking love as the fulfillment of law. It bears the essence of heterosexual world, and tries to make its believers to believe in heterosexuality as the only rightful sexual orientation. As many churches condemn homosexuality, homosexual people have found themselves in a state where they have no religious identity because their act is so-called sinful. Therefore, this enforced Godless identity leads Jerry to probe God as Singh (1987) comments, “The Zoo Story suggests … man’s search for God” (p.24). Nevertheless, Jerry’s realization is that the God who has created this universe and man, now has “turned his back from the whole thing” (Albee, 1960, p.37), leaving Jerry as an outcast in the post-war social and religious establishment. A heterosexual society formulates its codes by quoting the bible, for example, “But since there is so much immorality, each man should have his own wife, and each women her own husband” (1 Corinthians 7:2) (note 3), whereas it forgets “God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Romans 5:8) (note 4). According to Zimberdo (1962), Jerry is interpreted as a Christ-figure who wanted to confirm “salvation through sacrifice” (p.16). Through his death he wanted to shiver the whole ‘normal’ society, Peter in particular, which denies to share God’s mercy equally among all subjects, whereas, “Jerry is seen as one filled with compassion for his fellow beings, willing to sacrifice himself to save them.” (Nilan, 1973, p.55) Albee’s Jerry is not like the church or hypocrite society that only uses religion to oppress human soul and cage them behind the bars; rather he mentions ‘love’ for several times that is an act of God in order to deal with the current misunderstanding and miscomprehending situations. Jerry emphasizes on making “A START” for the sake of love, “even with God”, to clarify confusions and demolish the bars that stood amongst the people. Jerry sees God as “A ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 240 COLOURED QUEEN WHO WEARS A KIMONO WHO CRIES WITH DETERMINATION BEHIND HER CLOSED DOOR” (Albee, 1960, p.39) that means God is in everywhere and in every singular identity, not like the religious institutionalized God who has abandoned his creatures because of ‘unrighteous’ sexual orientation. Albee’s Jerry makes an echo of queer people’s voices who [Jerry] asks the society “to understand and just possibly be understood” to start “a beginning of an understanding”. (Albee, 1960, p.39) Jerry makes a few sarcastic comments in the play about the institutionalized God who is very much institutionalized by the church and authorities, for example- he told the landlady he would ‘pray’ while he doesn’t know how to ‘pray’, uses words like ‘Amen’ as if he is citing from Bible, and ‘goddamned’ to mock at Peter’s belief. At the end of the play, Jerry is mocking with ‘a combination of scornful mimicry and supplication’ and says “Oh…my…God”. (Albee, 1960, p.49). Singh (1987) asserts, “The last we hear from him is a pitiful offstage howl “OH MY GOD”. Thus the absurdity of survival in the Twentieth century is dramatized” (p.24). This elucidates that uninstitutionalized Jerry is killed by the institutionalized Peter, whose God cannot help him to control his animal side, nor, it can save Jerry from being killed in the hand of Peter. That is why, in the ending scene, instead of taking the responsibility of the situation or taking Jerry to the hospital, Peter flees away from the situation and seeks forgiveness to his institutionalized God. 6. Conclusion Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story reflects the anomaly of the contemporary society where an individual’s soul is distorted and disorientated by imposing different social norms and regulations. The society tries to use the compartmentalization of souls in order to put a human soul within a cage to establish its so-called norms and heterosexual attitude. The patriarchal attitude is so much rotten in the structure of the society that it tries its every singular opportunity to oppress others choices, especially, in sexual orientations. Thus, The Zoo Story tries to grab the voice of Rousseau (2003), “man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” (p.102) To conclude, in the realm of absurdity created through The Zoo Story, Albee tries to show that how the post-war American culture was infused with Americanization involving compartmentalization of soul, conformity to capitalism, patriarchy and dehumanization of American society, and heteronormativity, under the command of an anti-communist media-constructed socio-political practice. By echoing these, Albee emphasizes on love as Jerry did to minimize the social and cultural marginalities and discriminations among different social classes to create a new America which is truly free and open for all in every possible senses. Additionally, Albee questions to his audience through Jerry’s voice, “if we can so misunderstand, well then, why have we invented the word love in the first place?” (Albee, 1960, p.40), and expects, “the opportunity for living with an awakened sense of private responsibility and public commitment” (Bryer and Harting, 2010, p.18) to every American citizen. References Albee, E. (1960). The Zoo Story: A Play in One Scene for William Flanagan. New York, NY: Grove Press. Bailey, L. M. S.( 2005). Absurdly American: Rediscovering the Representation of Violence in The Zoo Story. In Bruce J. Mann (Ed.), Edward Albee: A Case Book. (pp. 33-44) New York: Taylor and Francis Books. Barret, C. K. (2013). The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA: Baker Publishing Group. Bell, J. (2004). American Drama in the Postwar Period. In Josephine G. Hendin (Ed.) A Concise Companion to Postwar American Literature and Culture. (pp. 110-148). Oxford, Uk: Blackwell Publishing. Bona, M. J. (2004). Gay and Lesbian Writing in Post-World War II America. In Josephine G. Hendin (Ed.) A Concise Companion to Postwar American Literature and Culture.(pp. 210-237). Oxford,UK: Blackwell Publishing. Bryer, J. R. and Harting, M. C. (2010) Facts on File Companion to American Drama. (2nd Ed) . New York: Facts on File, Inc. Butler, J. (1997). The Psychic Life of Power. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Camus, A. (2012). The Rebel: An Essay on Man in Revolt. (Anthony Bower, Trans.). New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. (Original work published in 1956) During, S. (2005). Cultural studies: A Critical Introduction. Abingdon, Oxon, USA: Routledge. Harehdasht, H.A., Hajjari, L., & Shahidzadeh, Z. S. (2015). Illusion and Reality in Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story. Studies in Literature and Language, 10(6), 15-21. DOI: 10.3968/7182. Hussein, W. A. (2007). The Zoo Story: Character Alienation. Journal of the College of Arts, University of Basrah, 43,58-67. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=50455 Horn, B. L. (2009). Edward Albee: A Research and Production Source Book. USA: Praeger Publisher, Green Book Publishing Group. Jaf, S. & Zaihong, Z. (2014). Social Detachment: A Cause of Alienation in Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story. Journal of International Academic Research for Multidisciplinary, 2(9),459-467. Retrieved from http://www.jiarm.com/OCT2014/paper18382.pdf Karl, F. R. (2004). The Fifties and after: An ambiguous Culture. In Josephine G. Hendin (Ed.). A Concise Companion to Postwar American Literature and Culture. (pp. 20-71). Oxford, Uk: Blackwell Publishing. ALLS 7(1):235-241, 2016 241 Kolin, P. C. (2005). Albee’s Early One Act Plays: “A new American playwright from whom much is to be expected”. In Stephen Bottoms (Ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Edward Albee. (pp. 16-38). New York: Cambridge University Press. Murray, J. (1997). The Epistle to the Romans. