Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Transportation Research Part D journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trd Estimation of airport noise impacts on public health. A case _ study of Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport Nesimi Ozkurt ⇑, Samet Feyyaz Hamamci, Deniz Sari TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Environment and Cleaner Production Institute, Kocaeli, Turkey a r t i c l e i n f o Keywords: Noise modelling Noise pollution Exposure Public health a b s t r a c t The air transport industry is showing rapid growth in line with the call for meeting the requirements of a rising population. Noise mapping is more useful than surveys and measurements to estimate the effects of noise on public health. In this paper, noise levels _ Adnan Menderes Airport were calfor the day, evening and night time slices around Izmir culated by use of the SoundPLAN 7.2 software according to the European Noise Directive, and the ‘‘ECAC Doc. 29-Interim’’ method was applied for the computation of the aircraft noise. Air traffic data of year 2012, technical information about the airport and geographical data including the layers of elevation, residential buildings, auxiliary buildings, hospitals and schools were used as the main inputs for the model developed in the study. The model was found to perform well for the areas closer to the airport. The results of the study _ is suggested that the area at the north side of the airport, where the city center of Izmir located, is more affected than other areas. The threshold value of 55 dB(A) was found to _ be exceeded in 0.3% of the land area covered by Izmir City center during the time slice ‘‘day’’. The results showed that about 2% of the resident population was exposed to noise _ levels of 55 dB(A) or higher during day-time in Izmir. In addition, it was understood that the number of people who are potentially exposed to high noise levels and threatened by several illness such as hypertension and sleep disturbances is significant in the surrounding area of the airport. It is thought to be important for airport operators to manage the airport capacity based on the flight schedules in order to control the noise exposure level around the airport. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction The growth in commercial aviation has a lot to do with numerous environmental impacts including noise pollution, air quality and climate change. The level of intensity reached by the modern transportation industry may cause various environmental damages with serious consequences on public health. Thus, if there is to be growth in the aviation industry, ways must be found for mitigating its environmental impacts (Clarke, 2000). Noise, often defined as the unwanted sound, is known to have several adverse effects on humans. Noise exposure is still considered a quite important public health problem in the early 21st century (Passchier-Vermeer, 2000). Noise annoyance, in particular, is a major area of environmental complaint in the cities, with significant impacts on health (Ignaccolo, 2000). In contrast to some other environmental problems, noise pollution still continues to deepen and the scale of complaints from those who are exposed is seen to gradually ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 262 677 2936. E-mail address: nesimi.ozkurt@tubitak.gov.tr (N. Ozkurt). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.02.002 1361-9209/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 153 expand (Berglund et al., 1999). When compared to other environmental issues, noise pollution can be said to be a new issue which draws substantial public attention. In recent decades, community noise has become a major public complaint in metropolitan cities. The very effects of environmental noise on human health are well documented (Moudon, 2009) and communities around the world have been facing long-standing problems associated with aircraft movements around airports. In line with efforts to mitigate such problems, noise metrics are used to quantify the community response to various noise exposure levels. The public reaction to different noise levels has been evaluated through extensive research conducted for the purpose of determining human responses to different levels of aircraft noise. Roads, railways and airports, the three most important noise sources of the daily life, have been investigated to understand the relationship between exposure and effects. In one such study, it was calculated that about 70% of the population was affected by aircraft noise, while the noise generated by road and railway traffic were affected about 40% and 20% of the population respectively (Miedama and Vos, 1998). Outdoor Lden