Workforce Development Challenges for Massachusetts
Jennifer Gaudet
Philip Moss
Hal Salzman
Chris Tilly
with Christopher Lim
Center for Industrial Competitiveness/Department of Regional Economic and Social
Development
University of Massachusetts Lowell
January 15, 2002
CONTENTS
I. Executive summary………………………………………………………1
II. Workforce development problems.……………………………….……. 4
II. Current Massachusetts policies……………………… …………………8
III. Recommendations ……………………………………………………...11
Appendix A. Best practices from around the country ……………………18
References ………………………………………………………………...23
I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
From the shipbuilding of the 1700s to the high technology industries of today, the skills
of the Massachusetts workforce have always been the key to the Commonwealth’s competitive
advantage. Today, Massachusetts possesses a skill base that is the envy of many other states.
But workforce development problems constrain the state’s long-term economic growth
and prosperity. Skill shortages and mismatches at both the high and low ends of the skill
spectrum create bottlenecks for Bay State businesses even as skill mismatches limit opportunity
for those whose skills limit their access to better jobs. The current recession temporarily
alleviates this problem, but certain skill shortages will return with economic recovery.
Workforce problem solutions must benefit both individuals and the businesses that
employ them. For individuals, studies have consistently shown that higher skill and educational
levels directly translate into higher earnings (Kane and Rouse). Conversely, immigrants with
limited English speaking skills earn less than those who are fluent in English (Sum and Fogg
1999). For businesses, productivity increases along with workers’ educational and training levels
(Donahue, Lynch, and Whitehead 2000).
The quick Massachusetts profile is one of high technology, high wages, and high
education -- but with significant exceptions to all three. Massachusetts has specialized in “high
technology” production since the Industrial Revolution of the early 1800s. But since 1984,
service sector employment has grown by 50 percent, while manufacturing jobs have fallen by 35
percent (Forrant, Moss, and Tilly, 2001). Services now dominate both domestic and
international exports. Compared to national averages, Massachusetts specializes in higher-end
“knowledge sector” services, such as software, higher education, and financial services.
In general, Massachusetts is a high-wage state, with Bay State workers earning 20
percent more per year than the average American worker (Forrant, Moss, and Tilly, 2001).
Workers in knowledge sectors earn wages well above the national average for their
corresponding industries (Forrant, Moss, and Tilly 2001). However, it should be noted that when
compared to other states that also specialize in these sectors, Massachusetts gets mixed results.
For instance, wages in software, financial, and communications services are lower when
compared to other states that specialize in knowledge sectors, but wages are higher in the
healthcare technology and post-secondary education sectors (Massachusetts Technology
Collaborative 2001).
Although many workers in these key sectors earn high wages, many other workers in
Massachusetts earn very low wages. Not everyone benefited from the 1990s technology boom; in
2000, 25 percent of all households earned less than $25,000 (U.S. Census Bureau 2001).
Slow population growth and outmigration have limited the size of the Massachusetts
workforce. Fortunately, Massachusetts has also experienced an increasing rate of foreign
immigration. The most recent immigrant groups are increasingly from Latin America and Asia.
A disproportionate number of immigrants find work in lower-paid positions, such as semi-skilled
and unskilled manufacturing and service jobs (Chapman, 2001). While 10 percent of native-born
persons live below the poverty level, a startling 29 percent of people who have arrived since
1990 live below this level (Fogg and Harrington 2000). At the same time, a substantial portion
of immigrants works in higher-end professional service positions.
In general, Massachusetts residents are well educated, though about 30 percent of immigrants
still lack a high school degree, compared to only 12 percent of native-born persons (Fogg & Sum
1
1999). Nearly one third of Massachusetts residents hold a college degree, compared to the
national average of 26 percent.
If this is the brief profile of the state’s workforce, the brief statement of workforce
development policy goals, as excerpted from the State Unified Plan, Massachusetts Department
of Labor and Workforce Development, 2000, is even easier to state: All residents should have
access to sufficient education and skills training to provide a good quality of life for themselves
and their families; and Massachusetts employers should have access to the skilled workforce
they need to remain competitive.
We focus our broad recommendations on three major problem areas that currently
impede achievement of these goals: a shortage/mismatch of basic skills, a shortage of technical
and professional skills, and the current recession. We also make some system-wide
recommendations. Most importantly, we recommend state policies focused on “intensive” rather
than “extensive” skill development.
Because Massachusetts has long had a fragile labor market for mid-level and technical
skills, the state must educate and mobilize businesses and focus public and private resources on
developing more skills in targeted populations. . Unlike other leading technology states such as
California and Texas, Massachusetts does not have the higher skilled labor in-migration, and the
current recession is likely to increase out-migration. However, there are latent skills for entry
level and mid-level technical jobs that can be utilized once remedial education needs are
addressed through adult basic education. And potentially significant pools of technical,
scientific, and engineering skills exist among urban and minority populations, whose basic
education should be improved through far-reaching educational reforms. The Commonwealth
should stimulate more business involvement, both in basic education (through measures such as
science and engineering camps for urban youth, internships, and expansion of existing school-towork programs) and by expanding incumbent worker training. Efforts already underway along
these lines can be strengthened through greater coordination of related programs.
In the following summary of our complete list of recommendations, our key
recommendations for intensive skill development are marked with and appear in bold italics:
1. Basic skills shortages
•
•
•
•
Expand Adult Basic Education (ABE) and English for Speakers of Other Languages
(ESOL)
Start with preschool
Continue education reform through structural change
Soft skills: train workers, sensitize employers
Design training programs around worker needs
2. Shortages in technical and professional skills
•
•
•
•
Expand incumbent worker training
Build a balanced relationship with employers
Restructure and expand school-to-work and apprenticeship programs
Expand access to higher education
2
•
Be realistic about sources of scientists and engineers
3. The current recession
•
Use excess labor capacity as a training opportunity
Remain focused on the future as well as the present
We also recommend some broad policies that apply across skill development systems:
•
•
•
•
Improve system coordination
Refocus state resources on the big problems
Motivate businesses to train
Expand the role of entrepreneurial quasi-publics
Bring unions and community-based organizations to the table
3
II. WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS
Basic skills shortage
Although the public’s eye has been focused on the need for high-tech skills, many of the
skills in real demand are actually quite basic: reading and writing, and “soft” skills such as
motivation and communication, and team and group problem solving skills.
While much popular attention has focused on hard skills, employers in low-skill jobs
particularly stress “soft skills” that are social or behavioral. These soft skills include the ability
to interact with customers, co-workers, and supervisors, friendliness and appropriate affect,
grooming, and attire. Positive work attitude, commitment, and a willingness to learn are other
soft skills sought by employers.
Even when employers require a college education, the reason isn’t usually the need for specific
college-level skills; rather, they see a college degree as signaling greater perseverance,
motivation, and ability to learn; by contrast, many employers view high school graduates as
unacceptably risky or increasingly difficult to find.
Reproduced from: Comings Sum and Uvin, 2000.
