ISSN 1989 - 9572
A study of the potential of training to be
transferred to the workplace
Un estudio del potencial de la formación para ser
transferida al puesto de trabajo
Cristina Granado,
Universidad de Sevilla, España
Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers, Vol. 7 (1)
http://www.ugr.es/~jett/index.php
Fecha de recepción: 29 de febrero de 2016
Fecha de revisión: 21 de abril de 2016
Fecha de aceptación: 29 de abril de 2016
Granado, C. (2016). A study of the potential of training to be transferred to the
workplace.. Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers, Vol. 7(1). 89 – 100.
Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers JETT, Vol. 7 (1); ISSN: 1989-9572
89
Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers, Vol. 7 (1)
ISSN 1989 – 9572
http://www.ugr.es/~jett/index.php
A study of the potential of training to be transferred to the workplace
Un estudio del potencial de la formación para ser transferida al puesto de
trabajo
Cristina Granado, Universidad de Sevilla, España
cgalonso@us.es
Abstract
In order to improve the effectiveness of the training provided by the agency in charge of training of public
servants in the region of Andalusia (Spain), trainers were surveyed about what is the utilization of designrelated transfer factors they do when they design training courses. Thus, the extent to which training is
designed to be transferred can be analyzed. The results suggested that trainers focused their interventions
more on the trainees’ satisfaction with the level and usefulness of the learning acquired than on the
learning transfer to workplace. In addition, this study allowed us to gain better understanding of the
perspective of trainers on how training design elements are associated. Four transfer-focused training
approaches were detected, whose concomitant use varies depending on training objectives. It is
concluded that the study of the transferability of training is useful to detect weaknesses and strengths in
training and proposals for improvements and lines of inquiry are suggested.
Resumen
Con el fin de mejorar la eficacia de la formación ofrecida a los empleados públicos en Andalucía (España)
por la organización responsable, se encuestó a los formadores sobre el uso que hacen de los factores de
transferencia relacionados con el diseño de la formación cuando planean cursos. Así, es posible analizar
en qué medida la formación es diseñada para ser transferida. Los resultados sugieren que los formadores
centran más su intervención en la satisfacción de los empleados por el nivel y utilidad del aprendizaje
adquirido que en su transferencia al puesto de trabajo. Además, este estudio permitió obtener una mayor
comprensión de la perspectiva de los formadores sobre cómo se combinan los elementos del diseño. Así,
se detectaron cuatro enfoques de formación centrados en la transferencia, cuyo uso conjunto varía en
función de los objetivos de formación. Se concluye que el estudio del potencial de la formación para ser
transferida resulta útil para detectar fortalezas y debilidades en la formación y se sugieren propuestas de
mejora y líneas de investigación.
Keywords
Professional training; Transfer of training; Training methods; Evaluation
Palabras clave
Formación continua; Transferencia de la formación; Métodos de formación; Evaluación.
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1. Introduction
Training is seen as an essential tool for the improvement of employee performance and for the
survival and success of the organizations in a changing world. Determining if the training really
gets these attainments and how it is possible to improve them has been the goal of both training
effectiveness studies and training evaluation efforts. Training evaluation is in charge of
assessing the benefits derived from training, with a clear vocation towards accountability, while
training effectiveness studies have been focused on detecting what variables can be affecting
training impact with a clear diagnostic and improvement-oriented vocation (Holton, Bates &
Ruona, 2000).
Most training effectiveness studies use the transfer of training as the main evaluation measure
of the impact of training (Alvarez, Salas & Garofano, 2004). Transfer of training is defined by
Baldwin and Ford (1988) as ‘the degree to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes gained in the training context to their jobs’ (p. 63). Although other outcomes are
also valuable criteria of training effectiveness, such as trainee satisfaction and level of learning,
the transfer of training is considered the most powerful indicator to evaluate the effects of
training, because it requires the trainees to learn job-related competencies (Velada & Caetano,
2007) -although learning does not guarantee that the transfer of training happens (Hutchins &
Burke, 2007)- and because it leads to improvements in employee competencies and,
consequently, in organizational performance (Kauffeld & Lehmann-Willenbrock, 2010).