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company Nilan, M. M.(1973). Albee's The Zoo Story: Alienated Man and the Nature of Love. Modern Drama 16(1), 55-59. University of Toronto Press. Retrieved July 9, 2014, from Project MUSE database. Rousseau, J. J. (2003). On the Social Contract. (G. D. H. Cole. Mineola Trans.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (Original work published in 1762). Shams, P. & Pourgiv, F. (2013) Power Struggle in The Zoo Story: A Performance of Subjectivity. Fe Dergi 5(1). Retrieved from: http://cins.ankara.edu.tr/9_1.html. Turki, H. I. (2009). The Caged Soul: A Study of Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story. Al-fatih Journal, 40, 1-12. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=16901 Tyson, L. (2006). Critical Theory Today: A User Friendly Guide. (2nd Ed.) New York,NY: Routledge. Vorlicky, R. (1995). Silence Violence and the Drama of Abuse. In R. Vorlicky and A. Arbor (Ed.), Act like a Man: Challenging Masculinities in American Drama. (pp. 87-132). USA: The University of Michigan Press. Zimbardo, R. A.. (1962). Symbolism and Naturalism in Edward Albee's The Zoo Story. Twentieth Century Literature, 8(1), 10–17. http://doi.org/10.2307/440743 Notes Note 1. A phrase from the national anthem of USA written by Francis Scott Key. Note 2. A slogan introduced by Queer Nation, an LGBTQ activist organization founded in March 1990, New York city. Note 3. Cited from Barret, C. K. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. See works cited. Note 4. Cited from Murray, John. The Epistle to the Romans. See works cited. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy An Evaluation of Top Notch Fundamentals B: A Four Phase Study Marzie Ahmadi Sheikhbahaee University, Iran E-mail: Nazaninahmadi703@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.242 Received: 04/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.242 Accepted: 22/12/2015 Abstract Textbooks play an important role in educational contexts especially in EFL contexts their role are more highlighted. Textbook evaluation in any type, predictive or retrospective, is a necessary part of curriculum design and in this sense is a worthwhile means of conducting research. Recently, Top Notch series have become widely used in Iranian English Institutes and in high schools and pre-university schools. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate Top Notch Fundamentals B based on first, authors’ objectives, and second, the cultural content of the book based on the framework proposed by Ferit Kilickaya (2004). Thirdly, the universal characteristics of EFL materials proposed by Ansari and Babaii was used to see to what extent the book matches those characteristics. The amount and type(s) of technological use was also examined. The strengths and some drawbacks of the book for EFL setting use were also mentioned in the study. The findings would be beneficial for teachers and material developers in EFL contexts. Keywords: Material, material evaluation, Top Notch Fundamentals B, Ferit Kilickaya framework, Ansari and Babaii framework, technological use, authors’ claims 1. Introduction Language-learning materials can refer to “anything which is used by teachers and learners to facilitate the learning of a language” (Tomlinson, 1998, p. 2). Although these facilities are various, “most people associate language-learning materials with course books because that has been their main experience of using materials” (Tomlinson, 1998, p. 2). The materials to be selected by a teacher is one part of the course designed and should reflect the goals of the course (Macalister & Nation, 2010). Teachers inevitably face a plethora of materials available in each time in the market, and this arises the need for them to judge which materials fit their purposes. As Sheldon (1988) puts it choosing a particular material shows the underlying executive educational decision in which there is a significant professional, financial, and even political investment. Saphir and Gower (1997) (cited in Haldeman, 2008) stated that “many things are important for good schools: curriculum…parent involvement…a clean, safe building…, but of all the things that are important…nothing is as important as the textbook and materials” (p. 15). Having completed the needs analysis and course design steps by the teacher, to execute the results obtained, the teacher finds him/herself in the position to turn these findings into actual materials. Three possible ways are selecting from existing materials (materials evaluation), writing your own materials (materials development), and modify existing materials (materials adaptation) (Hutchinson & Waters 1987). This type of evaluation which is aimed at finding appropriate materials to fit the course needs and objectives is not the only possible way. According to Rod Ellis (1997) materials evaluation has two types: predictive and retrospective. A brief review of the literature relating to materials evaluation shows that most of the researches conducted so far have focused on the predictive evaluation to make a decision regarding what materials to use. Whereas, in the other type which is also the method of evaluation in the present study, the material is examined to find the weaknesses and the strengths of it. This retrospective evaluation can serve “as a means of testing the validity of a predictive evaluation, and may point to ways in which the predictive instruments can be improved for future use” (Ellis, 1997, p. 37). This high profile means that in all of the possible ways of materials preparation the unescapable process of evaluation is a preliminary; so to make this process possible, the definition and adaptation of systematic criteria for assessing course books are vital. To this end, there are numerous schemes and checklists that have been offered by scholars which have many similarities. Another way which the present study has selected to evaluate the Top Notch Fundamentals B of ELT materials, is using the author/s claims as the checklist. Based on the aforementioned facts, choosing materials and especially textbooks in our concern has always been an overwhelming matter for both teachers and learners. 2. Review of the literature It is claimed that material evaluation is a dynamic and subjective process with no definitive yardstick; besides, the criteria and the key questions central for setting up a material evaluation scheme to some extent depends on the changing fashions in linguistics field (Sheldon, 1988). Nevertheless, evaluation is an inseparable part of educational ALLS 7(1):242-247, 2016 243 process and needs to be done to serve as a means of textbook improvement and modification. There is a vast body of literature on material evaluation, some of which will be presented. In the first camp, there are studies done to highlight the role of textbooks in English language teaching. Many roles have been attached to the textbooks among which are considering textbooks as the most preferred instructional material in English language teaching, enabling teachers to achieve aims and objectives set based on learners’ needs, and conveying the knowledge to the learners (Cunningsworth, 1995). To add further dimensions to the role of textbooks, the studies were conducted by Hutchinson and Torres (1994) and Allwright (1981), their findings were reported as such textbooks provide the necessary input into the classroom lesson through different activities, readings and other parts of a lesson; and enhancing the opportunity to learn by characterizing the lesson as an interaction between teacher, learners, and material. Textbooks are also a reference source on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation for learners; in addition to serving as a syllabus and a self-study source. The next step after appreciating the role/s textbooks play in the English language teaching is to find an evaluative checklist on which the assessment of the material is going to be based. It can be based on physical characteristics of textbooks such as layout, organizational and logistical characteristics, methodology, aims, approaches, and the degree to which a set of material is not only teachable but also fits the needs of the individual teacher’s approach as well as the organization’s overall curriculum (Brown, 1995; Cunningsworth, 1995; Sheldon, 1988; Williams, 1983).Many other checklists have been presented by scholars with more or less the same criteria for evaluating the textbooks (Fetsko, 1992; Miekley, 2005; Skierso, 1991; Stradling, 2001). To make sure that the language textbooks selected based on available checklists are suitable for the particular EFL instructional setting, many other different aspects need to be taken into account. For instance the age of the learners, their level of proficiency, their cultural background, their social class, whether their L1s are homogeneous, their attitude toward the target language (English) and so on. Consequently, it calls for a thorough examination of the textbooks that many studies to date have addressed this issue regarding available English textbooks which are used in Iran. Kayapinar (2009) in his analysis of two textbook packages, namely, Opportunities and New English file, pointed out that there is not an overall positive view toward mentioned books among teachers and the books do not satisfy learners’ needs and interest. In another study by Azizifar, Koosha, and Lotfi (2010) two series of ELT textbooks used in Iranian high schools by the Ministry of education were evaluated. They suggested that in the textbooks, there should be enough opportunity for the learners to practice the language they are learning communicatively. Moreover, Sahargrad, Rahimi, and Zaremoayyeri (2008) set the study to find the strength and weaknesses of Interchange third edition. Iranian senior high school and pre-university English textbooks, also, went under evaluation by Mosallanejad and Riazi (2010) to investigate the types of learning objectives represented in them. The study was based on Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy and the results showed that in all grades the lower-order cognitive skills were more prevalent than the higher-order ones. Furthermore, the difference between the senior high school and pre-university textbooks in terms of the level of taxonomy were significant insofar as the pre-university textbook used some of higherorder learning objectives. Last but not least, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, the studies that have been conducted related to the evaluation of Top Notch series in EFL teaching settings are as follows. A study was conducted on the evaluation of Top Notch Series by Akbari Kelishadi and Sharifzade (2013) using Littlejohn’s (1998) framework. Their objectives were to find whether the series fulfilled the intended objectives and encouraged learners to communicate successfully by offering opportunities for interaction. In a similar vein, Eslami Rasekh, Esmaeli, Ghavaminia, and Rajabi (2010) set out to evaluate the four mostly instructed courses in Iran English language institutes. The books were Top Notch, Interchange, Headway, and On Your Mark. The researchers evaluated the course books under study in 2 stages based on Mcdounough and Shaw‟s (2003) division of course book evaluation into internal and external evaluation. After a thorough examination of introduction and table of contents, and in-depth examination of the cover page and introductory sections of the books, they concluded that Top Notch best meets Mcdounough and Shaw‟s (2003) evaluation criteria. The present study aims to examine the Top Notch Fundamentals B based on its authors’ claims and whether the objectives of the authors are realized via the content of the book, on what theoretical basis their claims are based, the pedagogical values the content has, and the learning benefits on the part of language learners. The cultural points presented in the book and the kind and amount of technology use are also going to be investigated. The following research questions are addressed: 1. To what extent is Top Notch Fundamentals B’s content able to fulfill the objectives claimed by its authors? 2. What cultural and technological features does Top Notch Fundamentals B have? 3. To what extent does the content of Top Notch Fundamentals B match the universal characteristics of EFL materials? 4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Top Notch Fundamentals B? 3. Methodology 3.1 Materials The book selected for the purpose of this study was Top Notch Fundamentals B from Top Notch Series (Ascher & Saslow, 2011). The series consisted of six-level communicative English course with two beginning entry levels namely Fundamentals A and Fundamentals B for adults and young adults. Totally speaking, the Top Notch series included 12 ALLS 7(1):242-247, 2016 244 textbooks, written by Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher in 2006 and published in the United States of America by Pearson Longman Incorporation. Top Notch Fundamentals B consisted of seven units, each of which contained three lessens. Each two-page lesson began with a clearly stated communicative goal and ended with controlled or free communication practice. Each lesson provided vocabulary, grammar, and social language contextualized in all four skills. In order to ensure students’ solid acquisition of vocabulary essential for communication, Top Notch contained explicit presentation, practice, and systematic extended recycling of words, collocations, and expressions appropriate at each level of study. The extensive captioned illustrations, photos, definitions, examples, and contextualized sentences removed doubts about meaning and provided a permanent in-book reference for student test preparation. An added benefit was that teachers did not have to search for pictures to bring to class and did not have to resort to translating vocabulary into the students’ native language. Grammar was approached explicitly and cognitively, through form, meaning, and use. Top Notch was designed for international communication and set a new standard using the natural language that people really speak. The book also prepared students for interaction with both native and non-native speakers of English, both linguistically and culturally. English was treated as an international language, rather than the language of a particular country or region. In addition, Top Notch helped students develop a cultural fluency by creating an awareness of the varied rules across cultures for: politeness, greetings and introductions, appropriateness of dress in different settings, conversation do’s and taboos, table manners, and other similar issues. It was claimed by the writers of the book that Top Notch would prepare students to interact successfully and confidently with both native and non-native speakers of English and would bring students to a “Top Notch” level of communicative competence (Ascher & Saslow, 2006). The book was designed to serve the needs of language learners in EFL settings, because its authors believed that the materials designed for ESL settings have not been appropriate for EFL settings with the classroom input as the only source of learners’ exposure to L2 input. Top Notch made use of corpora and the analysis and inclusion of conversation strategies. Top Notch was a corpus-informed course backed by the extensive database of the Longman Corpus Network, and