levels higher than 50 dB(A) due to the noise generated by road, railway and airport sources are known to be very common in developed countries. In one study, it was estimated that the rate of exposure to Lden levels higher than 60 dB(A) affects between 2% and 8% of the population in European countries (Health Council of the Netherlands, 1997). In general, aircraft noise is influenced by certain factors such as the number and timing of flights, type of aircraft and flight paths (Bentes et al., 2012). Aircraft noise can be defined as the disturbance generated by an aircraft or its components during the flight, landing and take-off operations. Different types of aircraft cause different levels and frequencies of noise, and aircraft noise originates from three main sources, namely aerodynamic noise, aircraft engine and other mechanical sources (Asamoah-Baidoo, 2001). The EU Environmental Noise Directive 2002/49/EC (END) requires the level of noise in settlements with more than 100,000 inhabitants to be determined and presented on strategic noise maps which are reviewed and revised every five years if needed (END, 2002). These maps are also taken as the basis for further assessments on noise distribution in residential areas (Probst and Huber, 2007). Noise mapping includes the presentation of data on an existing or predicted noise situation through the use of a noise indicator. These maps are generated based on common methods and procedures intended for the assessment of human exposure in residential areas. Noise maps are generated mostly by calculations carried out on the basis of both known and estimated parameters such as 3D digital terrain characterization and aircraft traffic data. Noise mapping for airports is considered an important tool in supplying information for both global and local Noise Action Plans (Klæboe et al., 2006; WG-AEN, 2006; Vogiatzis, 2012). Strategic noise mapping and action plans are important tools to define the main strategies to reduce noise exposure of residents and introduce and preserve ‘‘quiet zones’’ (Vogiatzis and Remy, 2014). A review of recent literature reveals that significant research efforts have been made to study airport noise and its impacts on surrounding communities (Vogiatzis, 2012; Arafa et al., 2007; Gan et al., 2012). In Turkey, there are recent studies about the problems associated with increasing flights at airports (Ozkurt et al., 2013; Saldıraner, 2013; Sari et al., 2013). Emphasis in this study is placed on developing a computer simulation using SoundPLAN 7.2 software for the purpose of _ assessing noise exposure levels at and around Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport. SoundPLAN is a specialized comprehensive software designed for modelling the noise originating from airports (SoundPLAN, 2012). Data and methodology Characteristics of the study _ The aircraft noise exposure levels around Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport were calculated by the TUBITAK MRC Environment and Cleaner Production Institute’s Laboratory for all subjects included in the dataset. These calculations are based on the actual flight data (flight time, takeoff or landing, type of aircraft, flight path recorded by the flight tracking system) for each flight in the year preceding the survey. Airport data _ Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport is one of the major airports in Turkey (the biggest airport in the Aegean Region of the country). It is in the fourth ranked in Turkey in terms of air traffic volume and it provided service for nearly ten million passengers in 2012. At present, the airport has two runways of 3240 m in length. The airport is equipped with a VOR-DME (VHF omnidirectional radio range distance measuring equipment) system and both runways are operated through an instrumental landing system. _ Adnan Menderes Airport were collected by the General Directorate of State Airports In the year 2012, traffic data for Izmir Authority. The flight statistics and types of aircraft are according to the German document ‘‘Instructions on the Calculation of Noise Protection Areas’’ (AzB, 1999) included in the traffic datasets for year 2012 were and are shown in Table 1. Traffic datasets are classified as day-time (D) (07.00–19.00), evening-time (E) (19.00–23:00) and night-time (N) (23.00–07.00) slices. _ Adnan Menderes Airport. The following tasks were completed within the scope of the assessments carried out for Izmir (a) analytic aircraft traffic assessment per day/runway/flight path; (b) distribution of aircraft types per day/runway/flight path in the three time slices day, evening and night. 