Computing Curricula: Social, Ethical, and Professional Issues

Computing Curricula: Social, Ethical, and Professional Issues Gordana DODIG-CRNKOVIC Department of Computer Science, Mälardalen University Västerås, Sweden, gordana.dodig-crnkovic@mdh.se Abstract. We can notice that the general public awareness on ethical aspects of technology is increasing. The high level of media attention given to computerrelated disasters in technical systems such as the explosion of Ariane V in 1996 and the Therac-25 computerized radiation machine overdoses has increased interest in Computer Ethics. The aim of this paper is to shed light upon the significance of social, ethical and professional issues in the field of Computing. It argues that ethics education should be incorporated into computing curricula. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life of people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers must be dedicated to the protection of the public safety, health and welfare. A code of professional ethics appears when an occupation organizes itself into a profession. It is central to advising individual professionals how to conduct themselves, to judging their conduct, and to understanding of a profession. Most engineering takes place within profit-making organizations that are embedded in a complex structure of societal and regulatory constraints. Engineering Ethics is therefore relevant for the majority of people within Computing. Research Ethics or Educational Ethics apply to those professionals in Computing who are active within those fields. Many other branches of Ethics may as well apply such as Healthcare Ethics and similar for some of Computing professionals. Of course the field of Computing has its own particular ethical problems that are important to address. Therefore a specific field of Computer Ethics has developed. It is vital to recognize that prudent ethical judgment is a crucial integral part of professional skills. Introduction Today computers play an essential role in industry, commerce, government, research, education, medicine, communication systems, entertainment and many other areas of our society. Professionals who contribute to the design, development, analysis, specification, certification, maintenance, study or myriads of different applications of computer systems have significant impact and therefore the opportunities to both make positive contributions to the society, but also to cause harm. To ensure that their efforts will be used for good Computing professionals must commit themselves to making Computing beneficial and respected profession, promoting an ethical approach to the professional practice. Computing Curricula 2001, The Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula of IEEE Computer Society and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), emphasizes strongly professional issues making it a part of core curriculum for computing [1]. Figure 1 The structure of Computing Curricula 2001 Following are the topics of interest: • • Social context of computing • Professional and ethical responsibilities • Intellectual property • Social implications of the Internet • Methods and tools of analysis of ethical argument • Risks and liabilities of safety-critical systems • Privacy and civil liberties • Computer crime Philosophical foundations of ethics Even Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) Engineering Criteria [2] affirms that “Engineering programs must demonstrate that their graduates have an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility.” They are strongly encouraging engineering schools to provide students with tools to make ethically prudent decisions: “Engineering programs must demonstrate that their graduates have the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global and societal context.” This criterion highlights the importance both of micro-ethics (right choices made by individuals), and macro-ethics (right choices made by groups, societies and organizations). Furthermore, [2] “… a major design experience…that includes most of the following considerations: economic, environmental, sustainability, manufacturability, ethical, health and safety, social, and political.” This clearly indicates the need to develop students’ ability to make ethical decisions. Here in Sweden, far from all colleges and universities offer their students an opportunity to study professional ethics. The Royal Institute of Technology, KTH for example has courses on Engineering Ethics. We at Mälardalen University are developing the course in Professional Ethics in Science and Engineering to be given for the first time in the fall semester this year (2003). 