In Spain, since the establishment of Foundation for the Training of Employees (Fundación para
la Formación Continua) in 1993, a spectacular growth of training plans and training agencies
has taken place. The efforts have been focused on the quantitative development of employee
training systems and on the consolidation of training habits throughout working life and in
organizations. But the impact of these efforts is unknown, because training evaluation has been
a deficient practice (Pineda-Herrero, Moreno-Andrés & Durán-Belloch, 2014). In an context of
economic crisis, there is a need for measures aimed at reducing expenditures that has driven
the government and the companies to question the cost-effectiveness of the approach to
training used until now, more interested in the number of workers who have attended any
training initiative or in the number of training courses delivered, and to prioritize training impact
in the workplace (Renta-Davis, Jiménez-González, Fandos-Garrido & González-Soto, 2014).
The concern for transfer of training and for its evaluation is making a dominant appearance on
the stage.
In terms of transfer, the improvement of training is not just a matter of introducing new
measures linked to transfer rates into training evaluation design, but it is also about introducing
changes in the design and delivery of training. For that purpose, the existing training transfer
research literature is very useful. The so-called ‘transfer of training problem’ –the gap between
training and workplace performance (Burke & Hutchins, 2007) - has driven researchers to
detect the factors that contribute to enlarge or to bridge this gap. These factors are categorized
in the three training inputs identified by the Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) model: characteristics of
participants, training design and work environment. The considerable number of factors
affecting the transfer of training detected makes it difficult for organizations to pinpoint and
manage the factors that are most critical in their case (Cheng & Hampson, 2008; Grossman &
Salas, 2011). Moreover, given the ethical issues involved in selecting trainees on the basis of
their personal characteristics, many transfer factors cannot be handled to enhance transfer;
another factors linked to work environment are difficult to change in order to increase training
impact. If the purpose is improving the training of employees, it is necessary to focus on
elements that can be handled through training (Russ-Eft, 2002). In this regard, training designrelated transfer factors can be deliberately managed more easily.
As Velada, Caetano, Michel, Lyons and Kavanagh (2007) pointed out, training efforts should be
made to ensure the transfer of training and therefore organizations should design training
programs to include those training interventions that are likely to increase transfer. The socalled ‘transfer design’ refers to what degree training has been designed in such a way that both
meets job requirements, ensures learning outcomes, and provides trainees with the ability to
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transfer learning back to the job (Holton, Bates & Ruona, 2000). The idea of ‘transferability of
training’ is derived from the transfer design concept. The transferability of the training provided
by any training agency will be determined by the extent to which training is designed for being
transferred, that is, by the use of training interventions which are pointed out by research on
training effectiveness as transfer enhancers by trainers.
The study of transferability of training entails a diagnostic evaluation of the potential that the
training provided has for facilitating the training content transfer to the workplace, and
consequently it can address proposals of change. Moreover, the improvement of transferability
should be a priority for any training agency and should be undertaken upon when data on the
impact of training are not available.
On the other hand, the research on training effectiveness found many training interventions that,
considered on an individual basis, influence the transfer of training to the workplace. But a
particular training intervention, no matter how efficient it has proved to be, may be insufficient
for learning and transferring in view of the complexity of transfer process (Blume, Kard, Baldwin
& Huang, 2010). A series of effective training interventions, supplementing the effects thereof,
would be necessary in order to enhance transfer possibilities (Culpin, Eichenberg, Hayward &
Abraham, 2014). But there is no research on the way in which these training interventions are
combined by the trainers when they plan training courses.
In this work, a study of the transferability of training provided by the agency in charge of the
public servants training in the region of Andalusia (Spain) – the Andalusian Public
Administration Institute (Instituto Andaluz de Administraciones Públicas, IAAP) was carried out.
The main goal of this study was to explore how trainers use training interventions affecting the
effectiveness of training, i.e., what kind of training interventions trainers decide to use in order to
meet training objectives and the degree to which transfer mechanisms are included in the
intervention design of the training that they provide (Alvarez, Salas & Garofano, 2004; Velada et
al., 2007). Thus, it is possible to detect strengths and weaknesses that guide changes in order
to improve the transferability of training provided by this agency.
