Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
Perceptions of ‘Populism’ and
‘Anti-populism’ in Greek Public
Discourse during the Crisis: The
case of the website ‘Anti-news’
Lazaros Karavasilis, Postgraduate Researcher, Department of Politics, History and International Relations, Loughborough University
The aim of this paper is to present how ‘populism’ is perceived in the website ‘Antinews’ as a representative example of the Greek public discourse in the period between
2010-2016, when the economic crisis heavily affected Greece at a political and social
level. The paper will also attempt to explain how populism is portrayed through this
right-wing oriented media and how their audience perceives populism. Moreover, the
paper offers an account of how ‘anti-populism’ is formulated within this medium and
how it contributes to existing notions of anti-populism.
Introduction
After 2008, the global financial crisis affected almost every country in Europe and the
Americas with an unprecedented impact on the political and social landscape of these
countries. Greece was one of the countries that saw its economy collapse due to a staggering external debt, which led Prime Minster George Papandreou to request a bailout
package from the EU, ECB, and IMF in 2010. The introduction of the bailout mechanism (which became known as ‘Troika’) in the lives of the Greek people signaled a major turning point in the country’s history, which can only be compared with the fall of
the dictatorship and the beginning of the Third Hellenic Republic in 1974. The severe
austerity measures that were a prerequisite for the loan started to have substantial negative implications on the Greek society and led to the further degradation of the country’s
political order. From 2010 up until today, the public discourse was focused on the causality of the crisis and also on criticizing the previous period from 1974 to 2010, known
as ‘Metapolitefsi’, as a period responsible for the country’s misfortunes.
58
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
One of the media that is a representative example of the aforementioned criticism is the
website ‘Anti-news’1, an alternative media site which hosts opinions from centrerightists, liberals, to neoliberals, far-rightists and even fascists in some cases. The variety of the voices that are expressed through this website, along with that of its creator
Failos Kranidiotis (a known far-right and nationalist lawyer and journalist), provide a
comprehensive view of how an audience with right wing tendencies perceives a concept
like populism. In addition, due to Kranidiotis’ personal friendship with Antonis Samaras
(leader of the conservative party New Democracy [ND] from 2009 to 2015), Anti-news
has a close affiliation towards ND, which justifies the critique of populism that is presented on the website. The aforementioned factors have prompted the purpose of this
study, which is to explore how populism is seen through a right-wing website and how
the opinions and thoughts that are presented contribute to the existing notions of antipopulism. For that purpose, I tracked the frequency of articles related to populism from
2010 to 2016. This was achieved by a thorough examination of the website’s archive
through three keywords: ‘Populism’, ‘Metapolitefsi’ and ‘PASOK’. These keywords
were chosen to identify articles dealing with anti-populism and comprise the empirical
corpus of this study.
As Table 1 shows, in the first two years, the articles referring to populism are
relatively low: 11 for 2010 and 17 for 2011. However, after 2012 we see a significant
increase in the frequency of those articles: 48 in 2012, 40 in 2013, 45 in 2014, 59 in
2015 and 97 in 2016. This clearly shows that populism is becoming a matter of concern
for the contributors of the website, especially after the rise of populist parties in government (SYRIZA and Independent Greeks) in 2015.
Table 1. Frequency of articles referring to populism per year
Year
Articles Referring to Populism
2010
11
2011
17
2012
48
2013
40
2014
45
2015
59
2016
97
The paper is divided into three parts: First, I will present how populism is signified in
the contemporary political landscape of Europe and the main theoretical approach for
the case. At the same time, I will also explore the existing notions of anti-populism and
1
http://www.antinews.gr/
59
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
how these contribute to the research. Second, I will focus on the discourse that has been
produced by Anti-news, which revolves around populism, anti-populism, and a critique
of Metapolitefsi. The aim of the last part will be to interpret the website’s views on
populism as well as to analyze the particular form that anti-populism takes in Antinews. Finally, I will conclude my analysis with a summary of the findings from the research.