1. Engineering as Social Experimentation “All products of technology present some potential dangers, and thus engineering is an inherently risky activity. In order to underscore this fact and help in exploring its ethical implications, we suggest that engineering should be viewed as an experimental process. It is not, of course, an experiment conducted solely in a laboratory under controlled conditions. Rather, it is an experiment on a social scale involving human subjects.” [5] Why can we view engineering projects as social experiments? There are uncertainties in every design process which are the result of our limited (finite) resources. So drugs are tested in a limited (but of course representative) context. Materials are tested under certain conditions. Computer programs are tested for (no matter how huge but still) finite number of cases. This implies that the engineered product will sooner or later in its application be used under conditions that it never has been tested before. New (uncontrolled, unpredicted) circumstances will appear. We expect it to function properly or at least safely even in those cases. It is an engineer’s responsibility to foresee and prevent possible severe consequences of its product malfunction. Titanic for example was considered to be virtually unsinkable. The worst accident scenario considered was the collision at the juncture of two of its sixteen watertight compartments, and therefore it was made to be able to float with any four compartments flooded. What actually happened was that the collision with the iceberg caused a large gap in a ship’s side, flooding five compartments! The intense media coverage of disasters such as the explosion of Ariane V in 1996 , because some of the software developed for Ariane IV was reused incorrectly, and the radiation overdoses in Therac-25 computerized linear accelerator for cancer treatment has increased the interest in engineering ethics. Major technical disasters are extremely costly but fortunately happen rarely. The judgment made by an engineer about what “rest risk” in a safety analysis is acceptable is to a high degree an ethical one. 2. What Is Ethics? “There are few things wholly evil or wholly good. Almost everything...is an inseparable compound of the two, so that our best judgment of the preponderance between them is continually demanded.” Abraham Lincoln Talking about “ethics” we refer to particular set of attitudes, values, beliefs and habits that a person or a group displays. Thus we speak of the Greeks’ ethics [5], the Protestant work ethics, and the ethics of Mother Theresa. In doing so we are referring to people’s actual outlooks on moral issues. This sense of word is linked directly to the original sense of the Greek word ethos, which meant “customs”, as did mores the Latin root of “morals”. There is a difference in the usage of adjectives ethical and moral. They have the same origins as their noun counterparts, but the nuances in connotations are probably more easily find in the adjective forms. While “moral” as a rule refers to privately virtuous conduct, “ethical” is used when referring to professional conduct. Ethical misdeeds are those that lead to prosecution in civil court, while moral misdeeds usually call to criminal court. What, then, are moral reasons? According to [5] “Any answer will be controversial, because morality is complex and not easily encapsulated in a simple definition. Moral reasons require us to respect other people as well as ourselves, to care for their good as well as our own. Moral reasons, for instance, involve respecting persons by being fair and just with them, respecting their rights, keeping promises, avoiding unnecessary offense and pain to them, and avoiding cheating and dishonesty. They also concern caring for others by being sometimes willing to help them (especially when they are in distress), showing gratitude for favors, and empathizing with their suffering.” 2.1 Ethics Contexts Figure 2. Contexts in which professional ethics is defined Ethical problems arise most often when there are differences of judgment or expectations about what constitutes the true state of affairs or a proper course of action. The engineer may be faced with contrary opinions from within the firm, from the client, from other firms within the industry, or from government. Figure 2 illustrates the complexity of situation for an individual making ethical decision in the capacity as a member of different groups. An engineer in order to make ethical decision interacts in many directions and within many different contexts, each of which can reflect the actual situation in a different light. For example, solving the problem on the relation individual – colleagues – management would lead to certain choices, which e.g. do not necessarily coincide with the views of his/her own family or friends, or the clients, authorities, societies or other industries. In a situation of moral/ethical dilemma a professional must be able to make rational and well motivated decisions. Ethic courses are taught to help professional by offering tools and methods helpful in such situations. 3. A Framework for Ethical Decision Making Ethics or morality poses questions about how we ought to act and how we should live [4]. It asks: “According to what standards are these actions right or wrong?” Also: “What character qualities (like honesty, compassion, fairness) are necessary to live a truly human life?” Or: “What concerns do we usually minimize or ignore? Why might that be?” The ethical decision making implies: • • recognize a moral issue • evaluate the alternative actions from various moral perspectives • act • get the facts • make a decision reflect on the results of the decision afterwards. 