On the other hand, this study attempted to explore if, from trainers perspective, effective training
interventions can be grouped in some way, i.e. discover if the training design-related transfer
factors are organized by the trainers in a particular way, reflecting latent training methodological
approaches. Since the effectiveness of training interventions can depend on learning goals, i.e.,
whether training is focused on learning job-related skills or on acquiring knowledge aimed at
understanding and acting differently in work environment (Lim & Johnson, 2002; Nikandrau,
Brinia & Bereri, 2009), another goal of this study was to determine whether the type of training
objective affects the use of diverse training approaches by trainers.
2. Method
2.1. Context and participants
The IAAP is a public organization which provides a training service to the nearly 50,000
employees of the Public Administration of Andalusia. The IAAP counts with a qualified team of
training professionals in charge of the analysis of training needs, overall planning, management
and evaluation. In order to develop the overall planning, the IAAP also has a fairly stable team
of external professionals from different fields (economics, statistics, information technologies,
law and so on), selected as experts, who are hired to act as teachers in the training courses.
These external professionals are not professional trainers but they play an essential role
throughout the instructional design process (Burke & Hutchins, 2008). Therefore, in order to
study the transferability of training provided by this agency, a key task was to know what
training interventions facilitating transfer these trainers-teachers make use when they design
and deliver training courses.
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All trainers who had acted as teachers during the last three years in the training courses
provided by the IAAP received an email invitation to complete an online survey on effective
training interventions they tend to use. The questionnaire completed was sent in anonymously.
The response rate was calculated at 49.3% (300/609).
Of the 300 study participants, 60% were male and 93.3% had university degrees. The average
age of the respondents was 44.9. Participants had been working an average of 13.3 years in
their professional field and 10.2 years participating as trainers in training courses. It is
remarkable that 36.3% of participants have not been trained on training.
2.2. Training design-related transfer factors used as indicators of transferability
With a view to developing a questionnaire which allowed us to ask trainers´ use of training
practices enhancing transfer -and thus, to study the transferability of the training provided by
them-, research literature on training design-related transfer factors was reviewed. Only those
effective training interventions that fall within the decision-making spheres of trainer as teacher
were selected. Three lines of training intervention design were used to organize the inventory of
effective practices used as indicators:
a) The trainees’ organization and workplace characteristics (needs, scenarios,
challenges and tasks) are used by trainers to design training courses. It includes
effective training interventions such as:
-
Trainers set job performance-related goals, i.e. trainers set training objectives oriented
to improve the employees’ performance in their workplace (Hutchins & Burke, 2007).
-
Trainers clearly inform trainees what performance is expected to occur on the job
when the trainees apply training content at their workplace; thus, trainees notice a
clear link between the training content and their workplace (Burke & Hutchins, 2007;
Gegenfurtner, Veermans, Festner & Gruber, 2009).
-
Trainers select training content relevant to the job, i.e. the trainees must see a close
relationship between the training content offered by the trainer and the tasks they
encounter on the job (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Gergenfurtner, Veermans, Festner &
Gruber, 2009; Holton, Bates & Ruona, 2000; Liebermann & Hoffmann, 2008).
-
Trainers set training objectives which are aligned with organizational goals (Alvarez,
Salas & Garofano, 2004; Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Donovan & Darcy, 2011; Lim &
Johnson, 2002).
-
Trainers use job learning situations (cases, examples, problems) that reflect the job
context where learning is to be applied (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Grossman & Salas,
2011).
b) Trainers use training strategies in accordance with adult learning principles (Alvarez,
Salas & Garofano, 2004; Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Blume et al., 2010; Culpin et al. 2014;
Donovan & Darcy, 2011). It contains the following effective training interventions:
-
Trainers detect trainees’ learning needs to set learning objectives accordingly (Lim &
Johnson, 2002; Martin, 2010; Nikandrau, Brinia & Bereri, 2009).
-
Trainers permit discussion and the exchange of current knowledge and experiences
by the attendees (Kauffeld & Lehmann-Willenbrock, 2010; Leberman, McDonald &
Doyle, 2016).
-
Trainers are aware of the diversity of learners and, accordingly, they use a wide range
of different methodologies -a complex methodology- in each learning situation
(Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Culpin et al., 2014; Machin & Fogarty, 2003).