it used both the Longman Spoken Corpus as well as the Learners' Corpus of Common Learner errors. In addition, Top Notch was also based on use of a broader, more informal corpus of spoken and written language including authentic interviews, real conversations, and authentic texts to ensure that conversation strategies were well understood and applied. It was commonly accepted that conversation strategies must be part of a spoken syllabus — strategies such as ways to keep a conversation going, ways to soften conflict, etc. The mastery of conversation strategies was one aspect of empowerment. The authors of the book believed that building conversation strategies into practical conversation models for productive manipulation and personalization would provide students the social confidence to communicate with others in a new language. Regarding the use of technology, the book’s Super CD-ROM included a variety of exciting interactive activities: Speaking practice, Interactive Workbook, Games and Puzzles, and Top Notch karaoke. The disk could also be played on an audio CD player to listen to the Conversation Models and Top Notch songs. There was also a complete assessment package with exam view software including achievement tests which assess listening, vocabulary, grammar, and writing. Two review tests provided additional cumulative assessment. A lively and entertaining video offered a TV-style situation comedy that reintroduced language from each Top Notch unit, plus authentic unrehearsed interviews with English speakers from around the world. 3.2 Instrumentation and data analysis Three lessons of the Top Notch Fundamentals B were selected and analyzed based on the, first, the claims of the authors mentioned in the preface of the book. Learning theory(s) on which the content of the book and the way of its presentation were based, were also investigated. To this end the categorization made by Säljö was used in which five categories was identified namely: the behaviorist orientation to learning, the cognitive orientation to learning, the humanistic orientation to learning, the social/situational orientation to learning. To evaluate the cultural content of the book the framework presented by Ferit Kilickaya (2004) was adopted which included fifteen questions (Appendix 1). And to see to what extent the anatomy of the less fits the proposed universal characteristics of EFL lessons Ansari and Babaii (2002) framework was used. The characteristics were as follows: 1.objectives explicitly laid out in an introduction, and implemented in the material, 2. good vocabulary explanation and practice, 3. periodic review and test sections, 4. appropriate visual materials available, 5. interesting topics and tasks, 6. clear instruction, 7. plenty of authentic language, 8. clear attractive layout, print easy to read, 9. content clearly organized and graded, 10. good grammar presentation and practice. 4. Results The thorough examination of selected lessons of Top Notch Fundamentals B reveals that more than half of the tasks demand language learners to respond, which is in line with the claim of the authors that the book encourages language learners to use the language and be active communicators via participating in classroom activities. The vocabulary part is presented with accompanying pictures to clarify the meaning of them and provide for learners new words related to the topic of the lesson to empower them to comprehend the followed conversations and to successfully complete the guided practices of the lesson. Grammar points which are necessary for learners to know in order to be able to communicate successfully when the selected topic of the lesson is raised, are presented in the box after the vocabulary part. Charts provide examples and paradigms enhanced by simple usage notes at students’ level of comprehension. This takes the guesswork out of meaning, makes lesson preparation easier for teachers, and provides students with ALLS 7(1):242-247, 2016 245 comprehensible charts for permanent reference and test preparation. All presentations of grammar are followed by exercises to ensure adequate practice. An example of the grammar box is presented below: GRAMMAR. Can and can’t To talk about ability, use can or can’t and the base form of the verb. She can play the guitar. He can’t cook. Questions Short answers Can you play the guitar? Yes, I can. / No, I can’t. Can he speak English? Can not Yes, he can. / No, he can’t. cannot can’t The lessons’ format match the universal characteristics of EFL lessons proposed by Ansari and Babaii (2002) and smooth flow of the exercises from controlled to free ones enable learners to feel their progression at the end of each lesson in the wrap up section. Language learners are supposed to make the learned language their own in wrap up part when they are to use four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing to do the pair works assigned. The book’s cultural content evaluation based on the framework proposed by Ferit Kilickaya (2004) revealed that a variety of cultures are addressed and there is no bias toward a specific culture. For instance, in lesson one in vocabulary part there is a picture of a woman putting on makeup and in the exercise accompanying the grammar box a sentence with a blank space to fill with this verb says: “When my wife is late for work, she……….on her make up on the train”. Although putting up makeup in public or even speaking freely about it is regarded taboo in Iran, as an instance of EFL setting, the learners will be informed about cross cultural differences. The cultural points are presented in a neutral position without any comment as being good or bad on the given information. Some of the cultural points are presented here. Different dress codes are illustrated in pictures accompanying new vocabulary and conversations in each lesson. In lesson two “Ask about people’s activity”, the Mike and Patty’s activities in a typical day are presented. Patty reads newspaper while eating breakfast and Mike prepares breakfast when Patty is taking a shower. Their pet sleeps on their bed and is around when they are doing their household chores. In lesson three “Discuss Plans”, the common activities people mostly do on the weekends are mentioned. Among them are exercising and going to movies, the point of difference is that people in other countries may have different options and preferences. As an example in Iranian culture catch up with their week’s activities is what people commonly do on weekends. It can be concluded that Top Notch is considerate of diversity in the sociocultural identities it presented and provides information about the values of different cultures and the customs and traditions of various nations it tried to set the bases of interculturality within its audience. Nearly all parts of each lesson have audios which provide learners the facility of listening to the lesson repeatedly whenever they wish and in a deliberate pace. A companion website as www.longman.com/topnotch provides numerous additional resources for students and teachers without any cost. There is also the audio program containing listening comprehension activities, rhythm and intonation practice, and targeted pronunciation activities that focus on accurate and comprehensible pronunciation. A variety of native and non-native speakers are included in conversations and other recorded parts. The topics chosen for the lessons and the conversation models feature the language people use in reality. In this sense, the book exposes learners to authentic language and the language specific realizations of speech acts improves learners’ pragmatic competence. Two conversation models are presented here, one about how to make a polite phone call and the other about how to discuss plans. They make the learners aware of the appropriate use of the language which helps them not to face communication breakdowns when communicating with native speakers. 