4. Types of Ethics Inquiry Science and Engineering Ethics, like ethics in general, imply inquiries into values, meaning and facts: • Normative inquiries seek to identify the values that should guide the ethical argument. An example is the question of how professional ideals can be justified in terms of more fundamental moral ideas. • Conceptual inquiries seek to clarify the meaning of ideas. An example is the question: What is profession and what defines professionals? It is obvious that normative and conceptual issues are tightly interconnected. • Factual (descriptive) inquiries seek to provide facts needed for understanding and resolving the value issues. Determining the facts enables us to deal realistically with the alternatives of resolving ethical problems [5]. 5. Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory 5.1 The Virtue Approach • • Focuses on attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to be and to act in ways that develop our human potential. Examples: honesty, courage, faithfulness, trustworthiness, integrity, etc. The principle states: “What is ethical is what develops moral virtues in ourselves and our communities.” 5.2 The Utilitarian Approach • Focuses on the consequences that actions or policies have on the well-being (“utility”) of all persons directly or indirectly affected by the action or policy. The principle states: “Of any two actions, the most ethical one will produce the greatest balance of benefits over harms.” 5.3 The Rights Approach • • • Identifies certain interests or activities that our behavior must respect, especially those areas of our lives that are of such value to us that they merit protection from others. Each person has a fundamental right to be respected and treated as a free and equal rational person capable of making his or her own decisions. This implies other rights (e.g., privacy free consent, freedom of conscience, etc.) that must be protected if a person is to have the freedom to direct his or her own life. The principle states: “An action or policy is morally right only if those persons affected by the decision are not used merely as instruments for advancing some goal, but are fully informed and treated only as they have freely and knowingly consented to be treated.” 5.4 The Fairness/Justice Approach • Focuses on how fairly or unfairly our actions distribute benefits and burdens among the members of a group. Fairness requires consistency in the way people are treated. The principle states: “Treat people the same unless there are morally relevant differences between them.” 5.5 The Common Good Approach • • Presents a vision of society as a community whose members are joined in a shared pursuit of values and goals they hold in common. The community is comprised of individuals whose own good is inextricably bound to the good of the whole. The principle states: “What is ethical is what advances the common good.” 6. Why Study Professional Ethics? "Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?" "That's depends a good deal on where you want to get to."... (Alice in Wonderland, Chapter VI, P 64; Carroll, 1960) What is the point in studying engineering ethics? What can be gained from taking an ethics course? A professional ethics course is not about preaching virtue so that the immoral and amoral students will adopt a certain established set of beliefs. Rather, it means to increase the ability of concerned engineers, managers and citizens, to first recognize and then responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological activity. The goal is to foster moral autonomy, i.e. the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues, as well as to improve the ability to think critically about moral matters. 7. Is Computer Ethics Unique in Relation to Other Fields of Ethics? [3] The basic principles of ethics are constant, no matter to what areas they might be applied. The principles of medical ethics, legal ethics, and computer ethics are not different from one another. Theft is theft no matter whether done as a street robbery or with a computer. However, new circumstances related to the computer do cause new questions about how these principles are to be applied. The specific features of the computer do give rise to new ethical problems. • Speed. It seems that computers operate at the speed of light (...except if you're waiting for a page to load on a busy day). But an example where speed can cause problems is the “flame” phenomena. This occurs when, after reading some posting or e-mail, a person sends off an e-mail response in which one uses an immoderate tone, a tone which one would not use if he or she had taken the time to write a traditional letter or had contacted the recipient in person or by phone. • Storage. Massive numbers of files can be retained on the computer indefinitely, and once information is recorded in these files and shared with other