4
A large proportion of the Massachusetts workforce is unable to meet even a relatively
minimal definition of basic skills. In one recent report, in which basic skills were defined as
having adequate English speaking skills, a high school degree or GED, and basic literacy in
mathematics, reading, and analytic ability (above minimum but well below the high school
degree level), 1.1 million people, or one-third of the state’s workforce, did not make it over the
bar (Comings, Sum, and Uvin 2000).
Technical and professional skills shortages
Massachusetts has also suffered shortages of technical and professional skills in a variety
of areas, including machining, nursing and teaching. But the most attention has gone to a skills
shortage in information technology (IT). While the current recession may ease skill shortages
faced by some employers, the underlying causes of long-term skill shortages remain. When the
economy rebounds, the problem will become acute once again. In addition, layoffs and skill
shortages can coexist: for example, in the early 1980s recession, the Machine Action Project
discovered that despite hundreds of laid-off semi-skilled machine operators, skilled machinists
remained in short supply in western Massachusetts (Forrant and Flynn, 1998).
The primary reason Massachusetts employers are struggling to fill the labor needs of
technology-intensive businesses, especially in computer science and engineering, is not high
rates of labor turnover, but “an inadequate level of skilled supply relative to the demands of
employers.” Paul Harrington and Neeta Fogg (2000a, p.22). These current shortages – which the
recession may ease but which will likely return with the recovery – come in the face of
occupation and industry growth projections by the Massachusetts Department of Labor and
Workforce Development’s Division of Employment and Training (DET) showing that jobs
requiring post-secondary education, particularly technical jobs, will continue to grow rapidly.
By 2008, the DET reports, more than three of every five jobs will require an associate’s degree
or higher. Those occupations that usually require a bachelor’s degree or higher will account for
the largest number of new jobs and the second largest number of total openings.
5
Reproduced from DET website: www.detma.org/forms/pdf/1030N_601.pdf
The DET study also predicted that the computer software/IT related services and the
engineering/management services sectors will be among the fastest growing industries,
expanding by 90 percent and 43 percent, respectively, from 1998-2008. To put these growth
rates in context, the predicted average growth rate for all industries during this same period is 10
percent.
These technically skilled occupational categories are often misread to suggest that they
are highly technical fields or require extensive technical education or training. In fact, many of
these jobs do not require college-level education in science and engineering. By some estimates,
two-thirds of the demand for IT workers during the recent IT boom was for IT skills at the
community college or technical institute level, or for those with aptitude for computers and who
could learn by doing (National Academy of Sciences, 2000). Some of the skills most in demand
are for areas such as web design, which involve graphic design and logical design skills rather
than technical computer science/programming skills. Nationally, about a quarter of all IT
employment is in the “computer support specialist” category, which includes help desk and
related functions that generally require functional knowledge of systems and applications but do
not involve computer science or math and science content knowledge. Few in this category
would have a four-year computer science degree (Salzman, 2000). In addition, research across
many industries and types of skills identifies social skills, behavioral characteristics, and
communication abilities as the most important skills employers find lacking in job applicants,
even at technical levels.
Attempts to strengthen the science and engineering workforce have, over the past few
decades, depended decisively on foreign students. Except for a spike in the early 1990s,
engineering, math, and science enrollments by US-born students have remained steady or
declined nationally over the past two decades. Foreign students account for more than half of
enrollments in U.S. engineering, math, and computer science programs. Although some foreign
6
students return to their home countries upon completing their studies, many have stayed and
worked in this country (National Science Foundation, 2000).
In terms of producing science and engineering school graduates, Massachusetts fares
even worse than other states with strong technology sectors. A recent Massachusetts Technology
Collaborative report found that the total number of engineering degrees decreased by 23 percent
between 1987 and 1999, and the number of computer science majors increased by just one
percent between 1993 and 1997. A primary reason for these limited numbers is declining
interest in computer science, mathematics, and engineering among high school students who take
the SAT in Massachusetts, compared to other leading technology states (LTS). Massachusetts
ranked last among the LTS when measured for the percentage of students interested in
engineering and below the average for students interested in computer science.
A final issue is the job quality and status of certain skilled jobs. With companies going
“lean” – cutting back on job training and downsizing in other areas -- technical workers are
expected to work longer hours and handle a wide range of problems, while confronting a lack of
job security. Although some job specialties are handsomely rewarded, compensation remains
relatively modest in other areas, considering the level of education required: for instance, the
median salary for electronic technicians and technologists was $39,000 in 1998, and $38,000 for
mathematical scientists (DET, 2001). In fact, pay is unremarkable for the vast majority of IT
workers (see, e.g., Barnow, Trukto, and Lerman, 1998; Lerman, 2000). Stock options that meant
sizable earnings increases affected relatively few workers in highly visible start-up and IT
companies (Salzman, 2000).
Similar considerations affect other types of labor in short supply. Pay for traditionally
female occupations, such as elementary school teachers and nurses, remains moderate to low
(median pay for registered nurses is $47,000; elementary school teachers average $42,000, and
adult education teachers earn $11.82 per hour and often work only part-time). Other fields face
other problems. Machining, for example, suffers from an image problem and from the perception
that employment is unstable, as well as from the discontinuation of in-house machinist training
programs by many large employers.
The current recession
Both the national and Massachusetts economies are now in recession. Unemployment,
which dipped as low as 2.3 percent in December 2000, has climbed to 4 percent. Employment
growth has leveled off and begun to decline. This recession will be temporary and will likely be
milder than that of the early 1990s, but the consequences are nonetheless severe for
Massachusetts. Businesses and workers across the state are in economic distress. The recession
also has specific negative effects on skill development:
•
•
•
Loss of pools of skills. Groups of skilled workers who have come together in
particular firms and industries are dispersed by layoffs, and in some cases leave the
state in search of work.
Reduced incentive for businesses to provide skills. When the economy shifts from
labor shortage to labor surplus, businesses find they can often pick from highly
skilled job seekers, distracting them from the long-term need to provide incumbent
worker training.
Decreased ability for workers or the Commonwealth to fund training. In a recession,
families are less able to afford tuition, and the state has fewer resources to support
7
education and training. While the recession’s immediate impacts -- layoffs,
unemployment, and fiscal distress – are apparent now, the harm will be even deeper
and more long term if the recession causes the state to delay or prevent needed skill
investments.
The key challenge is to maintain a commitment to skill development, even in the face of
heightened fiscal pressure and temporarily relaxed skill shortages.
III. CURRENT MASSACHUSETTS POLICIES
Components of the skill development system
The Massachusetts skill development system can be broken down into three components:
the educational system, the second chance/retraining system, and business-based training. Each
has exceptional strengths and important weaknesses.
The educational system
The cornerstone of the Massachusetts educational system is the hundreds of local school
systems that offer primary and secondary education. Since only 42 percent of the Massachusetts
population aged 25 and over has more than a high school degree (U.S. Census Bureau 2001), the
K-12 system serves the essential purpose of preparing the majority of the workforce for the
world of work. But the system has two serious problems: unequal access to resources due to the
property tax funding base of the schools, and the poor performance of many schools, particularly
in low income and urban areas.