154 N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 Table 1 The flight statistics and aircraft classifications. Aircraft class Departure Arrival D E N D E N H 1.0 H 2.0 P 1.0 P 1.1 P 1.2 P 1.3 P 1.4 P 2.1 P 2.2 S 1.0 S 1.1 S 2.0 S 3.1 S 3.2 S 5.1 S 5.2 S 5.3 S 6.1 S 6.3 S 7.0 53 1292 21 15 2 309 515 325 30 214 4 7 3 2 745 21,886 94 323 55 47 1 170 0 1 0 2 28 43 1 8 0 0 1 1 146 6605 9 94 3 4 1 52 0 1 0 0 11 7 290 3 0 0 1 0 84 4172 35 68 9 12 51 1280 21 15 2 307 530 303 27 219 4 6 3 2 730 19,047 97 331 52 47 1 174 0 1 0 5 28 45 1 9 0 1 1 1 147 7797 31 112 6 7 1 51 0 0 0 0 6 26 297 3 0 0 1 0 94 5795 10 41 9 7 Total 25,942 7117 4746 23,074 8367 6341 Geographical data _ The city of Izmir is situated in western Turkey, between the longitudes 26.228°E and 28.459°E, and latitudes 37.833°N and 39.471°N, covering a total area of 11,973 km2. The city center, located between the longitudes 26.814°E and 27.372°E, and latitudes 38.287°N and 38.573°N, is the third biggest urban agglomeration of Turkey and the acknowledged industrial and commercial capital of the Aegean Region. The study area was selected as a circle of 25 km radius, centered on the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP). The topography was already available in digital format for the study area. The geographical data for the DTM had been collected by the _ General Directorate of State Airports Authority by use of the archives belonging to Izmir Metropolitan Municipality. The geographical data used for the model consists of the location and height information of the buildings, number of floors, land use, _ Adnan Menderes Airport. The data was utilized for establishing the topography and all other obstacles located around Izmir elevation, building (residential), auxiliary building (industrial, commercial), hospital and school layers in the software. In order to create the most appropriate 3D Environmental Noise prediction model according to END, a full Digital Terrain _ Adnan Menderes Airport was formed for the immediate and greater area of the airModel (DTM) of the impact area of Izmir port by use of a Geographical Information System (GIS), and individual buildings were taken as the smallest geographical level of the model, with emphasis being put on residences and other sensitive receivers. The evaluation of noise in urban environments and in areas with several major noise sources represents a big challenge because of the high population density and the combination of different noise sources, each of which makes its own contribution to the overall acoustical environment. Densely populated areas around large airports are in particular exposed to noise generated by the combination _ of different sources. Just like the other large airports, Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport is located close to main roads, a railway line and also a few medium scaled industrial plants. Additionally, the function of continuous noise monitoring stations can be restricted to noise monitoring on a limited number of locations around an airport. Therefore, noise modelling is a suitable tool for determining the contribution of aircraft movements to background noise and estimating exposed population. Noise modelling and noise maps Noise modelling around airports is intended to satisfy the needs of various users. This model is carried out between sophisticated noise spectrum and environmental noise assessment in terms of cumulative noise exposure (Tokarev et al., 1990; Zaporozhets and Tokarev, 1998). Noise mapping is acknowledged as one of the best ways for understanding the issues related to environmental noise. Developing a noise map requires detailed information about the noise sources, physical environment and population structure of the area and the relevant environmental and acoustical conditions. One of the widespread approaches for numerical modelling is the use of the total year traffic volume (Vogiatzis, 2014). This was done for 2012 with distribution per runway for the 3 distinct time periods as per 2002/49/EC, as well as representative flight paths both horizontally and vertically in an impact area of approximately 25 km2. Modern noise mapping methods rely heavily on computer noise modelling. In this study, the SoundPlan 7.2 software package was used to develop a model of noise levels. The results of these simulations were exported to maps and day-time, N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 155 evening and night-time noise layers were created at a 50-m spatial resolution in the raster data format by use of a bilinear interpolation algorithm. Results and discussion The results of the model were given in indicators Lden, Ld, Le and Ln in terms of the distribution of population per noise index zone. Exceedance maps for threshold values of 55, 65 and 75 dB(A) were also separately prepared for Lden, Ld, Le and Ln. The Lden noise metric, which