computers, information about people (accurate or inaccurate) can invade privacy in a way never before possible in history. • Identity. It is possible with a computer to steal a person's identity, forge a message from a person, or send a message anonymously. • Internationality. Computer transmissions do not stop at national boundaries. What is, for example, considered outlawed in one country can be sent into that country from another country where it is not illegal. • Copying. Images and text can be taken with a computer in a few seconds by a few clicks of the mouse and can be used without attribution to the author or out of context. • Openness and availability. Even in case of e.g. annoyance, pornography or gambling. • Power mediation. Computer Science is still a male-dominated field. This might be the result of a gender-influenced relationship with the computer. Is this male domination an inequity? The rich have more access to computing resources than do the poor. But is this not like saying that the rich have more access to all the more expensive things in life? Is the computer such a basic tool that it is wrong for the poor not to have equal access to it? • Privacy. Is it unfair for someone to harvest e-mail addresses on the Web, perhaps combined with other information about the holders of those e-mail addresses, such as their browsing interests and purchasing activity, and then sell that information to mass marketers who will then send unwanted spam to those addresses? 8. Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct Professional societies in science and engineering issue their codes or ethical guidelines/ codes of professional conduct. References [6-15] give a sampling of ethical codes from professional societies for engineers and scientists. Some differ widely in their content, because of their origins and their specific purposes, but others are similar in the topics they cover and the general ethical standards they articulate. Codes of Ethics express the consensus of the profession on ethical issues. They at the same time are the means to educate the general public about ethical norms and values of the profession. Therefore an essential characteristic of a profession is the need for its members to conform to its Code of Ethics. Professional codes of ethics should be understood as conventions between professionals. Having a code of ethics allows an engineer to object to pressure to produce substandard work not merely as an ordinary moral agent, but as a professional. Engineers (or doctors, or clergy, etc.) can say “As a professional, I cannot ethically put business concerns ahead of professional ethics.” [10] Ref [11] summarizes Stephen Unger's analysis of the possible functions of a code of ethics: “First, it can serve as a collective recognition by members of a profession of its responsibilities. Second, it can help create an environment in which ethical behaviour is the norm. Third, it can serve as a guide or reminder in specific situations…Fourth, the process of developing and modifying a code of ethics can be valuable for a profession. Fifth, a code can serve as an educational tool, providing a focal point for discussion in classes and professional meetings. Finally, a code can indicate to others that the profession is seriously concerned with responsible, professional conduct.” Figure 3. Ethics in computing, from [16] It is important to notice that codes have to be interpreted and properly used in practice: “Codes of ethics are created in response to actual or anticipated ethical conflicts. Considered in a vacuum, many codes of ethics would be difficult to comprehend or interpret. It is only in the context of real life and real ethical ambiguity that the codes take on any meaning. Codes of ethics and case studies need each other. Without guiding principles, case studies are difficult to evaluate and analyze; without context, codes of ethics are incomprehensible. The best way to use these codes is to apply them to a variety of situations and see what results. It is from the back and forth evaluation of the codes and the cases that thoughtful moral judgements can best arise.” [15] 9. Professional Ethics in Science and Engineering Course at Mälardalen University Following the lines of reasoning shown in this article, we have developed a course in professional ethics at Mälardalen University. Its outline resembles equivalent courses at other universities. The emphasis is on cultivating the sensibility for ethical problems, development of moral autonomy, ethical pluralism and critical thinking. The course will give the insight in the ethical problems important for professionals in Engineering and Science. It will form a framework on which professional and ethical issues can be analyzed, and build up an awareness of various views of ethical issues as well as professionals ethical responsibilities. The topics included are, among others the social context of profession, conflicts between loyalties to different principles such as safety and economy, precautionary principle and environmental impact, integrity, privacy, ownership, etc. Fundamental