Comings, Sum, and Uvin estimate that of the 1.1 million Massachusetts residents lacking
basic skills, 83 percent are failures of the Massachusetts educational system, including 280,000
who are high school dropouts and 667,000 who have graduated high school but lack basic
literacy skills. Special attention needs to be directed towards specific schools with high dropout
rates. Of 317 Massachusetts high schools, 19 reported dropout rates greater than 10 percent in
1999. While these 19 schools make up less than six percent of the state’s enrollment, they
accounted for almost one-fourth of the state’s high school dropouts.
The shortcomings of high schools have had an exceptionally large impact on Hispanic
and African-American students. Based on the annual dropout rate for each grade level,
Massachusetts education officials projected that one-third of Hispanic students and nearly onequarter of African-American students who entered ninth grade in 1998-1999 would drop out by
the end of their senior year in 2002, compared to an average projected dropout rate of 14 percent
for all students.
Though major challenges remain, the Education Reform Act of 1993 has helped ease
some of the funding and other problems with K-12 education. The other key building blocks of
the state’s education system are the public higher education system’s 15 two-year community
colleges, nine state colleges, and five University of Massachusetts campuses. These public
institutions of higher education perform relatively well by national standards, though not in all
categories. For instance, the percentage of freshmen who return for a second year is below the
national average for public universities and colleges at one University of Massachusetts campus
and at seven of the state colleges.
8
The second chance/retraining system
The “second chance” system is intended to offer education and training for workers who
were unable to complete their education or who have been displaced from jobs. The focus of this
system has been on disadvantaged workers, such as high school dropouts, welfare recipients, and
the chronically unemployed.
The largest component of the second chance system is a vast network of community
colleges, community based organizations, and public universities that serve as providers of adult
basic education (ABE) and courses on ESOL. Demand for ABE programs far exceeds the supply
of available “seats,” with a waiting list equal to more than 50 percent on top of the enrolled
population, and a much larger latent demand of adults with inadequate basic skills.
The bulk of state-managed employment and training services are delivered through a
system created and mandated by the federal Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA), which
was designed to increase collaboration between all parties involved in workforce development.
One-Stop Career Centers are supposed to serve as clearinghouses for employment and training
information and services.
The Governor’s Task Force to Reform Adult Education and Worker Training (2001)
found that the delivery of workforce development services is administered across 11 different
agencies, making the “system” difficult to navigate for both employers and job seekers.
Although the 35 One-Stop Career Centers provide a highly visible point of contact for the job
seeker, OSCCs are just beginning to market their services to employers. In addition, state funded
workforce development services (especially those for employers, including the Workforce
Training Fund, Extended Career Ladder Initiative, Economic Stabilization Trust, customized
training services through community colleges), are inconsistently marketed through OSCCs.
In summary, the workforce development system lacks a clear point of entry connected
with immediate access to the various types of federal, state and local workforce development
services available in Massachusetts.
There is also evidence that the WIA-mandated structure, while designed to increase
coordination and efficiency of various federal funding streams, is especially difficult for the most
disadvantaged workers, who often face multiple constraints on their ability to attend training
programs, including transportation, child care, and work scheduling problems. Communitybased trainers report that many of these workers appear to have dropped out of their client stream
since WIA (Persson-Reilly 2001).
Business-based training
As is true in other states, spending on private sector incumbent worker training is geared
primarily at more highly skilled workers and not in employees who need training the most. Job
skills training programs that result in the greatest effect on earning power are generally reserved
for managers, computer technicians and sales workers, while clerical, service, production and
other lower-skilled workers are less likely to receive employer-funded training. Moreover, far
too few private employers offer basic skills and ESOL (English for Speakers of Other
Languages) classes to low-skilled employees. Just one percent of private firms in Massachusetts
9
-- half of the U.S. average -- offer basic skills training to employees (Donahue, Lynch, and
Whitehead 2000).
The workforce program challenge
Additional coordination is needed to ensure the efficacy of workforce development
efforts. This lack of coordination runs from direct training programs to efforts to assess changing
labor markets. For example, a variety of public players -- WIBs, community colleges, business
development centers, local chambers of commerce, DET, the Massachusetts Office of Business
Development, among others -- all analyze local and regional labor markets, yet the Task Force to
Reform Adult Education and Worker Training cited a lack of substantive collaboration among
these groups.
Community colleges continue to meet their potential to offer workforce development
unevenly and inconsistently. A major problem is that the training programs of the 15 community
colleges are clearly separated from the job-training establishment in any standard organizational
chart for Massachusetts government. The community college system is answerable not directly
to the Governor, but to the Board of Higher Education. Community college officials sit on
Workforce Investment Boards, but no lines connect community colleges to the various state
agencies with workforce development roles. Some say this “disconnectedness” from the
established system hinders the opportunity for community colleges to develop coordinated
workforce development strategies (Donahue, Lynch, and Whitehead 2000). Yet, preserving their
educational function rather than becoming just state-supported training institutes is also an
important role that requires some independence from the workforce development system.
Immediate attention should be given to current research on how community colleges can best
manage these dual roles (Bailey and Averianova 1998, Rosenfeld 1998).
Guiding principles from other states’ efforts
A sampling of best-practice workforce development efforts in other states (see Appendix
A) suggests several general principles that appear to characterize successful programs:
•
•
Develop long-term relationships with private sector representatives. The active
commitment of business to workforce development and an ongoing relationship is important
to both the successful training and placement of workers, and to the strategic planning of
agencies (Benner et al, 2001, Jobs for the Future 2001). These relationships have the
potential to encourage a business to rethink their investment in their own workforce. In turn,
business involvement in the partnership improves the likelihood that the state’s workforce
training programs will be both timely and relevant. The WIB structure creates a framework
for such a partnership. Although this framework does not in itself ensure productive
government-employer links, lessons can be learned from particularly effective WIBs such as
the Boston Private Industry Council (Melendez, de Montrichard, and Falcon 2002).
Target specific occupations or sectors. Targeting can help agencies gain a more intimate
knowledge of job skill requirements, while providing them with the opportunity to develop
10
long-term relationships with business representatives (Benner et al, 2001, Clark and Dawson,
1995, Dresser and Rogers, 1997).
•
Encourage the hiring of hard-to-employ and low skilled workers. Employers take risks
when they hire people with little or no experience, a bad track record, or limited skills.
Agencies can help reduce this risk by providing supplemental support after placement, such
as transportation or childcare expenses, ESOL or basic education, and ongoing opportunities
for training. Such supports also help address the longer-term needs of the worker themselves
(Benner et al, 2001, Jobs for the Future, 2001). Again, the Workforce Investment Act offers
a starting point for meeting this challenge. An adequate resolution requires added state
efforts to comprehensively address multiple barriers, which as a challenge given narrowly
targeted federal funding. Widely acknowledged as successful in this regard are the Center
for Employment Training in San Jose and San Antonio’s Project Quest.