is defined by the following formula, is itself derived from three sets of contours: Lden ¼ 10log 10 1 24  Lday 12  10 10      Lnight þ10 Levening þ5 þ 4  10 10 þ 8  10 10 Lday is the A-weighted long-term average sound level as defined in ISO 1996-2: 2007 (ISO, 2007), determined over all the day periods of a year, Levening is the A-weighted long-term average sound level as defined in ISO 1996-2: 2007, determined over all the evening periods of a year, Lnight is the A-weighted long-term average sound level as defined in ISO 1996-2: 2007, determined over all the night periods of a year. According to END, exceedance maps for threshold values of 55, 65 and 75 dB(A) were separately prepared for each type of day-time (Lden), day (Ld), evening (Le) and night-time (Ln) indicators for the whole year 2012. In the framework of implementing the relevant European Directive 2002/49/EC (END, 2002) and Turkey’s ‘‘Regulation on Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise’’ (RAMEN, 2010), and in close collaboration with the General Directorate of State Airports Authority and the TUBITAK Marmara Research Centre, Environment and Cleaner Production _ Institute, a Strategic Noise Map for 2012 for aircraft noise of Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport was completed. The management and abatement of environmental noise is expected to be fulfilled according to Annex 7 of the relevant RAMEN which implements the END. The recent maximum permissible limits for noise metrics, Ld, Le and Ln, for airport environmental noise is defined as follows: a. For the noise metric Ld(12 h): 68 dB(A). b. For the noise metric Le(4 h): 63 dB(A). c. For the noise metric Ln(8 h): 58 dB(A). In addition, according to Turkish national legislation, exceedance calculations for limit values of airport environmental noise were done for all noise metrics. According to our results, about 1 km2 area was exposed to 68 dB(A) noise level during a day in 2012. The evening-time results show that about 200 people were exposed to 63 dB(A) in a 2 km2 area. For the nighttime slice in 2012, the population that was exposed to 58 dB(A) noise level was calculated to be 300 in a 2.5 km2 area. Spatial distribution of noise levels The noise maps can be used for the impact assessment of environmental noise from a source and also produce outputs such as the exposed area and/or exposed people and buildings. A noise map consists of many receivers arranged on a regular grid to show the spatial distribution of noise levels. In this paper, noise maps for Lden, Ld, Le and Ln, that show the equivalent noise levels, were created on the basis of the calculated noise levels in grid points and are shown in Fig. 1. Noise exposure levels are given in three noise bands (55 dBA, 65 dBA and 75 dBA). _ The noise levels in the immediate vicinity of Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport were determined to be very high particularly _ in the northern side, which is directly located under the flight paths. The airport mainly affects two districts of Izmir, Gaziemir and Menderes. Although Menderes has the larger area, Gaziemir is more crowded. As shown in the enlarged map of Fig. 1, most of the airport impact area, particularly along the northern side of the runways, has noise levels higher _ than 55 dB(A). It was found that 19 km2 of the land area of Izmir City exceeded the threshold of 55 dB(A) during daytime. In the night-time period, about 4 km2 are affected by this level and also threatened by sleep disturbances. However, when the study area was investigated with regard to the exceedance of the threshold value of 65 dB(A), the affected zone was found to be smaller than 3 km2. This area can be identified as a critical zone for hypertension and ischemic heart diseases. In addition, when the exceedance map for the threshold value of 75 dB(A) was calculated according to END, the results revealed that the affected area was negligible (<1 km2) during all time slices. Estimating population exposed to noise Noise disturbance significantly impacts many areas with high population density and affects the inhabitants in their daily life, sleep, work and study. The literature suggests that the risk of hypertension and myocardial infarction increases with prolonged exposure to the noise generated by airports and roads (Babisch et al., 2005; Bluhm et al., 2007; Jarup et al., 2008; Roselund et al., 2006). 156 N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 Fig. 1. Noise maps for Lden, Ld, Le and Ln indicators. 