1. Make a polite phone call Jan: Hello? Laura: Hi, Jan. This is Laura. What are you doing? Jan: I’m feeding the kids. Laura: Should I call you back later? Jan: yes, thanks. Talk to you later. Bye. Laura: Bye. 2. Discuss plans Scott: So what are you doing this week? Dan: I’m not sure. What about you? Scott: Well, on Saturday, if the weather is good, I’m meeting Pam in the park. Dan: Do you want to get together on Sunday? I’m not doing anything special. Scott: Sure. Call me Sunday morning. ALLS 7(1):242-247, 2016 246 5. Discussion and Conclusion In line with what Cunningsworth (1995) stated as one of the roles of textbooks in English language teaching, the analysis of the three lessons selected from Top Notch Fundamentals B demonstrates that the claims of the authors are met in most parts of the content. Except that, the authors claim that the book provides authentic language for both teachers and learners. This arise from the attempt of collecting corpus-informed data for developing Top Notch series. The Longman Spoken Corpus, the Learners’ Corpus of Common Learner Errors, and informal corpus of spoken and written language like interviews and real conversations and authentic texts are the sources. Nevertheless, authenticity is a topic over which a lot of debate has been arose to date. As Richards (2005) argues in his paper the aim of people using authentic language differs with that of language learners in classroom setting and as soon as the language is decontextualized from its context, it is not authentic anymore. As the results of the study revealed, to reach the objective of developing learners’ communicative competence, Top Notch has been succeeded. This achievement is considered a privilege for the book series because the vitality of developing learners’ communicative competence is a consequence of recent swings in linguistics which as Sheldon (1998) stated, affect all materials evaluation. The pair works and the exercises which encourages learners to use language and participate in classroom activities rather than being passive receivers serve to this end. This is what Hutchinson and Torres (1994) and Allwright (1981) also found in their studies as one of the roles of textbooks in providing the opportunity of interaction between learners, teachers, and material to enhance students’ learning. In cases of vocabulary and grammar presentation, as the results shows the focus is on both form and meaning to enable learners not just recognizing the form, but also learning to do meaningful tasks which follows the task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982). In addition, the vocabulary and grammar provide the suitable source for learners (Cunningsworth, 1995), and they prove useful in successful completing the related exercises. In the case of cultural points which are presented in the lessons to develop learners’ intercultural competence, the book acts like a provider of necessary input for learners. This is one of the roles Hutchinson and Torres (1994) consider for instructional material in EFL/ESL settings. Finally, it can be concluded that Top Notch Fundamentals B satisfies authors’ claims and objectives by developing learners’ competences as components of communicative competence. The vocabulary, grammar, and topics chosen in a way that were tangible for EFL learners in the perceived level of proficiency and at the same time were those native speakers use in real life. The simultaneous focus on form, meaning, and use in all the parts of the lessons enabled learners to develop their linguistic and pragmatic competence. This rich source of input can be pedagogically helpful for both teachers and learners even for those without access to additional input via internet or other sources. That is a suitable way of presenting material for any EFL setting like what is the situation in Iran in which English is considered a foreign language with the classroom and course book as the only source of input for most of the language learners. Although the book is in most cases advantageous, it may need to be adapted in some parts due to the different learners that the teacher encounter in the classroom regarding their ages, level of proficiency, background information, and needs. 6. Limitations and suggestions for further research The study was limited in the sense that there was no access to teachers teaching this book in EFL classrooms to access their attitudes toward the strength and weaknesses of the book in achieving its claimed objective in real situation of the classroom. The study can be conducted in EFL classroom settings to see which activities and tasks of the book are/are not in line with the needs of EFL learners in specific settings. References Akbari Kelishadi, A. & Sharifzadeh, A. (2013). An evaluation of Top Notch series. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World. 4(4), 60-73. Allwright, R. L. (1981). What do we want Teaching Material for? ELT Journal, 36(1), 5-13. Ascher, A., & Saslow, J. (2011). Top Notch Series. Longman: Pearson Education. Azizifar, A., Koosha, M., & Lotfi, A. R. (2010). An analytical evaluation of Iranian high school ELT textbooks from 1970 to the present. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 3, 36-44. Brown, J. D. (1995). The Elements of Language Curriculum. New York: Heinle Publishers. Cunningsworth, A. (1995). Choosing your Coursebook Oxford: Heinemann Publishers Ltd. Ellis, R. (1997). The empirical evaluation of language teaching materials. ELT Journal, 51(1), 36-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/51.1.36 Eslami Rasekh, A., Esmaeli, S., Ghavamnia, M., & Rajabi, S. (2010). Don’t judge a book by its cover. Textbook evaluation in the EFL setting. The Journal of International Social Research, 3(14), 448-461. Kilickaya, F. (2004). Authentic materials and cultural content in EFL classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal. X (7). Fetsko, W. (1992). Approaching Textbook Selection Systematically in Herlihy, J. G. (Ed.). the Controversy-Issues, Aspect, Perspective. New Jersey, Norwood. Textbook ALLS 7(1):242-247, 2016 247 Haldeman, M. (2008). The new teacher’s guide to success: A personalized planning guide for teachers. Shell Education Publication. Hutchinson, T & Torres, E. (1994). The Textbook as an Agent of Change. ELT Journal, 48(4). Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hutchinson. T. (1987). What is underneath? An interactive view of the materials evaluation. In L. E. Sheldon (ed.), ELT textbooks and materials: Problems in evaluation and development, (pp. 37-44), Oxford: Modern English Publications. Jahangard, A. (2007). The evaluation of the EFL materials taught at Iranian public high schools Karen’s Linguistics Issues. Retrieved October 15, 2011, from http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/bymonth.html. Kayapinar, U. (2009). Coursebook evaluation by English teachers. Inonu University Journal of the Faculty of Education, (10), 69-78. Kilickaya, F. (2004). Guidelines to Evaluate Cultural Content in Textbooks. The Internet TESL Journal, X (12). Retrieved from: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kilickaya-CulturalContent/. Littlejohn, A. (1998). The analysis of language teaching materials: Inside the Trojan horse. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), materials Development in Language Teaching, 190-216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McDonough,J. & Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and methods in ELT: A teacher’s guide. (2nd Ed).Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Miekley, J. (2005). ESL textbook evaluation checklist. The Reading Matrix, 5(2). Nation, I.S.P. & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. New York: Routledge. Riazi, A. M., & Mosallanejad, N. (2010). Evaluation of learning objectives in Iranian high-school and pre-university English textbooks using Bloom’s taxonomy. TESL-EJ Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 13(4). Richards, J. C. (2005). The role of Textbooks in a language program. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. (2006). Materials Development and Research: Making the Connection. Regional Language Center Journal, 37 (1), 5-26. Sahargard, R., Rahimi, A., & Zaremoayeddi, I. (2008). An in-depth evaluation of interchange series (3rd ED.). Porta Linguarum, 12(1), 37-54. Sheldon, L. E. (1988). Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT Journal, 42(4), 237-246. Skierso, A. (1991). Textbook Selection and Evaluation. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 432-453. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Straddling, R. (2001). Teaching 20th-century European history. Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing. Tomlinson, B. (1998). Materials Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Ur, Penny (1996). A Course in language teaching-practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Williams, D. (1983). Developing Criteria for Textbook Evaluation. ELT Journal, 37(3), 251-255. Appendix 1 Guidelines to evaluate a textbook for cultural information: 1. Does the book give any information, instructions or suggestions about how the book may be used and how the cultural content may be handled? 2. Does the book address specific learners or are there any characteristics of the learners that the book addresses to? 3. Does the book suggest any role that the teachers using it should have? 4. Do they include a variety of cultures or just specific ones such as British or American culture? 5. Do they represent the reality about the target culture or the author's view? 6. Where is the cultural information taken from? Author's own ideas or empirical research? 7. What subjects do they cover? Are these specific to the target culture? Are there any topics that might not be culturally suitable for the learners in class? 8. What cultural and social groups are represented? Is this adequate coverage of a variety of people or is this limited to a chosen people? If so, what kind of people are these? Are there any stereotypes? 9. Does the book include generalizations about the culture? Does it inform the audience of the fact that what is true of the parts is not necessarily true of the parts? 10. Is the cultural information presented with comments such as being good or being bad? Or is it presented without such comments? 11. Are there illustrations? If so, are these appropriate to the learners' native culture? Would additional information be necessary to explain them or are they self-explanatory? 12. What are the activities asked of the learners? Are they familiar to the learners? 13. Would a teacher using this book need specialized training to be able to use it or is there enough information given? 14. What are the learners supposed to do with the cultural information such as using actively or just be aware of it for a better understanding of the target culture? 15. What is your overall view of the textbook? Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 7 No. 1; February 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy African Identity, Self and Other, in Obama’s Dreams from My Father Azza Ahmed Heikal College of Language and Communication, Arab Academy for Science and Technology & Maritime Transport, Cairo, Egypt Heba Mohamed Abdel Aziz (Corresponding author) College of Language and Communication, Arab Academy for Science and Technology & Maritime Transport, Cairo, Egypt E-mail: heba_bibo2001@hotmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.248 Received: 09/10/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.1p.248 Accepted: 23/12/2015 Abstract This paper is a close examination of postcolonial and postmodern 20th century discourse with reference to Obama’s Dreams from My Father (1995). Barack Hussein Obama (1961-present) has a colonial experience and double cultural background which formulate his views of racial discrimination, make him accept racial differences and dream of uniting the divided colors one day. The study focuses on his autobiographical narrative within the framework of postcolonialism and postmodernism. Keywords: post modernism, post colonialism, identity construction 1. Introduction Although the apartheid era in Africa has reached an end, it left some inherited notions of apartheid and race that exposed Africa to socio-economic division; accordingly, a group of activists appeared calling for a sort of recognition of the indigenous societies and their rights. Among the figures calling for the recognition of marginalized societies is the Afro-American president Barack Hussien Obama. Actually, Obama is one of those who are influenced by the events taking place all over the world like the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989, the beginning of the era of globalization and the fall of the two towers in 9/11. These events are supposed to be turning points to the whole world in all its fields i.e. the economic, social, cultural, political fields as well as the literary field. Such events have insinuated some conflicts inside the whole society in general and inside the individual in particular. These conflicts raised issues related to identity, race, gender, power and religion; so, writers of the 20th century express their experiences and attitudes through their writings and the new narrative techniques they use. This paper examines the post-colonial and postmodern aspects of the autobiographical narrative text Dreams From My Father. This study is a cross-cultural one; it makes use of post- colonialism and postmodernism as analytical tools with special reference to the postcolonial theorists Frantz Fanon, Edward Said and Ihab Hassan. Tracing the theme of culture clash and the technique used to convey such theme reveal whether the selected writer is writing from a state of stability and confidence or from that of insecurity and infidelity and whether the two cultures he experienced are mirroring or rejecting each other. 2. Research Objectives The study aims at presenting a thorough study of Obama’s Dreams From My Father (1995). Obama is especially chosen for this study for one main reason; although Obama is an American President, his writing style is very artistic. Obama is considered to be a dreamer and a reformer. The study argues that the analysis of Obama’s writings can, hopefully add to a deep understanding of how different cultural backgrounds are reflected on the person’s concepts. That is, Obama feels that although he belongs to the minority, he is still superior due to education, freedom and upbringing. Dreams From My Father is discussed in terms of post-colonialism and postmodernism and their relation to cultural identity. Also a reference to cultural and narrative theories is included. The aim of the study is to discuss the narrative as the umbrella under which political texts, short stories, novels and autobiographies could be studied. Thus, a literary review on culture and narrative theories will be introduced. Postmodernism and post colonialism will be tackled since their impact on narrative and culture is inseparable. This study probes into postmodernism and post-colonialism as two interrelated literary approaches. In other words, studies in post-colonialism and postmodernism will be utilized to unravel the political and the psychological meanings of the current events taking place in the modern world and how the idea of the ‘One’ and the ‘Other’ and the exploration of the ‘self’ are presented in the selected narratives of Obama. ALLS 7(1):248-252, 2016 249 3. Research Questions The study seeks to answer the following questions within the frameworks of post modernism and post colonialism: 1. 