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-
Trainers use teamwork as a learning situation (Leberman, McDonald & Doyle, 2016).
In order to improve transfer possibilities, organizations should create work
environments that promote collaboration among workers (Hawley & Barnard, 2005;
Massenberg, Spurk & Kauffeld, 2015). To that end, the use of group activities during
training offers opportunities to practice the skills needed for successful collaboration
(Culpin et al., 2014; Homklin, Takahashi & Techakanont, 2014) and, therefore,
teamwork-based learning situations improve, indirectly, the possibilities of transfer.
c) Trainers use methods and instructional techniques that facilitate the transfer of
training when they plan learning interventions (see reviews such as Burke & Hutchins,
2007; Russ-Eft, 2002). It includes the following effective practices:
-
Trainers model ideas or behaviors that are to be taught by them (Alvarez, Salas &
Garofano, 2004; Burke & Hutchins, 2008; Grossman & Salas, 2011; Russ-Eft, 2002).
-
Trainers use the guided discovery method. This active learning method forces
trainees to explore and experiment with the task to infer and learn concepts, rules and
strategies (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Russ-Eft, 2002).
-
Trainers provide opportunities to practice new skills and knowledge (Alvarez, Salas &
Garofano, 2004; Kaufield & Lehmann-Willenbrock, 2010; Libermann & Hoffmann,
2008; Lim & Johnson, 2002; Russ-Eft, 2002). Trainees can be asked in practical tasks
to apply training content in the training context. But they can be asked to apply it in
their job context or plan how they will use new skills and knowledge at their workplace
(development of a plan of action) as follow-up techniques (Martin, 2010).
-
Trainers use variable examples, including positive and negative examples (Burke &
Hutchins, 2007; Machin & Fogarty, 2003). These training interventions lead to improve
generalization to novel situations (Russ-Eft, 2002).
-
Trainers use feedback, i.e. trainers provide information to the learner on his/her
current and desired performance in training tasks during training (Burke & Hutchins,
2007, 2008; Culpin et al., 2014; Russ-Eft, 2002; Van den Bossche, Segers & Jansen,
2010) or post-training (Velada et al., 2007; Martin, 2010).
-
Trainers assess the trainees’ learning outcomes after training. Trainees will be more
motivated to learn and learning retention will increase if they know that they are
accountable for the training they receive (Burke & Hutchins, 2008; Kontoghiorghes,
2001).
2.3. Procedure for developing the questionnaire
With these indicators, an initial questionnaire was elaborated containing 19 Likert-type items to
know training interventions facilitating transfer which are used by trainers (1 meaning ‘Never’
and 5 meaning ‘Usually’). Since employee training perspectives may vary depending on
business sector (Donovan & Darcy, 2011), critical to this study was the development of survey
items representative of culture of employee training in public sector. For this reason, the
questionnaire was analyzed by five professional trainers of the IAAP. They proposed to change
the wording of several items and two new items were included. One of these items dealt with
the use of teamwork as a learning situation because there was a great interest in improving the
markedly individualistic culture of Public Administration organizations in Spain. The use of
teamwork has an indirect impact on the transfer of training, as it has already been mentioned.
The second item dealt with the use of the lecture as instructional technique; it is not a method
supporting transfer of training but the professional trainers thought that it was usually used by
trainers and the questionnaire needed to reflect the practices of the latter. Finally, the
questionnaire was composed of 21 items, but one of them does not reflect any transfer factor.
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One additional question about the importance given to each type of learning objective was
added. Trainers were requested to prioritize (main objective, secondary objective or not an
objective) both training objectives (acquiring knowledge aimed to understanding and acting
differently in workplace and learning job-related skills) in the courses they designed.
2.4. Data analysis
The reliability of the instrument was assessed via the calculation of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
for all Likert-scale items, excluding the item dealing with the use of lectures since it is not
related to transfer; coefficient alpha was measured at 0.87.
Descriptive statistics were computed for all variables. Later, the 21 items from the questionnaire
were subject to a principal components analysis (PCA) using SPSS to find if the original
variables (training interventions) are organized in a particular way reflecting latent variables
(training approaches). Three items with low correlations and low communalities were eliminated
(‘I set job performance-related goals’, ‘I clearly inform attendees what they must do and produce
on the job as a result of training’, ‘I use the lecture as the main methodological strategy’). Later,
a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine whether the use of
the training approaches by trainers varies in function of the priority given to training objectives.