moral theories are presented. We will discuss Codes of Ethics (such as Responsible Conduct of Research), and even examine a series of case studies that have led to ethical dilemmas. At the same time we develop critical thinking and argument technique. The course will be delivered through a combination of lectures, guest lectures, classroom training (discussions with role play), and training in writing essays. Table 1 Professional Ethics Course Syllabus, see [17] Professional Ethics in Science and Engineering, CD5590 4 Nov Lecture 1 Getting Started. Course Preliminaries. Introduction. Administrivia. Identifying Moral Issues Basic Moral Orientations 6 Nov Lecture 2 METHODS AND TOOLS OF ANALYSIS OF ETHICAL ARGUMENT Philosophical Foundations of Ethics Ethical Relativism, Absolutism and Pluralism 11 Nov Lecture 3 The Ethics of Conscience Ethical Egoism The Ethics of Duty The Ethics of Respect 13 Nov Lecture 4 The Ethics of Consequences: Utilitarianism The Ethics of Rights The Ethics of Justice 18 Nov Lecture 5 The Ethics of Character Ethics and Gender 20 Nov Lecture 6 GUEST LECTURE PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW OF ETHICAL CHOICES 25 Nov Lecture 7 PRIVACY AND CIVIL LIBERTIES In-class activity: CASE STUDIES 27 Nov Lecture 8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS In-class activity: CASE STUDIES 04 Dec Lecture 9 GUEST LECTURE ETHICS OF NURSING PROFESSIONAL AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES CODES OF ETHICS 03 Dec WHISTLE BLOWING Exercise 1 In-class activity: CASE STUDIES Social context of profession of engineer and scientist/researcher 04 Dec Lecture 10 RISKS IN TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE Risks and liabilities of safety-critical systems PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE 09 Dec Lecture 11 GUEST LECTURE NON-PROLIFERATION AND ETHIC INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY 10 Dec Exercise 2 In-class activity: CASE STUDIES 11 Dec Lecture 12 In-class activity: ORAL PRESENTATIONS 16 Dec COURSE WRAP-UP Exercise 3 10. Conclusions The growing importance of computers in modern society makes Computer Ethics essential both when it comes to the issues related to the profession such as safety, environmental impact, quality and similar and also in the everyday usage of computers which gives rise to numerous ethical dilemmas. The aim of ethics in science and engineering is to increase the ability of future professionals to recognize and solve ethical problems, to accept different ethical perspectives and ethical pluralism. It develops the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues and in that way prepares students for challenges of their profession. It is therefore necessary to make Computer Ethic an integral part of computing curricula, which is the natural way to ensure its integration in the culture of the profession. References [1] Computing Curricula 2001, http://www.computer.org/education/cc2001/index.htm [2] Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) Engineering Criteria 2000 Third Edition, http://www.ele.uri.edu/People/Faculty/daly/criteria.2000.html [3] Robert N. Barger, Is Computer Ethics Unique In Relation To Other Fields Of Ethics?, http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/ce-unique.html [4] A Framework for Ethical Decision Making, http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html [5] Ethics in Engineering, Martin, M.W., Schinzinger, McGraw-Hill, 1996 [6] http://www.asce.org/inside/codeofethics.cfm American Society of Civil Engineers Code of Ethics [7] http://www.acm.org/constitution/code.html ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct [8] www.ieee.org/about/whatis/code.html IEEE Code of Ethics [9] http://www.computer.org/tab/seprof/code.htm Software Engineering Code Of Ethics And Professional Practice (Ieee-Cs/Acm Joint Task Force On Software Engineering Ethics And Professional Practices) [10] Davis, Michael. “Thinking like an Engineer: The Place of a Code of Ethics in the Practice of a Profession". Philosophy and Public Affairs 20.2 (1991): 150-167. [11] Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases, Harris, Charles E., Jr., Michael S. Pritchard and Michael J. Rabins. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1995. [12] Ladd, John. "The Quest for a Code of Professional Ethics: An Intellectual and Moral Confusion". Ethical Issues in Engineering. Ed. Deborah G. Johnson. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. 130-136. [13] Luegenbiehl, Heinz C. "Codes of Ethics and the Moral Education of Engineers", Business and Professional Ethics Journal 2 (1983): 41-61. Rpt. in Ethical Issues in Engineering . Ed. Deborah G. Johnson. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991. 137-154. [14] http://www.iit.edu/departments/csep/PublicWWW/codes/engineer.html Codes of Ethics for Engineering [15] http://www.iit.edu/departments/csep/PublicWWW/codes/ Codes of Ethics Online [16] http://legacy.eos.ncsu.edu/eos/info/computer_ethics/ Ethics in Computing "site map" [17] http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590/