Modernization Theory, Populism, and Anti-populism
The emergence of populist parties in the beginning of the 21st century in Europe (Mondon 2014; Stavrakakis and Katsambekis 2014; Tournier-Sol 2014; Kioupkiolis 2016)
has refueled the academic interest delving into the causes, consequences, and aspects of
the multi-layered phenomenon of populism (Mudde and Kaltwasser 2012). According to
Pappas there are at least seven major definitions of populism (2016) that represent the
diversity of theoretical approaches to defining populism. However, despite all of these
approaches there is neither a definitive theory on what populism exactly is nor a strict
delineation of the specific characteristics that populism has. Instead, the different approaches of populism attempt to interpret the versatility of the phenomenon in accordance with parties that appear to be populist. This paper approaches populism and antipopulism using modernization theory. Based on the aforementioned theory, populism is
regarded as an expression of social and economic anachronism, mostly associated with
nationalism and statism that opposes economic progress. On the other hand, antipopulism is thought to be the solution to populism as it supports economic modernization through free markets, while embracing political liberalism. As I will analyze in the
following paragraphs, these approaches will explain how Anti-news perceives populism
and how that leads the site into developing an anti-populist stance.
It is of outmost importance for the paper’s purposes to understand how populism
is perceived within the discourse that is articulated in Anti-news. Modernization theory,
its evolution across time, and how it came to define populism in a negative manner can
provide the theoretical context for a satisfactory perception of populism. During the
1950’s, Richard Hofstadter attempted to analyze the populist phenomenon and its contribution to the American political culture. In his work, Hofstadter (1955) examines
populism in a negative manner. Based on the examples of the People’s Party and
McCarthyism, he claims that populism is heavily associated with nativism, nationalism,
nostalgic traditionalism, and ‘moral absolutism’, while he describes populists as a
movement that looks backwards (Stavrakakis 2017). However, populism seems to represent only one of two antagonistic political and cultural groups in Hofstadter’s theory.
According to Hofstadter (1955), the other group endorses the need for industrial capitalist modernization, whatever the cost may be, and promotes this modernization as the
normal political and social evolution, that is against the anachronisms exhibited by pop60
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
ulism. The contribution of Hofstadter’s perception of populism to the theory of modernization has made the latter the defining point of liberal thought, not only in the US but
also to liberals on a global level (Gilman 2000; Latham 2000). At the same time, it has
created a preliminary context for the development of anti-populism (Stavrakakis 2017).
The theory of modernization and its opposition towards populism has also been
adjusted to the Greek political culture by academics who have adopted the theory of
modernization in order to interpret populism. One of them is Diamandouros (2000),
who introduced the theory of a dualistic Greece, according to which the Greek political
culture has two different traditions. Each of these traditions has formed its own ideological system in order to interpret the Greek political and social reality, leading to a conflict between them. On the one hand, there is an ’underdog culture’ which supports a
state-oriented economy, a large public sector, and ethno-centrism – but not a free market and economic reforms. This culture has also become hegemonic through the use of
populism as an ideological tool, which has become the defining element of this culture
(Diamandouros 2000). The other culture that is present in Greece favors political and
economic modernization. Therefore, its ideological influences are mostly drawn from
political liberalism and at the same time characterized by a secular orientation towards
the advanced industrial countries of Western Europe. This culture is in favor of the free
market mechanism and believes in the state’s regulatory role in making the Greek economy more competitive in a global level. That makes this culture more open towards reforms and technological innovation as well as more dedicated to liberal democracy and
constitutionalism as the necessary political context to achieve economic and social
modernization (Diamandouros 2000). To sum up, this dualistic scheme, which derives
from the theory of modernization, manages to interpret populism in a negative manner.
Populism is perceived as the main ideological orientation of social and political forces
that oppose any form of progress and are more inclined towards a nativist and ethnocentric culture.