III. RECOMMENDATIONS
We focus our recommendations on the three major problems we have identified: basic
skills shortages; shortages of technical and professional skills; and dealing with the recession.
We also make some system-level suggestions. We recognize that calls to expand funding may
not be realistic in the short run, given the current fiscal situation, but we issue them nonetheless
to indicate our sense of priorities for the future.
Most importantly, we recommend state policies focused on “intensive” rather than
“extensive” skill development. Because Massachusetts has long had a fragile labor market for
mid-level and technical skills, the state must educate and mobilize businesses and focus public
and private resources on developing more skills in targeted populations. . Unlike other leading
technology states such as California and Texas, Massachusetts does not have the higher skilled
labor in-migration, and the current recession is likely to increase out-migration. However, there
are latent skills for entry level and mid-level technical jobs that can be utilized once remedial
education needs are addressed through adult basic education. And potentially significant pools
of technical, scientific, and engineering skills exist among urban and minority populations,
whose basic education should be improved through far-reaching educational reforms. The
Commonwealth should stimulate more business involvement, both in basic education (through
measures such as science and engineering camps for urban youth, internships, and expansion of
existing school-to-work programs) and by expanding incumbent worker training. Efforts already
underway along these lines can be strengthened through greater coordination of related
programs.
The following recommendation categories lead off with a key recommendation (highlighted
with ) for intensive skill development policies, which will generate the greatest yield for the
Commonwealth.
Basic skills shortages
Expand Adult Basic Education (ABE) and [WE CHOSE ESOL AND CHANGED THE
PLACES WHERE ESOL APPEARS IN THE PAPER]English for Speakers of Other
Languages (ESOL)
11
The Adult and Community Learning Services division of the Department of Education estimates
that all ABE combined can annually serve only about two percent of the estimated two million
Massachusetts adults who lack the abilities expected of a high school graduate. With increasing
numbers of immigrants, the need for ABE and ESOL is expanding dramatically.
• Start with preschool
Preschool programs offer documented educational gains for children, particularly those from
lower-income families. The state of Georgia, despite a median household income only 82
percent that of Massachusetts, offers a fully funded pre-kindergarten program to all four-yearolds (Georgia Office of School Readiness, 2001).
• Continue education reform through structural change
A good high school education can provide adequate preparation for most jobs in the economy.
Coupled with support for life-long learning, this approach will be far more effective than
providing more years of inadequate education.
The Commonwealth should continue its effort to equalize educational resources and to improve
performance of lagging schools and school systems. However, the emphasis on testing as the
primary driver of improvement is limited. More comprehensive reform is necessary. One
example of fixing rather than patching the education system is Kentucky’s systemic
restructuring, which restructured all urban schools as charter-like schools, implemented
sweeping management changes, and introduced new, broad-based evaluation techniques. The
increased reliance on remedial education at the post-secondary level not only saddles those
institutions with remedial functions that do not play to their strength, but it also diverts attention
from the core problem of providing adequate education and skills at the high school level.
In addition, it is important to recognize that school performance depends not just on the school
itself, but on the family and community environment. Thus, nutrition, health, public safety, and
anti-poverty programs are an important complement to reforms in the educational system itself.
• Soft skills: train workers, sensitize employers
Education and training programs must train workers in the importance of self-presentation,
attitude, and reliability. Contrary to the views of some employers, these capacities can, in fact,
be enhanced through training. At the same time, many employers need training in how to
manage a diverse workforce. The Commonwealth should consider policies to expand the
availability of consulting and training on diversity management for businesses, especially smaller
ones.
• Design training programs around worker schedules and support needs
Increase the number of on-the-job training programs supplemented by weekend and evening
programs. Develop programs that provide support for “pull-out” incumbent worker education
and training programs during the workday, including on-site courses. State-financed support for
smaller firms or Individual Training Accounts that pay for wages while in training should be
established and employers should provide training release time. Where possible, support trainees
with services such as childcare, transportation, and social services. More aggressive outreach
12
efforts are also needed to ensure that those in need of skill development actually participate in
available programs.
Shortages in technical and professional skills
Expand incumbent worker training
Incumbent worker training is currently underutilized as a means of developing mid-level skills.
Job ladder and “job lattice” programs, which help workers move from one job to another in a
single employer or a group of employers, show a great deal of promise, even in IT sectors, where
many jobs have relatively modest skill demands. As a result of findings from the Governor’s
Task Force to Reform Worker Training and Adult Education, several key workforce
development agencies recently initiated a promising new grant program called the Building
Essential Skills through Training (BEST) Initiative, which focuses on incumbent workers and
requires co-investment by firms. . More state resources should be devoted to supporting and
promoting such incumbent training programs.
One key element in incumbent skill building is broader public financial support for higher
education and training. But another is to provide adequate wages to low-skilled workers to
enable them to take advantage of educational and training opportunities by not having to hold
multiple jobs. The Task Force on Massport (2001) strongly recommended employers pay a
living wage to 12,000 airport workers as one of the more important means of obtaining and
increasing skills. This Task Force recommendation is relevant for many Massachusetts
industries that will need skilled workers in the next economic cycle.
• Restructure and expand school-to-work and apprenticeship programs
Important strides have been made in improving vocational education, including increasing the
participation of employers in that education. In Massachusetts, school-to-work programs have
been important but limited; these efforts could be expanded with apprenticeship programs, such
as those developed in a number of other states. School-to-work initiatives have been limited by
political concerns that they would result in tracking or delivering a substandard education. State
policy can play a role in providing support for differentiated education streams in ways that
neither provides substandard education nor track students. Such efforts, however, may require
substantial reorganization of school systems.
• Expand access to higher education
Perhaps the most important step is to expand access to two-year programs, which can provide a
strong basic education, offer cost-effective retraining, and can serve as a jumping-off point for
further higher education. Georgia is a leader in expanding access to both two- and four-year
colleges through “HOPE Scholarships,” which are funded by the state lottery and cover tuition
and fees at a public institution (or $3,000 per year toward tuition at a private institution) for
students with an average of B or better (Georgia Student Finance Commission 2001).
• Be realistic about sources of scientists and engineers
Foreign students have been a key source of science and engineering majors in U.S. higher
education, in large part because over the past two decades, American colleges have not
succeeded in luring large numbers of domestic students into science and engineering. Rather
13
than target science-oriented scholarships and other support resources to middle class students,
who for the most part are already aware of opportunities in science but have chosen not to pursue
them, such resources should be targeted to students from disadvantaged communities who would
otherwise not pursue higher education but who offer the largest potential pool for increasing the
domestic science and engineering workforce. Keeping the doors open to immigrants is also an
important continuation of longstanding US policy and a significant source of supply.