2. 3. How a person’s concepts vary cross culturally? Do culture, place, time and origin affect theme and technique? How Obama’s autobiography is placed between present and past as well as self and other? 4. Review of Literature Post colonialism is a term used to refer to the struggle against colonial domination and its legacies of control. It includes races that have been culturally and intellectually colonized by western ideas and beliefs. According to Ania Loomba in Colonialism/Post colonialism (1998), ‘It has been suggested that it is more helpful to think of Post colonialism not just as coming literally after colonialism and signifying its demise, but more flexibly as the contestation of colonial domination and the legacies of colonialism’ (12). So, post colonialism is indebted to colonialism as the former was born in the latter’s atmosphere as a response to the aggression and fake ideology of colonialism. Moreover, in The Empire Writes Back (1989), Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin employ the concept ‘to cover all the cultures affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day.’ (2). To understand the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized and how the former affects the latter, it is important to focus on the colonized and delve deep into his psyche. Among the most prominent critics in the field of post-colonialism is the psychologist Frantz Fanon. Fanon’s Black Skin White Masks (1952) and The Wretched of the Earth (1968) are considered unsurpassed studies of the black psyche in a white world as they present a deep analysis of the psychological as well as the sociological impact of colonization. They are concerned with the psychologies of the oppressed people and their image of themselves. In Black Skin White Masks, Fanon writes about his experience of racism as a black man. According to Fanon: ‘I took myself far off from my own presence, far indeed and made myself an object... All I wanted was to be a man among other men. I wanted to come lithe and young into a world that was ours and to help to build it together’ (112-113). Fanon rejects the inferiority complex and tries to encourage the blacks to act positively to seek social justice and to resolve their conflicts. In The Wretched of the Earth, Fanon portrays the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized and how it is primarily based on violence. The colonizer falsely claims that he is the only means to salvation from wilderness and barbarism. According to Fanon, ‘[The colonizer] dehumanizes the native... [and] turns him into an animal’ (42). It is no doubt that the racial prejudice encouraged the whites to humiliate the Negroes and to deprive them of any human rights. Actually, these two books serve in arousing people’s awareness and accordingly many racially oppressed people started to struggle in order to attain and assert their identities. Within the context of cultural identity, the black people were positioned as an ‘other’ in the colonial experience, consequently, a great number of writers left their homelands and went to settle in other territories. As a result of this dislocation, a feeling of ambivalence is generated, i.e., a confusion between an old historic culture and a new relatively odd location and culture which are often presented in their postcolonial discourse. This throws the light on identity construction which is formed not by identifying with the ancestral place, but through the moving migrant persons and cultures. Another prominent figure in the 20th century is Edward Saïd. Saïd’s writings are very influential in the field of cultural studies and one of the most outstanding studies in that field is Saïd’s Orientalism (1977) that deals with the concept of ‘We’ versus ‘Other’ or the ‘Orient’ and the ‘Occident’. The idea of the West versus the other reflects the western tendency to assert itself over and against non-western cultures. In addition, Saïd illustrates how Europe has conceived its identity as a superior one in comparison with all the non- European peoples and cultures. Edward Saïd refers to the notion of emphasizing the marginalized group in an attempt to draw attention to the position of those in power. According to Saïd: ‘The West is the actor, the Orient is a passive reactor. The West is the spectator, the judge and jury, of every facet of oriental behaviour.’ (110) When discussing the African quest for a distinctive cultural identity as a means of resistance, one can find that they adopt a hybrid identity. Hybridity is considered a characteristic feature of the postcolonial period that is considered a means of forming models of cultural exchange. According to Bill Aschcroft in The Empire Writes Back (1989): The transaction of the postcolonial world is not a one-way process in which oppression obliterates the oppressed or the colonizer silences the colonized in absolute terms. In practice it rather stresses the mutuality of the process. It lays emphasis on the survival even under the most potent oppression of the distinctive aspects of the culture of the oppressed, and shows how these become an integral part of the new formations which arise from the clash cultures characteristic of imperialism. (183). Thus, just as the brutality of apartheid provokes resistance on the political and social levels, it also incites defiance in literature. The African suffering is intolerable and the Africans realize that their identity should be obvious in every aspect in their lives. Actually, literature in general and the novel in particular become a means of probing and elucidating contemporary life in Africa and enhancing social awareness. ALLS 7(1):248-252, 2016 250 So, moving from post-colonialism in general to Postcolonial literature in particular, the latter could be viewed as a term that encompasses a wide range of contemporary writings. In Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors (1995), Elleke Boehmer states: ‘It is writing that sets out in one way or another to resist colonial perspectives’ (3). Thus, postcolonial literature is not created in the colonies, it is a sort of literature created after independence and by people who are displaced by colonialism and living in metropolitan cultures. Usually writers writing postcolonial literature have a problem with cultural identification. They survive, although differently, with the notion of home and belonging even when they are far away from their homelands. As this study focuses on the post-colonial and postmodern aspects in Obama’s discourse, it is worth noting here to refer to postmodernism. In his book The Postmodern Turn: Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture (1997) Ihab Hassan Claims: The postmodern focus on otherness, difference and heterogeneity is also in part a function of decolonization and of the immigration of people of color all over the earth. Vast migrations and Diasporas of people of color mostly to the metropolitan cores of the more developed countries have created new fusion of cultures and hybrid identities. Globalization thus involves the circulation of difference and otherness as well as homogenization (14) It is important to understand that Obama’s writing is based on the idea of decolonization and destruction. Postmodernism is based on the idea of destructing any source of authority whereas; post colonialism is concerned with the idea of destructing the colonial authority. The study at hand