In light of this context, modernization theory has managed to characterize any
alternative political and economic solution as populist and led to the creation of antipopulism (Gilman 2000) as the medium that can support and expand modernization
thought. The forms that anti-populism has taken throughout the years vary from case to
case, and, like populism, a widely accepted theory of anti-populism has yet to emerge.
Therefore, there are several recent academic attempts to define anti-populism, examine
its relation to populism and identify how populism is portrayed in political and media
discourse. Even though these theories are extensive, I will focus on outlining the most
important elements that each theory has to offer in order to understand the diversity of
approaches used to define and interpret anti-populism.
Much of the work on anti-populism has focused on studying the concept through
empirical analyses of the media. According to Mylonas (2014), who has examined antipopulism in the newspaper ‘Kathimerini’ (the most prominent printed newspaper in
Greece), the anti-populist discourse is articulated mostly within a liberal and neoliberal
61
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
context. Specifically, Kathimerini as well as other mainstream Greek media have interpreted the Greek economic crisis in neoliberal terms, meaning that the pathologies of
the Greek society are responsible for the crisis (Pleios 2013). According to their view,
the backwardness of the Greek society and the way in which people ‘lived above their
abilities’, along with an ideological hegemony of left wing populism, are the main reasons that Greece was led to a financial crisis and was unable to do the necessary structural reforms in its economy (Mylonas 2014). Most importantly, populism does not only
obstruct Greece to reach a neoliberal restructuring of its economy; it also prevents the
country from becoming more ‘European’ (Mylonas 2014). This perception is characteristic of liberal and neoliberal news media such as Kathimerini and is an example of how
modernization theory has been adjusted to the recent economic crisis and the Greek case
in particular. Moreover, the case of Kathimerini shows how anti-populism is articulated
through media, which is of essential importance in order to analyze a similar discourse
in Anti-news.
However, anti-populism has also been expressed from a political perspective,
which in turn has ignited an alternative approach to the phenomenon. Medarov’s account (2015) on liberal anti-populism in post-1989 Bulgaria offers important information on the main elements of political anti-populism and anti-populism more broadly.
Through an examination of how liberal intellectuals in Bulgaria articulate anti-populist
discourse, Medarov concludes that populism is presented as the opposite of liberalism
and a “pre-given set of neoliberal practices, ideas and technologies of governance”
(Medarov 2015, p. 8). Anti-populism achieves the aforementioned distinction by using
‘populism’ as an empty signifier, rendering it capable of multiple meanings, including:
irresponsibility, demagogy, corruption, immorality, destruction, and irrationalism (Stavrakakis 2014). Attributing populism with the aforementioned characteristics is also representative of the anti-populist ‘fear of the masses’, which reflects a shift from political
antagonism to post-political technocratic management as it negates any political opposition by characterizing it ‘populist’ and therefore reckless and irresponsible (Katsambekis 2014). Overall, Medarov’s analysis is a comprehensive example of political
anti-populism, its articulation and signification that progresses research on antipopulism and its various interpretations.
Both of these examples are a reconfirmation that modernization theory is in
complete contrast with populism, even if the latter is politically progressive. The liberal
and neoliberal orientation of modernization theory automatically renders populism as a
phenomenon that opposes real economic and social development, since neoliberalism
does not recognize any other political or economic alternative as a viable option. For
that purpose, anti-populism has been developed as a discursive tool aimed at debunking
positions that oppose neoliberalism as irrational and against economic progress. The
variations that we have presented can provide us with a few preliminary elements that
will lead us closer to an understanding of anti-populism and will be of outmost importance for analyzing the discourse in Anti-news:
62
Politik
•
•
•
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
Anti-populism originates from modernization theory and has become the ideological tool of liberals and neoliberals in contemporary world.
The purpose of anti-populism is to render populism as a phenomenon that obstructs economic development and defies neoliberal governance and therefore is
outside of the common logic and sense.
This allows anti-populism to be developed from both the media and the political
world in order to defend and expand liberal and neoliberal values in economy,
society, and politics.