157 N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 Adverse effects of noise exposure are well defined in terms of transient increases in blood pressure and level of stress, which are both linked to acute exposure to noise (Babisch, 2000; Fyhri and Aasvang, 2010). The exceedance maps for threshold values of 55, 65 and 75 dB(A) were prepared at an elevation of 4 m above the ground in the study area for all noise indicators. The number of households, sensitive structures, and population situated in the areas that are exposed to these noise levels were also calculated for four time zones. In the calculation results, the dwellings and population are rounded to hundreds according to the approach of Annex VI in END, and the sensitive buildings are given with the exact numbers. The estimated area and population exposed to noise for all of the indicators are shown in Table 2. Long-term effects related to noise exposure and classification of the evidence for a causal relationship between noise and health effects have been examined in epidemiologic studies and are presented in Table 3 (Health Council of the Netherlands, 1994). Our results show that about 2% (62,900 out of 4,005,459) of the resident population live in the zone of 55 dB(A) noise levels during the day in 2012. For the overall daily period, 17,100 households, 42 schools and 20 hospitals were exposed to 55 dB(A) or higher noise levels. The day-time results show that about 0.3% (12,100 out of 4,005,459) of the resident population was affected from noise levels greater than 55 dB(A). There are 3800 households, 8 schools and 4 hospitals in the same noise zone during day-time. In addition, for the evening time slice in 2012, rate of the population that was exposed to 55 dB(A) or higher noise levels was calculated to be 0.2% (9500 out of 4,005,459). During this time-slice, 3200 households, 8 schools and 2 hospitals were exposed. Similarly, when the exceedance of the threshold value of 55 dB(A) was investigated for the night time-slice in 2012, the rate of exposed population was found to be 0.02% (1100 out of 4,005,459). It was also calculated that 600 households were threatened by higher than 55 dB(A) noise levels during the night-time. On the other hand, the rate of residents that are affected by noise directly under the geometric projection of the flight paths along the northern side of the airport were determined to reach high levels. In addition to the investigations carried out according to END threshold values, some risk estimations can also be made in terms of adverse effects on the population. Approximately 1100 people, who were exposed to 55 dB(A) or higher noise levels during the night-time, are thought to be potentially under threat of sleep disturbances. During the day time period, nearly 400 people may also have some health problems such as hypertension and ischemic heart disease as a result of the noise disturbance. Management of airport noise and noise abatement procedures The noise impact in the areas surrounding an airport is mainly determined by three factors; number of flights and type of aircraft, configuration of the runways and their method of operation, and procedures for departure and landing (Licitra et al., 2014). According to END the basic concept for noise management is the ‘‘Balanced Approach’’, that goes through the exploration of four principal elements (ICAO, 2001; ACI, 2004): (a) reduction of noise at source; (b) noise abatement operational Table 2 Estimates of the cumulative area, population, households and numbers of noise sensitive buildings. Time period dB(A) Area (km2) Households Population Schools Hospitals Lden >55 >65 >75 18.957 2.963 0.554 17,100 200 0 62,900 400 0 42 0 0 20 0 0 Ld >55 >65 >75 9.939 1.695 0.304 3800 0 0 12,100 0 0 8 0 0 4 0 0 Le >55 >65 >75 9.467 1.590 0.285 3200 0 0 9500 0 0 8 0 0 2 0 0 Ln >55 >65 >75 4.190 0.743 0.007 600 0 0 1100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Table 3 Adverse effects related to environmental noise exposure. Effect Hypertension Ischemic heart disease Performance Sleep pattern Subjective sleep quality Mood next day Observation threshold Metric Value dB(A) Lden Lden Ln Ln Ln Ln 70 70 70 60 40 60 158 N. Ozkurt et al. / Transportation Research Part D 36 (2015) 152–159 procedures; (c) land use planning and management; (d) operating restrictions on aircraft. Analysis of many international airports has shown that numerous measures for solving the noise problem at airports and in their surroundings have been developed and implemented. Due to the ever increasing volume of air traffic in the world, it was shown that the number of airports that are facing the problem of noise is increasing, but the number of airports that are introducing some measures to manage noise is also increasing (Netjasov, 2012). If the airport wants to decrease noise impacts, it is necessary to perform _ evaluation of mitigation measures. In the following, we recommend some mitigation measures for Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport:  Runway 34 R is not to be used for both landings and departures during the night-time.  