The current recession
Use excess labor capacity as a training opportunity
Human capital, so sought in the recent labor shortage, should be preserved and developed. This
is particularly true in the tourism and travel industries that face a steeper recovery as travel and
tourism rebounds from September 11. The Commonwealth should explore innovative policies
that allow employers to retain workers and to use excess capacity as an opportunity to increase
training. If resources are made available, training may be more possible during slow times when
there is slack than in a boom when employers seek to fully utilize every employee.
State policies should encourage laid-off workers to receive, and employers to provide,
training for reentry to their old industries. Workers on reduced hours should be eligible both for
unemployment insurance and for training funds, making this kind of arrangement more attractive
to workers and employers alike.
• Remain focused on the future as well as the present
Recession brings with it a spate of immediate concerns: revenue shortfalls, layoffs and business
closings, increased unemployment insurance costs. But while addressing these issues, state
policy-makers must also keep an eye on how the Massachusetts economy can help lay the basis
for the next economic boom. This means maintaining a rhetorical and substantive commitment
to workforce development in all its dimensions. Skill building should not be viewed as a luxury
or be given lower priority because of temporarily muted skill shortages. Though business
interest in training may be momentarily reduced, the recession should be used as an opportunity
to enhance training programs, rather than as an excuse to diminish them.
Skill development systems
Improve system coordination
The federally mandated coordination of many training services through regional Workforce
Investment Boards is a step in the right direction. However, further steps toward coordination
are needed at both the regional and state levels.
An important first step is to develop a resource guide to all state, federal, and local
training and employment services in Massachusetts, as Rhode Island has done with its
employment and training “crosswalk.” Such a resource guide could be made available to OneStop Career Centers and other service providers. The state should help the One-Stops develop
the capacity to assimilate and diffuse this knowledge. Currently, the One Stop Career Centers do
not market all of the services available in the state. In addition, the state lacks marketing
materials or a website to coordinate all federal, state and local services, though an annual report
and website for the workforce development system as a whole is now in process based on
14
recommendations by the Governor’s Task Force to Reform Adult Education and Worker
Training.
It is also critical to break down barriers between community colleges and the other state
agencies responsible for training. Each can learn from the other, and both have much to gain
from coordination that goes beyond case-by-case collaboration. In the long run, the
Commonwealth should reexamine the financing of community college continuing education
programs, and consider subsidizing community colleges as a vehicle for targeted skill
development initiatives.
The Department of Administration and Finance’s Managing Results Initiative, which plans a
comprehensive review of state programs to improve coordination and efficiency, offers an
important vehicle for undertaking some of these steps.
• Refocus state resources on the big problems
Driven in part by federal funding priorities, the Commonwealth has focused its skill development
efforts on short-term training and placement. However, basic and professional/technical skill
shortages require more sustained education and training inputs. Massachusetts should, where
possible, shift resources toward addressing these shortages.
• Build a balanced relationship with employers
One of the keys to success of workforce development programs, be they through training
vendors, school-to-work, labor market intermediaries, or community colleges, is the active
participation of and the cultivation of long-term relationships with the employer community.
Partnerships with business not only smooth placement of graduates, but they also increase the
likelihood that the curriculum will respond to the articulated needs of the employers. However,
businesses should not drive the training agenda unilaterally. To the extent that firms focus on
educational and training content, they are likely to define their needs narrowly on the skills they
need on particular jobs right at the moment. Those specific skills may change relatively rapidly,
leading to skill obsolescence. Deeper and broader skill development is likely to be in the best
long-term interest of workers’ advancement possibilities. Public programs should encourage
businesses to make long-term investments in workers, rather than simply helping them to cut
training costs (Luria, 1997). Industry associations or consortia, unions where relevant, and
exemplary businesses are usually more committed to a broad training agenda than the typical
individual business, so public programs should seek to build partnerships with these actors and
provide support to other firms that wish to expand their training approaches.
• Motivate businesses to train
Progress has been made on involving businesses in designing training curricula and providing
employment opportunities for program graduates. But business involvement in training itself
remains limited, and tilted towards training for those who already possess strong skills, such as
managers. The Commonwealth has a number of levers to encourage businesses to engage in
skill development, many of which it is already putting to use through initiatives such as BEST.
State agencies could tie training assistance (and potentially other types of assistance) to
businesses’ commitment to provide training themselves. Agencies could also explore ways to
provide technical assistance with in-house training, rather than simply delivering trained
workers. Agencies can assist industry associations in taking on training responsibilities and can
15
help businesses and unions develop joint skill development activities. Last but not least, public
officials can use the bully pulpit to urge businesses to undertake skill building.
• Expand the role of entrepreneurial quasi-publics
The Massachusetts skill development system is sprawling and decentralized. Proposals to
recentralize it are impractical from a political and managerial standpoint. However, in the
absence of centralized coordination, agencies with a broad and flexible mandate can play an
important role in filling gaps and building bridges.
• Bring unions and community-based organizations to the table
Unions and community-based organizations can provide first-hand knowledge of workplaces and
workforces, strong contacts with current and potential workers, and a deep commitment to make
workforce development work for their constituencies. Examples around the country, from the
Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership (organized primarily by unions) to San Jose’s Center
for Employment Training (a community-based group) demonstrate the value that these actors can
add to workforce development. It makes sense to tap their expertise and energy in planning and
implementing programs.
Benefits and costs of the recommendations
While it is difficult to assign numerical benefits and costs to each policy
recommendation, there is strong evidence that the financial benefits of education and training
are substantial and that they generally exceed the direct costs of skill provision. For instance:
•
•
•
The benefit of a year of post-secondary education has been estimated to increase earnings by
5 to 10 percent. . The value of a year of structured on-the-job training has been estimated to
be of equal value (Donahue, Lynch, and Whitehead 2000). These earnings gains reflect the
productivity gains to business.
The best and most often cited evaluation of pre-school programs is that of the Perry
Preschool Project, launched in Michigan in 1962. The evaluations estimates seven dollars
saved in social costs for every dollar spent on the program (Barnett 1996).
From September 1993 to December 2001 Georgia’s HOPE scholarship program has provided
college scholarships to 581,153 students at a per pupil cost of about $2419. Approximately
60 percent of the HOPE scholarship students persist through the four years of college
(although only 25 percent maintain their scholarship by maintaining a B average for four
years) and 70 percent through two years of college (Georgia Student Finance Commission
2001). According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s year 2000 Current Population Survey, a full
time worker with a BA earns $300 per week more than a high school graduate; a full time
worker with some college earns $75 more per week. In either case, it takes less than a year
for the full time extra earnings to exceed the cost to the state of supporting his or her college
attendance. In fact, hypothetically applying the Massachusetts income tax rate to the added
earnings, a full-time worker with a college degree would pay an added $2,419 in income
taxes in less than three years.
16
In short, while more research on benefits and costs is needed, evidence to date clearly establishes
that workforce skills are a highly worthwhile investment.
A final word
We close by returning to points that we have stressed repeatedly throughout this paper.
Businesses, workers, and the Commonwealth as a whole all stand to benefit from skill
development. Education and training programs will be most effective to the extent that all three
parties are fully involved in them. True, the shadow of recession makes it a greater challenge to
sustain a high level of public sector and business involvement. But the need and opportunity for
skill development is as great or greater in hard times as it is in good times. The future prosperity
of Massachusetts depends on the steps that are taken now.