Populism Governs This Country!: Perceptions of Populism and Anti-populism in
Anti-news
Since 2010, Greece has seen its traditional party system collapse, its economy shrunk
due to austerity measures and the living standard of many Greeks has further diminished. These events have triggered new narratives which attempt to explain the causes
of the crisis and interpret them through the context of the crisis (Liakos and Kouki
2015). Among these new narratives is one created from the contributors of the site Antinews, which attributes populism as the fundamental origin of the crisis in nearly every
social, economic, and political aspect. In this section, I explore how this narrative is
constructed, how Anti-news perceives populism in connection with the Greek crisis, and
the form that anti-populism takes within the website.
According to the writers of Anti-news, after 1974 Greece saw an exceptional
transition towards democracy due to Constantine Karamanlis’ efforts to lead the country
into the European Economic Community and to further democratization of Greece after
the military dictatorship (Voulgaris 2001). However, when the first socialist government of PASOK (Eleftheriou and Tassis 2013)2 came into power in 1981, it signaled the
beginning of an economic decline that led to the current crisis. Specifically, the journalists and the commentators tend to characterize this period as “a period defined by corruption, venality, populism and the mugging of the state resources” (Mitralexis 2012).
This period is also defined by the so-called “‘PASOK system’, which deceived the people with false symbols and false promises into extracting as many resources from the
state as they could” (Anonymous 2012a)3. Therefore, Metapolitefsi was dominated by
the “ideological sovereignty of the left, which was established by PASOK” (Anonymous 2012c)4 and stigmatized by “lawless guild privileges, the distribution of promi2
PASOK (Panhellenic Socialist Movement), was the most prominent socialist party in the period from
1974 to 2012 and has been intrinsically connected with the history of the country the last 40 years.
3
All Anti-news users are listed as ‘Anonymous’, as they write under pseudonyms on the site. Links to
their posts can be found below in the References.
4
This narrative of the country after 1974 fully elaborates in characterizing the aforementioned ideological
sovereignty as a “mentality and an ideology that encouraged despicable and distorted situations, the privileges of the public sector that led to an ungoverned country, an orgy of wasted money, the flee of private
63
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
nent governmental positions, which served to increase the power of the clientelistic state
and by state-funded union workers who resisted any attempt at reform or modernization
and they still govern the country” (Anonymous 2013a). However, these opinions seem
to describe the ‘symptoms’ of a deeper cause that guided the political system of Greece
after 1974 and led to the current crisis. The people who write to Anti-news seem to consider PASOK’s left wing populism as responsible for all of the aforementioned characteristics that defined the period of Metapolitefsi. Populism is at the forefront of nearly
every article concerning the crisis and is also recognized as being the root cause of the
country’s current situation. An article from Anti-news attempts to define populism as:
“Demagogy that is exercised in the name of the people, but works only for the
benefit of the demagogues who attempt to manipulate the people. It is a propaganda technique that deceives the ‘people’ and pits them on one side, and tarnishes everyone who is against them as ‘enemy of the people’, aiming at their isolation from the people. Populism does not suggest any solutions, but only yells slogans, completely aware that they are false and dangerous” (Anonymous 2011a).
Another article describes populism metaphorically as: “A shepherd, who feeds the
masses of desperate and less strong citizens with unfulfilled promises, empty words and
vague, sweet banalities” (Anonymous 2013b).
The clear connection between populism and Metapolitefsi tends to blame populism for the creation and enlargement of the clientelistic state, the degradation of the
nation, and the “forging of a false ‘popular unity’ not for the political emancipation of
the popular classes, but in order to manipulate them efficiently” (Anonymous 2011a).
Populism is not only presented as the primary cause of the crisis but also as the constitutive ideological tool of PASOK that governed for more than 30 years and created an
“economic model, dictating that the state can be the solution for every misfortune, a
model which is historically bankrupt” (Anonymous 2012b). The association of populism with PASOK and how the latter used populism also shows that for Anti-news populism can only originate from the left, since there is an apparent lack of criticism towards right wing populism, throughout the discourse of Anti-news.