3. Results
Descriptive statistics about the training interventions frequency of use by trainers surveyed are
reported in Table 1. Three teacher decision-making spheres have been used to display the
results and, within each sphere, the items are ranked by mean value.
Mean value of four of the five items included in first decision-making sphere was greater than 4,
therefore, trainers estimated that they are well aware of the trainees’ organization and
workplace characteristics when they design training courses. Nevertheless, 30.4% of trainers
never or sometime set training objectives to meet trainees’ organizational goals. Training
interventions derived from adult learning principles showed a more moderate frequency of use
in training design and delivery than prior dimension, but exhort the exchange of knowledge and
experiences among attendees that was the most used intervention in this sphere. The use of
teamwork as learning situation and the use of a complex methodology were not used or were
utilized scarcely by nearly half of the trainers.
Table 1.
Means table (and SD) for the 21 items of the questionnaire
Use of organization and workplace characteristics
I clearly inform participants what they must do and produce on the job as
a result of training.
I use learning situations (examples, cases, problems) that resemble the
trainees’ job characteristics (tasks, challenges and scenarios).
I set trainees’ job performance-related goals.
The training content I select is closely linked to the trainees’ workplace
needs.
The training objectives I set are aligned with the trainees’ organizational
goals.
Use of adult learning principles
I encourage participants to exchange knowledge and experiences.
I provide participants with opportunities to discuss problems and
perspectives.
I detect the trainees’ learning needs in order to set learning objectives
accordingly.
I use a variety of different teaching methodologies with a view to
meeting the different demands of the diversity of trainees.
Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers JETT, Vol. 7 (1); ISSN: 1989-9572
Mean
4.37
SD
0.64
4.33
0.68
4.18
4.06
0.68
0.76
3.35
0.89
Mean
4.14
3.93
SD
0.69
0.85
3.40
0.85
3.18
0.93
95
I propose assignments to work as a team.
Use of methods and instructional techniques
I make variable examples of how to use training content.
I use the lecture as the main methodological strategy.
I propose exercises to practice training content in training contexts
during training.
I model ideas or behaviors I teach (demonstrations).
I provide the trainees with feedback about their performance at practical
tasks.
I make negative examples.
I use guided discovery method.
I propose activities to practice training content in the trainees’ workplace.
I propose exercises in order to assess what trainees have learnt.
I ask trainees to plan how they will use new skills and knowledge in their
workplace (plans of action).
I provide post-training coaching to the participants.
3.14
Mean
4.37
4.18
4.14
1.00
SD
0.64
0.75
0.84
3.98
3.88
0.85
0.87
3.65
3.64
3.33
3.33
2.75
0.87
0.89
0.97
0.99
0.98
2.40
1,01
As regards the methods and instructional techniques, the frequencies of use were very variable.
There were more trainers who used training interventions linked to in-the-room training process
(lecture, to make examples, exercises to practice training content in-the room, demonstrations)
more frequently. Those training interventions extending teaching action outside the classroom
to support transfer process (post-training coaching, plans of action, activities to practice training
content in workplace) were used less frequently. These less frequent three training interventions
are strategies that make it possible to customize the learning transfer process to the specific
characteristics of the trainees’ workplace. This homogeneous treatment of learners can also be
seen in a less frequent use of two adult learning principles: the detection of trainees’ learning
needs in order to set learning objectives accordingly and the use a variety of methods with a
view in meeting diverse demands of the learners. Finally, assessing trainee learning was not a
habitual practice among the trainers surveyed.
Regarding training objectives, learning new skills was identified as the critical objective by
53.7% of the trainers and gaining knowledge was the main objective for 49.3%. The very small
number of trainers who chose the response ‘Not objective’ in each training objective drove us to
eliminate these cases in subsequent analysis.
PCA was deemed appropriate: the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was
0.87 and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was statistically significant (p< 0.001). PCA revealed
the presence of four factors with Eigenvalue above 1, explaining 54.6 per cent of the variance in
total. It was decided to retain the four factors and a Varimax rotation was performed. The
rotation solution can be seen in Table 2.