17
Appendix A:
BEST PRACTICES FROM AROUND THE COUNTRY
It is useful to look to other states for models of workforce development policy.
Following and building upon the taxonomy of state programs developed in a report by the
National Governors Association of state-funded, employer-focused job training programs we
look at specific programmatic strategies that are employer based, community college based, state
based, and non-profit labor market intermediary based (National Governors’ Association Center
for Best Practices 1999, as summarized by Lim (2001)).
Specific Programs
Employer based programs
California’s Employment Training Panel (EPT) has been the model employer-based
training program for many states. The EPT was launched by Legislature in 1982 as a
cooperative business-labor program to fund job training. Since then, it has funneled more than
$550 million to 26,000 employers for the training of over a quarter of a million employees. EPT
is funded through the Employment Training Tax, a special levy on California employers
participating in the UI system. For employers to access EPT funds, they must certify that
perspective trainees are likely to be displaced in the absence of fresh skills development. In
addition, employers need to provide a plan showing how the training contributes to the long-term
security of the trainee. EPT’s longevity, high usage rates and political support has allowed
California to improve on the program over the twenty years. By adding auxiliary staff to help
employers with the application process, the EPT has become more accessible, thus been able to
serve more employers. The EPT has also developed strict performance measures to monitor the
programs they fund. For example, to emphasize job retention, EPT will not reimburse training
expenses to employers if the trainees do not remain on the job for at least 90 days after training.
New Jersey has been recognized for its Customized Training Program (CTP). New
Jersey’s financial commitment to CTP ranks the state as a leader in per-capita spending for
incumbent worker training programs. CTP has been successfully used as an economic
development tool to encourage firms to relocate and expand in New Jersey. Like California, for
employers to tap CTP funds, employers must prove the need for skills training, as well as prove
training will increase job security. CPT employers also must agree to hire all trainees that
successfully complete the training program. Massachusetts should strive to emulate California’s
EPT and New Jersey’s CPT programs. These programs not only have strong financial support
from their state government, California is ranked sixth and New Jersey is seventh in workforce
funding per capita, but they also utilize funds effectively. Massachusetts is ranked 46th in per
capita state funding (Regional Technology Strategies 1999).
Community College Based Programs
North Carolina’s skills training system is founded upon the state’s strong community
college system. North Carolina’s network of community colleges created as industrial
educational facilities developed for employers to use as training facilities. The state offered
subsidized training programs customized to business needs as incentives for companies to locate
in North Carolina. From this early network of educational facilities grew the current community
18
college system. Over the years, the mission of the community colleges has remained focused
upon skills training for businesses.
Iowa has also integrated community colleges into the state’s skills training system.
Businesses are required to partner with a local community college before they can access training
dollars. The community college helps develop an appropriate training program and brokers
between the firm and state agencies to determine eligibility for public funding. The forced
partnership between employers and community colleges has created a process that produces
training programs that effectively meet the needs of businesses. Contrary to these two examples,
Massachusetts community college system, as discussed earlier, is disconnected from workforce
development strategies. Massachusetts can learn from these states about methods to better
incorporate its community college system into statewide workforce development efforts.
Studies of model community colleges have found them to incorporate the role of an
economic development agency in their mission (Rosenfeld, 1998). These community colleges
base their trainings around regional industry clusters and work closely with area business
representatives. Some colleges been so successful in understanding the regional industry, they
have become the leading technical expert that area businesses turn to for advice on technology
and training.
State-Agency Based Programs
The Human Resource Investment Council (HRIC) in Rhode Island coordinates workforce
development through taking an unusually active role in initiating new programs and building
partnerships between employers and public sector organizations. As a state agency, HRIC has
the ability to utilize tax credits to encourage private sector led workforce development efforts.
For example, HRIC offers tax credits for job training programs that train low-wage workers and
result in wages for trainees at least 150 percent of the state minimum wage upon completion of
the training.
Georgia has created the Department of Technical and Adult Education (DTAE) to
consolidate the State's efforts in technical education, adult literacy, public library services and
economic development programs. The DTAE has developed a fairly comprehensive workforce
development plan that includes an apprenticeship program, retraining tax credits for businesses,
“Certified Specialist” programs, and the often-cited training program known as Quick Start
(www.dtae.tec.ga.us/econdev). Quick Start program is Georgia’s model job training program.
Unlike many state employer-focused job-training programs, the Quick Start program is not a
financing mechanism to subsidize employee training. Instead, it is a training and human
resource organization that delivers training directly to employers establishing new jobs in
Georgia. The program is also highly regarded in its flexibility, which allows it to be responsive
to business. Quick Start trainings are coordinated through technical and community colleges
around the state, and can be scheduled either on site or at satellite campuses, any time of day. In
addition to the Quick Start program, Georgia is acclaimed for its HOPE Scholarship program–a
remarkable program that, for any high school graduate with a 3.0 GPA, provides full college
tuition and a book allowance in any state college or $3,000 in tuition at a private college in
Georgia. It also pays tuition at community colleges and training institutes for nearly any Georgia
resident. HOPE helps all Georgia residents achieve post-secondary education credentials.
Specifically, HOPE directs financial aid to adults who can attend school only part time and who
are seeking something less than a conventional college degree. Presently, Massachusetts has no
19
comparable programs. The state should borrow strategies for collaboration between state
agencies from these examples to improve coordination within its system.
Washington, like Massachusetts, has experienced a shortage in both mid-skilled workers
and college graduates in science and technology (Washington State Governor’s Office 2001).
Washington has developed a strategy, The Washington Innovation Economy Strategy, to
improve their workforce and education systems, in addition to strengthening their research
institutions and facilitating technology transfers. To address worker shortages in the IT industry,
the state has partnered with industry leaders in developing their “IT Bridge Builders Program”.
It is intended to not only help fill vacancies, but also to provide the opportunity for collaborative
relationships that will allow them to anticipate future workforce needs. In a related strategy, a
newly created Technology Institute will partner with industry leaders and the states 14
community colleges in addressing the shortage of college graduates. Both the Technology
Institute and the IT Bridge Builders Project are good examples of public-private partnerships that
will provide the opportunity for long-term training and development strategies. Future skill
development programs in the IT field in Massachusetts should take lessons from Washington’s
experience.
Like many states, North Carolina has experienced high turnover rates in childcare
providers, mainly due to the very low wages paid in this field. The education levels of the
providers were also found to be lacking. To address these issues, North Carolina developed two
related programs – the Childcare WAGES Project and the TEACH Early Childhood Project
(www.childservices.org). The WAGES project provides education based salary supplements to
participations. Low paid providers working with children 5 and under are eligible for income
supplements based on their level of education. For instance, an Early Childhood Education
certificate earns a $450 supplement, while an Associates degree earns $1500 for the childcare
provider. Not only is this an income support for the provider, but it also acts as an incentive to
remain in the field and further their education.