clearly reflects the idea of destruction that both postmodernism and post colonialism aim at through representing the concept of ‘self’ and ‘other’ as well as ‘us’ and ‘them’. Actually, the study focuses on a postcolonial and postmodern discourse produced after the Second World War. The Second World War has both positive as well as negative consequences. Although, the Second World War led to both destruction and death, one of its positive consequences is that of globalization. Globalization as well has some positive and negative consequences. Although it positively affected all fields of life namely, culture, politics and literature, it leads to global fragmentation due to the domination of the wealthy over the poor which capitalism and imperialism planted that in turn lead to the clash of civilizations. What could prove this idea is the terrorist act that takes place in the two towers in 9/11 in the United States of America. This terrorist act shows that in spite of the fact that globalization unifies people, it also differentiates them and although it creates friends, it creates enemies as well. However, before moving to the analysis of Obama’s autobiography Dreams from My Father, it is important first to differentiate between fiction, nonfiction and autobiography. To start with, fiction is any narrative text that presents events that are not factual, whereas; nonfiction is the same but deals with factual events like history books for example. An autobiography is an account of a real person’s life and it is usually characterized by its method of narration. The narrator or the narrative voice of the discourse may be ‘homodiegetic’, ‘heterodiegetic’ or ‘autodiegetic’ according to the degree of his/her presence in the text. In a book entitled Literary Theory (1996), Terry Eagleton states: According to Gerard Genette, a narrator may be ‘heterodiegetic’ (absent from his own narrative),‘homodiegetic’ (inside the narrative as in the first person’s stories), or ‘autodiegetic’ (where he is not only inside the narrative but figures as its principal character) (92) So, what characterizes the autobiographies is the method of narration as the author may address the narratee from a friendly position using the pronouns I/we or may be disguised under the pronoun he/she. The study seeks an analysis of the literary work of Obama from a cultural perspective highlighting how culture affects the theme and technique used. The theme of hope is reflected in Obama’s work through the method of narration. Obama is all the time using the first person narration as he is proud of being black and accepting the difference. 5. Analysis Barack Obama is the son of a white American mother and a black African father who left the family and went to Kenya when Obama was still young. Obama lived with his mother in America until he heard that his father died at that time, he went to Kenya for a visit. Although Obama lived and was bred in America, he has been all the time proud of being black, and has been all the time outspoken about racial issues. In the article Barack Obama and the Politics of Blackness (2007), Walter writes: Obama begins the cultural presentation with strong asserts: he is of African descent, he married a black woman, he belongs to a black church, and he lives in a racially integrated community. This cultural context alone defines him as very different from the normative black conservative and created the expected access and level of association with the black community that is the starting point for accountability for any black politician. (22) Dreams from My Father is an autobiography in which Obama tries to find a meaning to his life as a black American. Obama successfully portrayed the idea of identity and his life as a black man in the United States. Moreover, this autobiography clearly reflects the idea of cross culture that his race places him in. Moreover, it discusses issues like race ALLS 7(1):248-252, 2016 251 and identity; it also presents Obama’s views regarding racial discrimination and his hope to unite the divided colors. Obama’s concerns were raised from his father who in one of his letters which the novel presents he addressed him to “know where you belong” (114). Thus, Obama asserts: Whatever my father might say, I knew it was too late to ever truly claim Africa as my home. And if I had come to understand myself as a black American, and was understood as such, that understanding remained unanchored to place. What I needed was a community, I realized, a community that cut deeper than the common despair that black friends and I shared when reading the latest crime statistics, or the high fives I might exchange on a basketball court. A place where I could put down stakes and test my commitments. (115) Thus, Obama’s Dreams from My Father could be described as a journey across continents to trace his double race and understand the circumstances that shaped his character. This journey ends up with Obama accepting his identity as an African-American citizen. When discussing the theme of racial discrimination, it is noteworthy to say that although Obama was genetically half white, half black, in his youth he was seen as only black in the eyes of the whites. Obama relates an incident in Dreams from My Father: There was other child in my class, though, who reminded me of a different sort of pain. Her name was Coretta and before my arrival she had been the only black person in our grade. She was plump and dark and didn’t seem to have many friends. From the first day, we avoided each other but watched from a distance, as if direct contact would only remind us more keenly of our isolation. (60-61) In the light of the postmodernist school of writing, narrative technique is very enlightening as it helps to reflect the self inside and outside the text. It gives cohesion to the text since it prevents the text from fragmentation. In Obama’s Dreams from My Father Obama is all the time using the homodiegetic method of narration as he is using the pronoun ‘I’ throughout the whole novel. This homodiegetic speech shows the closeness of Obama to the text and to his place in society. He presents the idea of colliding cultures together in an attempt to find a solution to issues of race and identity. Thus, this memoir is considered to be a journey of an African-American person in an attempt to search for his identity. Obama succeeds in conveying this image through the exciting writing style, narrative technique and the mixture of white and black characters. 6. Conclusion To sum up, the analysis of Obama’s writing reveal a number of findings. Obama is all the time proud of being black and is all the time accepting the difference and hoping to unite different colors. He is using the first person narrative technique to assert his acceptance of being black, unlike other writings of similar cultural background where the third person narrative technique is used to assert the sense of alienation. Obama has succeeded to utilize the theme of politics, racial discrimination which resulted from living different cultural backgrounds. The analysis uncovers how culture, place, time and origin affect Obama’s choice of themes and technique. Moreover, Obama is proud of his identity although he belongs to the minority and has a constant dream of uniting the racial groups. Actually, in Obama’s autobiographical narrative texts, he is seen to be very proud of being black due to his education, freedom and upbringing. References Primary Source Obama B. (1995). Dreams from My Father. New York: Three Rivers Press. Secondary Sources Alexander, F. (1989). Contemporary Modern Novelists. London: Routledge. Ashcraft, B. and Paul A. (2001). Edward Said. New York: Routledge. 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