The first rotated factor, which amounted to 18.3% the total variance, deals with six training
interventions that involve carrying out, guiding and assessing practical tasks as a mean to
promote learning and transfer. It was named ‘task-focused approach’. The second rotated
factor, which amounted to 15.3% of the total variance, includes six training interventions aimed
at meeting the demands derived from the needs and the characteristics of specific learners and
of their work contexts. It was called ‘responsive approach’.
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Table 2.
Varimax rotated factor matrix
Training interventions description
Exercises to practice in training context.
Activities to practice at their workplace.
Feedback on their performance of practical tasks.
Guided discovery method.
Assignments to work as a team.
Exercises to assess what trainees have learnt.
Detecting trainees’ needs in order to set objectives.
Training content is relevant to workplace needs.
Training is aligned with organizational goals.
Development of plans of action.
Post-training coaching.
Meeting demands of diversity of learners through a
complex teaching methodology.
Models of ideas or behaviors.
Variable examples of how to use learning.
Learning situations that resemble job features.
Negative examples.
Opportunities to discuss problems and perspectives.
Encouragement to exchange knowledge and
experiences among trainees.
1
.78
.63
.78
.52
.55
.64
.29
-.07
.02
.37
.14
.23
Factor
2
3
.09
.17
.29
.19
.12
.11
.26
.41
.28
-.06
.07
.03
.54
.11
.63
.26
.66
.14
.59
-.01
.59
.10
.52
.15
4
-.01
-.07
.05
.14
.44
.23
.13
.15
.18
.17
-.15
.10
.53
.71
.69
.66
.19
.14
-.30
.10
.17
.18
.72
.72
.20
.35
.07
.00
.11
.10
.32
.04
.27
.13
.09
.19
Note: The values of rotated factor loadings > .45 are written in bold.
The third factor of the Varimax rotated factor matrix, named ‘modeling-focused approach’,
amounted to 11.9% of the total variance and included four training interventions aimed at giving
trainees an insight of how to use the training content. The fourth and final rotated factor, which
amount to 9.1% of the total variance, reflects a participative training approach. It was formed by
only two training interventions: the trainer exhorts learners to exchange knowledge and
experiences and the trainer provides attendees with opportunities to discuss problems and
perspectives. This training approach involves seeing trainees as adults having their own career
and formed opinion.
The items were grouped together according to the PCA and means scores for the new four
factors calculated. The teaching approach more frequently used was the modeling-focused
approach (M=4.1, SD= .65), closely followed by the participative one (M=4.04, SD= .77). Mean
value of the task-focused approach was 3.74 (SD= .79). The responsive scheme was the least
frequently used approach (M=3.36, SD= .69)
.
Since trainers indicated their intention of seeking both types of training objectives giving
different priorities to them, significant effects of training objectives on the set of training
approaches were sought through MANOVA. The extent of inequality of sample sizes was very
small and the Box´s test showed that the assumption of homogeneity of covariance matrices
was met (F=1.227, p= .183). The Shaphiro-Wilk test showed that multivariate normality is not
fulfilled in all subgroups. With these conditions, Pillai´s trace was used as multivariate test which
showed (anyway, four multivariate tests obtained the same F- and p-values) that the priority
given to learning skills (F=7.423, p< .001) or to acquiring knowledge (F=3.863, p= .004),
considered on an individual basis, did have a significant effect on all four training approaches
together as dependent variables, but the interaction between independent variables had not
effect. In other words, the concomitant use of training approaches is different when learning jobrelated skills is the main or a secondary goal of training courses and the same applies when the
training objective is acquiring knowledge. But there are not differences when the interaction
between knowledge and skills objectives is considered. Univariate tests for the effect of the
training objectives on each of the dependent variables (Levene´s test verified the homogeneity
of variances for all groups) showed that knowledge objectives had a significant effect on the
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frequency with which the trainers used the participative approach (F=7.372, p= .007), the
modeling-focused approach (F=7.335, p= .007), and the responsive approach (F=5.958, p=
.015) but not on the use of task-focused approach. The trainers used these three approaches
more frequently when acquiring knowledge was the main goal (I-J=0.235, p= .007; I-J=0.194,
p= .007; I-J=0.189, p= .015; respectively). On the other hand, skills learning objectives had a
significant effect on the frequency with which the trainers used the task-focused approach
(F=22.914, p< .001), the responsive approach (F=16.488, p< .001) and the modeling-focused
approach (F=9.973, p= .002), but not on the use of the participative approach. In this case, the
trainers also used three approaches more frequently when learning skills was the main goal but
the differences between means were larger (I-J=0.422, p< .001; I-J=0.313, p= .000; I-J=0.227,
p= .002; respectively).