The connection between Metapolitefsi and populism extends in many articles to
the inclusion of PASOK and SYRIZA in their discourse. Many contributors often believe that SYRIZA continues to promote left wing populism, following PASOK’s legacy. At the same time and especially after SYRIZA saw a steady rising at the opinion
polls (Katsambekis 2015)5, almost every contributor of the site saw the aforementioned
companies from Greece due to consecutive mobilizations from labor unions, the criminalization of entrepreneurship in Greece and the defense of the university’s asylum to outlaws. In other words, the ideological sovereignty of the left encouraged and supported all of the “diseases” of the Greek society that consequently led to the crisis”.
5
SYRIZA (Coalition of the Radical Left) is a radical left party that was formed in 2004 and rose to power
for the first time on 25th January 2015.
64
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
party as the reincarnation of Andreas Papandreou’s PASOK. An example for this comparison is an entire article focused on proving exactly how SYRIZA is the “New
PASOK” by stating that “the rigid clientelistic state and the so- called ‘army of
PASOK’ are now moving towards SYRIZA. The latter also attempts to destroy PASOK
and become the only party that represents the centre-left” (Anonymous 2012d). That
belief creates a triple connection between PASOK, SYRIZA, and populism, with populism being the element that is dominant in both parties. In summary, Anti-news views
populism as the definitive characteristic of Metapolitefsi, mostly expressed by PASOK
and to a lesser extent by SYRIZA.
However, writers of Anti-news do not confine themselves to criticizing populism
and its responsibility towards the crisis. Another important aspect that is also present is
that of the alternative solution; one that will counteract the effects of populism in the
Greek society as well as the economy. According to several contributions, Greece has to
“be a nation-state again, have a competitive economy in a global level and a strong national identity” (Anonymous 2010a). This will only be achieved if Greece will “continue to have a European orientation” (Anonymous 2015), “restructure its national economy” (Anonymous 2011b) and “embrace again the ideas of patriotism and social liberalism” (Anonymous 2010b). According to the writers of Anti-news, the only one who can
modify the above solutions into a political alternative to populism is Antonis Samaras
and the party of New Democracy (Karavasilis 2015). Therefore, a connection is made
between Anti-news and New Democracy, since the former sees the party and its leader
as the only alternatives that will reverse the effects of populism in the country.
Anti-news’s Attitude towards Populism: A Different Form of Anti-populism?
The examples above are representative of the public discourse produced in Anti-news
and provide a clear picture of the perception of populism and anti-populism among the
political right in Greece. Based on the analysis, I outline the characteristics of this populist and anti-populist discourse in Table 2 below.
As presented in Anti-news, the characteristics typically attributed to populism
are interpreted as negative elements that ‘infected’ the Greek society and its politics
(Nikisianis et al. 2016). Populism is signified as a force that threatens the country, the
nation, and the society with a devastating collapse (Stavrakakis and Sevastakis 2012).
From this anti-populist perspective, populism derives from a clientelistic state, a left
wing political culture, social struggles and a negative attitude towards the EU that, taken
together, are seen as responsible for the current crisis. On the other hand, the signification of anti-populism in Anti-news discourse harbors some familiar but also new features of anti-populism.