The TEACH project provides partial scholarships to providers to defray the costs of
earning a degree. After an education level is earned, the participants are eligible for completion
bonuses up to $700. The provider must then commit to working in that profession up to a year,
depending on the scholarship program. Both of the programs are also very flexible in eligibility.
For instance, the requirement of minimum hours working in a childcare center ranges from 10 to
30 per week, depending on the program. North Carolina’s childcare initiatives are good
examples of how a state can help improve the workforce in a job area that is vital to the future
health of the state.
Wisconsin has been a model state in developing apprenticeship programs for workforce
development. (Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development 2001). Once participants are
hired and enrolled, the employer and new apprentice sign a contract that details skill standard
guidelines for the occupation. The contract, developed by technical colleges, unions, and
employer organizations, is overseen by the state Department of Workforce Development. The
training, sponsored by the employer, is work based with a great deal of on the job learning
supplemented with classroom time. As the participant gains experience and skills, s/he is
rewarded with higher wages and greater security and career potential. This model is now being
used as part of the states welfare to work initiative as well. In this case, un- and underemployed
non-custodial fathers can enter apprenticeship programs while receiving supplemental supports
under welfare to work. The Apprenticeship Program is seen as a way to secure skilled
employment with living wages and career opportunities, as opposed to simple placement, for
20
those with low skills or little work experience; the program is used as a way to address workers
long term needs. The Machine Action Project in western Massachusetts has developed
innovative training programs that follow the apprenticeship model, but more development
statewide along these lines would benefit workforce development in Massachusetts.
Non-profit labor market intermediary based programs
The San Francisco Hotel Partnership Project trains workers from a number of partner
firms in the hotel industry in, for example, wine service, fine dining service, ESOL, and safety
training (Korshak, 2000). The project was started as a joint effort of SEIU Local 2 and area hotel
management to address the poor quality service in their banquet halls and the lack of trained
workers during peak seasons. In addition to successfully increasing the skills and pay of the
workers, this project has also led to improved relations among the once adversarial union and
management.
Project QUEST (Quality Employment through Skills Training) is an independent nonprofit training intermediary based in San Antonio, Texas (Clark and Dawson, 1995). QUEST
works closely with business representatives from industries of targeted occupations, including
nursing, aircraft repair, and healthcare technologies, in effort to understand both the skills
required of workers and the needs and trends of the industry. QUEST only deals with clients that
have one or more “barrier”, i.e. prison record, language barrier, or low skills (Osterman and
Lautsch, 1996). During the training program clients can apply for emergency supports for
expenses including rent and utilities. In addition to job area related training, workers receive
supplemental services including career counseling, individual counseling, life skills training, and
weekly meetings on work place habits. Although this may seem like a sizable commitment on
both sides, QUEST has had remarkable success, substantially raising participant’s income and
work hours.
The Center for Employment Training (CET) based in San Jose California is a private,
non-profit agency that provides training services to low income and ‘hard-to-serve’ individuals
in effort to place them in sustainable, well paid positions that have potential for upward mobility
(www.cet2000.org). The CET program, which covers more than 30 occupation areas, combines
basic skills and vocational training in a simulated work environment for participants. Like
Project QUEST, CET provides a variety of supplemental supports during training and continues
communication and support after placement. The CET has been so successful that they received
US Department of Labor funding to replicate their program in 15 other locations.
The Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership (WRTP) is an independent membership
organization that draws its constituents from the regions metalworking firms (Dresser and
Rogers, 1997). The WRTP develops programs to assist member firms in developing or
improving their worker training practices or modernization process and provides links between
area business and schools to ensure accurate trade training in the school systems. To receive
WRTP services, member firms must agree and adhere to terms developed by its joint labormanagement governance. The efforts of the WRTP have led to increased skills and pay for
workers, greater employment stability, and a higher quality relationship between labor and
management.
Although existing career ladder programs can vary greatly, there are several key points
that successful efforts share. 1 It is important for agencies to target their trainings at specific
1
This paragraph draws from Clark & Dawson 1995, Brenner, Brownstein, Dresser and Leete 2001, and Dresser and
Rogers 1997, program materials, and an interview with Clay Howell, Project QUEST)
21
occupations or industry sectors. Many workforce development and placement agencies work on
a firm-by-firm basis. This does not allow agencies to understand skill requirements, industry
trends, or careers in that field. Targeting also allows agencies to build strong relationships with
employers, which is another key to program success. Additionally, targeting a range of skill
level occupations allows an agency to better understand career trajectories for successful
successive placements of clients. Greater success is achieved when agencies work with clients
over a long period of time. This is particularly critical in dealing with disadvantaged
populations. Providing both formal and on the job training is also important, and partnering
workers with coworker-mentors has been identified as a way to help the new adjust and receive
on the job support as needed. In general, it is crucial to think beyond placement; the workers’
long term needs must be addressed, and communication must be maintained after placement.
These lessons should guide the Commonwealth in supporting the development of successful
labor market intermediaries.
22
References
Bailey, T., & Averianova, I. (1998, October). “Multiple Missions of Community Colleges:
Conflicting or Complementary?”
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/~iee/ccrc/PROJECTS/IRINA.HTM
Barnett, W.S. 1996. Lives in the Balance: Age 27 Benefit-Cost Analysis of the High Scope Perry
Preschool Project. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.
Benner, Chris, Bob Brownstein, Laura Dresser, and Laura Leete. 2001. “Staircases and
Treadmills: The Role of Labor Market Intermediaries in Placing Workers and Fostering Upward
Mobility.” Paper presented at the Industrial Relations Research Association, New Orleans,
January.
Cappelli, Peter. 1996 “Technology and Skill Requirements: Implications for Establishment
Wage Structures.” in Earnings Inequality, special issue of the New England Economic Review,
May/June.
Chapman, Jeffrey. 2001. “Standing Proudly on the Side of Immigrant Workers in
Massachusetts,” JFK School of Government, Harvard University, April 3, 2001. Submitted to
MA AFL-CIO
Clark, Peggy, and Stephen L. Dawson. 1995. Jobs and the Urban Poor: Privately Initiated
Sectoral Strategies. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute.
Comings, John, Andrew Sum, and Johan Uvin. 2000. New Skills for a New Economy: Adult
Education’s Key Role in Sustaining Economic Growth and Expanding Opportunity. Boston:
MassINC, December.
Donahue, John D., Lisa M. Lynch, and Ralph Whitehead, Jr. 2000. Opportunity Knocks:
Training the Commonwealth’s Workers for the New Economy. Boston: MassINC, March.
Dresser, Laura, and Joel Rogers. 1997. Rebuilding Job Access and Career Advancement Systems
in the New Economy. Wisconsin: Center on Wisconsin Strategy.
Fogg, Neeta and Paul Harrington. 2001. “Growth and Change in the Massachusetts and Greater
Boston Labor Markets,” Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University, June 7, 2001.