4. Discussion and conclusions
This study showed the usefulness of carrying out studies on the transferability of training
provided by training agencies in order to identify strengths and weaknesses and to make
decisions to improve training itself. Holton, Bates and Ruona (2000) stressed the significant
potential of transfer inventories for identifying the problem of training transfer. In this case, the
inventory used has been focused exclusively on training design-related transfer factors with the
aim at knowing the use of these factors trainers do when they act as teachers in training
courses.
In the case of the training of public servants in Andalusia, the study showed that trainers used
more frequently those training interventions aiming at ensuring the usefulness of content
training at the workplace of the employees and the learning of training content within the
classroom. As mentioned above, both elements are powerful transfer factors but they may not
be enough to ensure the transfer of training to workplace. In addition, it is necessary that
trainers use teaching interventions that, as pointed out by Hutchins and Burke (2007), support
integration of the knowledge and/or skills acquired at the workplace, since learning transfer
implies learning outside the classroom, learning at the workplace (Eraut, 2004). Nevertheless,
those strategies that allow learning to extend beyond the classroom were used less frequently.
The same is true regarding those practices aiming at individualizing training in order to take into
account the existing differences among attendees or aiming at increasing the capacity of
employees to learn from practice itself. These lesser-used training interventions are strategies
which support the transfer process of learning outcomes to specific circumstances under which
learners work.
These weaknesses should consequently be addressed. On one hand, those strategies used
less frequently by trainers may be a sign of the lack of knowledge of training transfer research
findings, as Hutchins and Burke (2007) warned. Dealing with the training of trainers in
transferability of training is a key measure to improve training effectiveness.
On the other hand, it seems that trainers focused their interventions more on the trainees’
satisfaction than on the transfer of training. This view of training could have been strengthened
by an evaluation of training that has been focused, to date, on the trainees’ satisfaction with the
level and usefulness of the learning acquired; as suggested by Burke and Hutchins (2008), the
evaluation has an impact on what is valued as training outcome. Therefore, as long as training
evaluation focuses on trainee satisfaction, trainers will keep focusing their training designs on
this type of outcomes. It is necessary to introduce transfer rates in training evaluation design.
It should be noted, as a limitation of this work, that in order to study the transferability of training,
not only the decisions made by trainers should be analyzed, but also those made by the
training’s planners and managers because many decisions that predetermine training courses
falls to them; it has not been possible to perform that task in this study.
This study allowed us to gain better understanding of the perspective of trainers on how training
design elements are associated. Four groups of effective training interventions were detected
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that make up four types of transfer-based training approaches (participative, responsive, taskfocused and modeling-focused approaches). This study tested that the trainers associate the
training approaches differently depending on training objectives. The effect of the priority of
knowledge objectives is significantly weaker than in the case of skills objectives. When trainers
prioritize to learn job-related skills use more frequently training approaches committed to the
transfer of training -except in the case of the participative approach-, than when trainers set to
learn knowledge as the main goal of training courses. It should be stressed that the use of the
task-focused approach is not linked to the objective of acquiring knowledge.
Nevertheless, one should be cautious when affirming that the training model used by trainers
that give priority to skills objectives is more effective, because how the interaction among
effective training interventions affects training transfer has not been dealt with by research on
training effectiveness (Nikandrau, Brinia & Bereri, 2009; Tharenou, Saks & Moore, 2007).
Therefore, it is necessary to carry out further in-depth studies on the effectiveness of these
training approaches, selecting specific training courses and contrasting the use of transferfocused training approaches, the priority of training objectives and the transfer rates that are
achieved in different cases.
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