65
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
Table 2: Characteristics of Populism and Anti-populism in Anti-news
Populism
Anti-populism
Clientelistic State
State as a Regulator for
Economy
State-centered Economy
Global Competitive Economy/Reforms
Left Wing Political Culture
Ethnocentrism/ Liberal Values
Social Struggles
Common Sense
Euroscepticism
Euro centrism
While the objection to a state-centered economy and support for free markets is a common feature of anti-populism, in Anti-news the exclusion of the state and its potential is
not absolute. Instead, the anti-populist perspective argues that the state must regulate the
free market and, through neoliberal reforms, overcome the clientelistic state and make
the economy more competitive at a global level (Doxiadis 2016). The website’s antipopulism also considers a corruptive left wing political culture, and the populism that
has both produced and dominated the political life in Greece, as obstructing the country
from reaching its true economic potential (Mylonas 2014). To counteract the effect of
populism at the cultural level, there must be a newfound turn towards the importance of
national identity and how ‘we, the Greeks’ as a homogenous entity can overcome the
crisis that populism has implemented (Mylonas 2014).
Justified by the connection between Anti-news and Antonis Samaras, the writers
also stress the importance of liberal values and how they can provide an alternative to
the dominant culture of the left (Karavasilis 2015). In this case, anti-populism also
deems every social struggle or reaction to the implementation of neoliberal reforms as
something illogical that contradicts common sense, the common good, and even the
homeland itself (Stavrakakis and Sevastakis 2012). Lastly, there is also the association
of populism with Euroscepticism and how the former opposes the idea of Europe and
consequently, the country’s position in EU. At this point we see that the contradiction
between ‘populism’ and ‘Europe’ (Doxiadis 2016) leads Anti-news’ anti-populism to
embrace a Eurocentric approach as the only way that will make Greece economically
dynamic, entrepreneurial and more westernized in a European way (Mylonas 2014).
66
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
The distinction between populism and anti-populism in Anti-news can also be interpreted within the context of modernization theory. As the theory dictates, there is a linear
path to progress in which societies who fail to modernize are so-called ‘traditional’, and
those who do are deemed as ‘developed’ (Liakos and Kouki 2015). From this point of
view, populism and all its characteristics are the definitive elements of a society that is
traditional, anachronistic and therefore unwilling to adapt to the technological and economic progress that is suggested by modernization (Doxiadis 2016). Moreover, populism is perceived as responsible for creating an underdog culture which lies in complete
contrast with a modernizing culture based on economic reforms, the universal adoption
of liberal values in politics and society as well as a continuous attempt to westernize the
country in compliance with European standards (Diamandouros 2000). Although the
anti-populist discourse in Anti-news mostly represents a relationship between modernization theory and populism, the role of the nation and national identity in anti-populism
is peculiar. While modernization theory rejects the importance of ethnocentrism altogether (Diamandouros 2000), the writers of Anti-news see the nation and the strengthening of national identity as tools that will modernize Greece and bring the country
closer to the political and economic model of Western countries. The combination of a
strong national identity and liberal/neoliberal values will provide the necessary framework for the country’s exit from the crisis and, additionally, act as the only economic,
social, and political solution to populism.
Conclusion
The website “Anti-news” can be described as a distinct case among the Greek media –
print or otherwise. At the same time, the views that are expressed within the website
provide a comprehensive account of how right-wing supporters perceive populism and
how they articulate their anti-populist discourse. As presented in the analysis here, Antinews holds populism responsible for shaping society, politics, and economy in Greece
over the last 40 years and blamed for an unprecedented crisis. The suggested alternative
to populism is an amalgamation between liberalism, neoliberalism, and ethnocentrism,
and when combined with the proper political leadership (i.e. that of Antonis Samaras)
will guarantee the modernization of Greece.
The discourse that is articulated in Anti-news is a clear example of how antipopulism in Greek media uses modernization theory to brand any alternative to neoliberalism as ‘populist’ and therefore ‘irrational’. Within the same context, any attempt to
prevent the implementation of neoliberal austerity measures is met with disbelief and
branded as a contradiction to ‘common sense’. Moreover, the peculiarity that makes this
anti-populist discourse even more distinct is the role of the nation in Greece’s road towards modernization. As presented above, the significance of ethnocentrism as the ideological and cultural orientation of the country is of the utmost importance for the writers
67
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
of the website, and its necessity is stressed in almost every article. This leads to the conclusion that the anti-populism presented in Anti-news, although featuring most of the
elements found in similar media discourses, fails to reject the idea of the nation altogether; instead, the nation is seen as the cornerstone of progress. Not only that – this
form of anti-populism argues that a return to ethnocentrism and the strengthening of national identity will be able to counteract the effects that populism has had on the economy, society and politics of Greece.