Deviations for the runway use may be allowed for security reasons during extreme meteorological phenomena or when operational procedures are necessary.  The noise intensity level will be monitored in the surrounding area of the airport. The monitoring data will be used to evaluate the consequences of aircraft movements upon noise levels in the vicinity of the airport, the investigation of public complaints and planning, and monitoring of the compliance with the noise abatement procedures. Most international airports that implement mitigation measures to reduce noise, have also installed noise monitoring systems that collect data on the actual noise emission levels during aircraft landing and take-off, which is then analyzed and used to inform the public and for testing and monitoring of new take-off and landing procedures (Netjasov, 2012). Conclusions Environmental noise has been a growing threat to urban health with negative consequences. The use of surveys and measurement/monitoring may be insufficient for estimating the effects of noise on public health accurately since they only represent limited areas. Noise mapping is an alternative way to identify noise hot spots (exposure areas) in all affected areas _ and support policy-making for noise abatement. Here we focused on estimating airport noise impacts at Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport in Turkey using noise mapping techniques and geographical information systems. The airport is selected because of the growing number of passengers and flights (respectively 9% and 5% grown from 2012 to 2013), being 41st in the list of the 100 busiest airports in Europe (2013), and one of the busiest five airports in Turkey and the largest on the _ Aegean coast. In addition, Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport is located in a densely populated area with various other noise sources. Several main roads, a railway line and also a few medium scaled industrial plants cause a combined noise effect in the area of the airport. Therefore, noise modelling is recommended for estimating the contribution of airport noise on the total environmental noise. For this study, noise maps based on predetermined noise indicators were generated for the year 2012, according to the standards set by the European Noise Directive. The noise indicators presented in this article were _ calculated on the basis of the data acquired from flight datasets for Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport. In 2012 the noise maps show how the impact of the airport is significant on the population, because the airport area lies on the edge of the town (Gaziemir) and is almost completely embedded in a residential environment. Our results also showed the number of people who are potentially exposed to high noise levels in the surrounding area of the airport. Exposure quantities are not only of scientific interest. Policymakers and risk managers need them to develop policies and regulations for airport noise for the purpose of minimizing, as far as is practical, the total number of people in the community who are exposed to high levels of aircraft noise generated by take-offs, landings and over-flights (Black et al., 2007). In addition, noise maps prepared for the spatial patterns of noise exposure reveal where to start and/or focus noise abatement practices. Noise abatement procedures which include optimized flight procedures, quieter aircraft and new routes may reduce the impact on communities surrounding airports, and provide an effective means of achieving further reductions in the impacts of airport noise on public health. Improvements to the strategic noise maps in future will no doubt help to improve calculation of the disease burden, using data on reliable exposure–response relationships based on large population studies compared to the outputs from the strategic noise modelling (Karipidis et al., 2014). Several tools may be successfully used, such as noise mapping tools, GIS map tools and qualitative map tools allowing researchers and political decisionmakers to improve their comprehension of city problems (Vogiatzis and Remy, 2014). Acknowledgements The authors appreciate the support of TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Environment and Cleaner Production Institute, and are also very grateful to the General Directorate of State Airports Authority for their permission to use the airport traffic data. References ACI, 2004. Airports and Environmental Legislation. Airport Council International, Brussels, Belgium. Arafa, M.N., Osman, T.A., Abdel-Latif, I.A., 2007. 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