Prepared for US conference of Mayors Workforce Development Summit, Boston, MA.
Forrant, Robert and Erin Flynn. 1998. “Seizing agglomeration’s potential: The greater
Springfield Massachusetts metalworking sector in transition, 1986-1996.” Regional Studies
33(3): 209-222.
Forrant, Robert, Philip Moss and Chris Tilly. 2001. Knowledge Sector Powerhouse: Reshaping
Massachusetts industries and employment during the 1980’s and 1990’s. MA Department of
Economic Development, September 2001.
23
Georgia Office of School Readiness. 2001. Web site: www.OSR.State.Ga.US
Georgia Student Finance Commission. 2001. HOPE Statistical Report. Web site:
www.gsfc.org/hope
Governor’s Task Force to Reform Adult Education and Worker Training. 2001.
“Recommendations.” July 2001
Harrington, Paul E. and Neeta P. Fogg. 2000a. “Threats to Sustained Economic Growth:
Science, Engineering and Information Technology Labor Shortages in the Massachusetts
Economy.” Northeastern University Center for Labor Market Studies, September.
Harrington, Paul E. and Neeta P. Fogg. 2000b. “Labor Squeeze: New England’s Prospects
Hinge on the Supply of Scientific, engineering and Information Technology Workers.”
Connection: New England’s Journal of Higher Education and Economic Development. Fall.
Holzer, Harry J. 1996. What Employers Want: Job Prospects for Less Educated Workers. New
York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Jobs for the Future. 2001. Everybody WINs: Effectively Involving Business in Workforce
Development.
Kane, Thomas J. and Cecilia Rouse. 1995. “Labor Market Returns to Two-Year and Four-Year
College.” American Economic Review, Vol. 85 No. 3: 600-614.
Korshak, Stuart R. 2000. “A Labor Management Partnership: San Fransisco’s Hotels and the
Employees’ Union Try a New Approach,” Hotel and Restaurant Quarterly. Cornell University.
April.
Lerman, Robert, Stephanie Riegg and Harold Salzman. 2001. “Community Colleges: Trainers or
Retrainers of IT Workers” Community College Journal, June-July.
Lim, Christopher. 2001. “Beginning with people: Preparing the workforce of the 21st century.
An issue brief supporting economic strategy development in the Commonwealth.”
Massachusetts Department of Economic Development. August.
Luria, Daniel. 1997. “The Public Purpose in a High Road Manufacturing Workforce,”
Community College Journal, 67(6), June/July.
Lynn, Leonard and Hal Salzman. 2002 “Engineers and the practice of engineering in the U.S.,
Japan, and Germany – Some Tentative Findings from a comparative study” Paper presented at
National Science Foundation Engineering Conference, Puerto Rico. January.
Massachusetts Board of Higher Education. 1997. Mindpower in Massachusetts: A Report on
Public Higher Education. www.mass.edu/ir/condition/mindpower.pdf
24
Massachusetts Department of Education. 2001. Web site: www.doe.mass.edu
Massachusetts Department of Education. 1999. Dropout Rates in Massachusetts Public Schools:
1998-99.
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Workforce Development. 2000. State Unified Plan
Submitted Under Section 501 of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 for the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts for the period of July 1, 2000-June 30, 2005.
Massachusetts Division of Employment and Training. 2001. Web site, www.detma.org
Massachusetts Division of Employment and Training, Economic Analysis Department. 2000.
Massachusetts Employment Projections through 2008: A Focus on the Jobs, the Industries, and
the Workforce. www.detma.org/forms/pdf/1030N_601.pdf
Massachusetts Technology Collaborative. 2001. Index of the MA Innovation Economy 2001.
Massachusetts Technology Collaborative. 2000a. Index of the MA Innovation Economy 2000.
Melendez, Edwin, Alexandra de Montrichard, and Luis Falcon. 2002. “The WIA and the
restructuring of employment services in Boston.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Industrial Relations Research Association, Atlanta, GA.
Moss, Philip and Chris Tilly. 2001. Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill, and Hiring in America.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Moss, Philip, Harold Salzman, and Chris Tilly. 2001. “Limits to Market-Mediated Employment:
From Deconstruction to Reconstruction of Internal Labor Markets” in Industrial Relations
Review Annual Francoise Carre and Marianne Ferber (eds.)
Murnane Richard J. and Frank Levy. 1996. Teaching the New Basic Skills: Principles for
Education Children to Thrive in a Changing Economy, New York: The Free Press.
National Research Council. 2001. Building a Workforce for the Information Economy.
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
National Center for Educational Statistics 2000. “Overview of the National Adult Literacy
Survey, 1992” Excerpt taken from Irwin Kirsch et al., Technical Report and User's Manual for
the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000).
Reported on http://nces.ed.gov/naal/design/about92.asp
Osterman, Paul. 1995. Skill, training, and work organization in American establishments.
Industrial Relations, 34(2), 125-146.
Osterman, Paul, and Brenda A. Lautsch. 1996. “Project QUEST: A Report to the Ford
Foundation,” MIT Sloan School of Management.
25
Persson-Reilly, Michelle. 2001. The Shift from a Contract-Based to a Voucher-Based Job
Training Delivery System: The Effect of the Workforce Investment Act on Boston’s Non-Profit
Training Providers. Master of City Planning Thesis, Department of Urban Studies and Planning,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Regional Technology Strategies, Inc. 1999. “A Comprehensive Look at State-Funded, EmployerFocused Job Training Programs,” National Governors’ Association Center for Best Practices: 1596.
Rosenfeld, S. A. 1998. Community College/Cluster Connections: Specialization and
Competitiveness in the U.S. and Europe, October.
http://www.tc.columbia.edu/~iee/ccrc/PROJECTS/SROSENF.HTM
Salzman, Harold 2000. “The Information Technology Industries and Workforces: Work
Organization and Human Resource Issues" Report to the National Academy of Sciences
Committee on Workforce Needs in Information Technology, April.
http://www.uml.edu/centers/CIC/pdf/salzman/nas-it-report.pdf
Salzman, Harold with Radha Roy Biswas 2000. "The Indian IT Industry and Workforce:
Implications for U.S. H1-B Policy" Report to the National Academy of Sciences,. March,
http://www.uml.edu/centers/CIC/pdf/salzman/nas-it-indiait-execsummary.pdf
Salzman, Harold, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly “The New Corporate Landscape and Workforce
Skills: What firms want; how they get it; and the role of education, training, and community
colleges” (1998) Working Paper NCPI-2-07 National Center for Postsecondary Improvement,
StanfordUniversity.http://www.stanford.edu/group/ncpi/documents/pdfs/207_newcorplandscape.pdf
Sum, Andrew M., and W. Neal Fogg, “The Changing Workforce: Immigrants and the New
Economy in Massachusetts,” MassINC, November 1999.
Task Force on Massport. 2001. http://www.state.ma.us/gov/120301taskforcereport.htm
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Web site: stats.bls.gov
U.S. Census Bureau. 2001. Web site, www.census.gov
26