References
Anonymous (2010a). Greece must be a Nation-state Again. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/h-Ελλάδα-οφείλει-να-ξαναγίνειεθνικό-κράτος/10.25322 [Accessed 7 August 2017]
Anonymous. (2010b). Samara’s Time. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/
Αντιθέσεις/Η-ώρα-του-Σαµαρά/10.1031
[Accessed 7 August 2017]
Anonymous (2011a). From Andreas Papandreou’s “Everything to the People” to
George Papandreou’s “Take Everything from the People”. Anti-news. Available
at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/Από-τα-δώστα-όλα-τουΑνδρέα-στο-πάρτε-τους-τα-όλα-του-Γιώργου/10.24364 [Accessed 6 August
2017]
Anonymous. (2011b). “Indignants” and New Metapolitefsi. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Πολιτική/Αγανακτισµένοι-και-ΝέαΜεταπολίτευση-/2.62334 [Accessed 7 August 2017]
Anonymous. (2012a). Bipartisanship, Loaned Money and the Exploitation of the State
Resources will be Stopped!. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Πολιτική/Ο-δικοµµατισµός-τα-δανεικά-καιη-κουτάλα-τελειώνουν-ταυτόχρονα/2.69253 [Accessed 5 August 2017]
Anonymous. (2012b). The Policies that SYRIZA Expresses Led to the Memorandum.
Anti-news. Available at: http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Οι-πολιτικές-πουεκφράζει-ο-ΣΥΡΙΖΑ-οδήγησαν-στο-Μνηµόνιο/2.70681 [Accessed 6 August
2017]
Anonymous. (2012c). The Soviet-State of PASOK will Come Crashing Down, along
with its Left Allies. Anti-news.
Available at: http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/Το-κράτος-σοβιέττου-ΠΑΣΟΚ-θα-καταρρεύσει-µαζί-µε-τα-αριστερά-εξαπτέρυγά-του/10.23546
[Accessed 5 August 2017]
Anonymous (2012d). The “Tsipras” Phenomenon and the “New PASOK”. Anti-news.
Available
at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Πολιτική/Το-φαινόµενοΤσίπρας-και-το-νέο-ΠΑΣΟΚ/2.70449 [Accessed 6 August 2017]
68
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
Anonymous (2013a). Black Befits the Statist ERT. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/Το-µαύρο-ταιριάζει-στηνκρατική-ΕΡΤ/10.16924 [Accessed 5 August 2017]
Anonymous (2013b). Political Extremism threatens the Entropy of Society. Anti-news.
Available
at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Πολιτική/Ο-πολιτικόςφανατισµός-απειλεί-την-εντροπία-της-κοινωνίας/2.14522 [Accessed 6 August
2017]
Anonymous (2015). On Sunday We Say YES. Anti-news. Available at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/Την-Κυριακή-λέµεΝΑΙ/10.100991 [Accessed 7 August 2017]
Diamandouros, N. (2000). Cultural Dualism and Political Change in PostAuthoritarian Greece. Athens: Alexandria.
Doxiadis, Κ. (2016). Propaganda. Athens: Nisos.
Eleftheriou, K. and Tassis, C. (2013). PASOK: The Rise and Fall (?) of a Hegemonic
Party. Athens: Savvalas.
Gilman, N. (2003). Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Hofstadter, R. (1955). The Age of Reform. New York: Vintage Books.
Karavasilis, L. (2015). The Political and Ideological Identity of New Democracy. Degradation and Reconstruction of a Party. Master Thesis, Department of Political
Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Katsambekis, G. (2014). The Place of the People in Post-democracy: Researching Antipopulism and Post-democracy in Crisis-Ridden Greece. POSTData, vol.19(2),
pp. 555-582.
Katsambekis, G. (2015). SYRIZA 2004-2012: From “Youth” to the “People”. A Discursive Approach of Radical Left’s Populism. In: A. Kioupkiolis, Y. Kosma and
Y. Pechtelidis (eds.). Discourse Theory. Creative Applications, pp. 215-248
Athens: Gutenberg.
Kioupkiolis, A. (2016), Podemos: The Ambiguous Promises of Left-wing Populism in
Contemporary Spain. Journal of Political Ideologies, vol.21(2), pp. 99-120.
Latham, M. (2000). Modernization as Ideology. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Liakos, A. and Kouki, H. (2015). Narrating the Story of a Failed National Transition:
Discourses on the Greek Crisis 2010-2014. Historein, vol.15(1), pp. 49-61.
Medarov, G. (2015). The Transformations of Liberal Anti-populism in Post-1989 Bulgaria. POPULISMUS Working Papers No. 2.
Available at: http://www.populismus.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/WPs2medarov1.pdf [Accessed 5 August 2017]
Mitralexis, S. (2012). 18th October 2012: Obituary for Metapolitefsi. Anti-news. Available
at:
http://www.antinews.gr/action.read/Αντιθέσεις/18-Οχτώβρη-2012Νεκρολογία-για-Μεταπολιτεύσεις/10.22958 [Accessed 5 August 2017]
69
Politik
Nummer 4 | Årgang 20 | 2017
Mondon, A. (2014). The Front National in the Twenty-First Century: From Pariah to
Republican Democratic Contender?. Modern & Contemporary France,
vol.22(3), pp. 301-320.
Mudde C. and Kaltwasser, C.R. (eds.) (2012). Populism in Europe and the Americas. A
Threat or Corrective for Democracy?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mylonas, Y. (2014). Crisis, Media and Opposition in Mainstream Media Discourses of
Greece. Critical Discourse Studies, vol.11(3), pp. 305-321.
Nikisianis, N., Siomos, T., Stavrakakis, Y., Dimitroulia T., (2016). Populism versus Anti-populism in Greek Press, 2014-2015. Syghrona Themata, vol.38(132-133), pp.
52-70.
Pappas, T. (2016). Modern Populism: Research Advances, Conceptual and Methodological Pitfalls and the Minimal Definition. Oxford Research Encyclopedia, Politics. Available at:
http://politics.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/ac
refore-9780190228637-e-17 [Accessed 5 August 2017]
Pleios, G. (2013). The Media against the Crisis. In: G. Pleios (ed.). The Crisis and the
Media, pp. ??-??. Athens: Papazisis.
Sevastakis, N. and Stavrakakis, Y. (2012). Populism, Anti-populism and Crisis. Athens:
Nefeli.
Stavrakakis Y. and Katsambekis, G. (2014). Left-Wing Populism in the European Periphery: the case of SYRIZA. Journal of Political Ideologies, vol.19(2), pp. 119142.
Stavrakakis, Y. (2017). How did Populism become a Pejorative Concept? And Why is
this Important Today? A Genealogy of Double Hermeneutics. POPULISMUS
Working Papers No. 6. Available at: http://www.populismus.gr/wpcontent/uploads/2017/04/stavrakakis-populismus-wp-6-upload.pdf [Accessed 6
August 2017]
Stavrakakis, Y. (2014). The Return of “The People”: Populism and Anti-populism in the
Shadow of the European Crisis. Constellations, vol.21(4), pp. 505-517.
Tournier-Sol, K. (2014). Reworking the Eurosceptic and Conservative Traditions into a
Populist Narrative: UKIP’s Winning Formula?. Journal of Common Market
Studies, Special Issue 2015: Interpreting British European Policy, pp. 140-156.
Voulgaris, Y. (2001). Post-Authoritarian Greece 1974-1990. Athens: Themelio.
70