International Politics The power of the media and their impact on the „Crimean war“ „Term Paper“ Institute of History Karl-Franzens University Graz Ao.Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil. Siegfried Beer and Ass.-Prof. Dr.phil Eduard Staudinger „International Politics“ ST (summer term) 2012 submitted by Christian Höserle Mat. Nr.:1011210 11.06.2012 Content 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 2 2. THE BEGINNING OF THE CRIMEAN WAR ................................................................ 2 3. MEDIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY ................................................................................... 3 3.1. FROM THE “RUSSIAN BEAR” TO THE “MAD TSAR” ........................................................... 4 3.2. CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE IN THE MEDIA ............................................................... 7 4. THE IMPACT ON SOCIETY AND POLITICS ............................................................... 9 4.1. FROM ABERDEEN TO PALMERSTON ................................................................................ 9 4.2. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE ..............................................................................................10 5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................11 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................................................................................12 6.1. PRIMARY LITERATURE ..................................................................................................12 6.2. SECONDARY LITERATURE .............................................................................................13 6.3. TABLE OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................15 1 1. Introduction After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the Great Powers, Great Britain, Russia, France, Austria and Prussia have guaranteed peace within Europe for nearly 40 years. The Crimean war was the clash, which changed European borders again. This war was a conflict between the Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia) against the Russian Empire. It lasted from 1853 until 1856, taking place on the Crimean peninsula. It was also the first time in history, when European newspapers reported from the battlegrounds with their own correspondents and photographers. This short paper, focusing on Great Britain, aims to explain how important reports were for the public opinion and how they influenced it. Furthermore a connection between war reports in the 19th century media and political decisions from countries and their leaders shall be proven. 2. The beginning of the Crimean War The Crimean war started out of a religious conflict. Emperor Nikolaus I wanted to take control over the holy places in Jerusalem1. Furthermore the ruler of the Russian Empire thought, that the end of the Ottoman Empire would come soon, so he wanted to expand the Russian borders as far as Tsargrad (Constantinople) and the Dardanelles.2 The English government had good trade relationships with the Ottoman Empire and the French Empire under the rule of Napoleon III who wanted to defend catholic interests, in contrast to the Russian Orthodox welfare of Emperor Nikolaus I.3 Another reason why Britain stood against Russia was due to the public opinion in Great Britain. The Ottoman Empire was considered lacking military strength, but was said to be a profitable trade partner and a liberal but weak nation.4 Both opponents tried to get Austria and Prussia on their side. Upon this matter A.J.P. Taylor wrote in his article: “The first stage of the Crimean War was the stage when the Western Powers imagined that "the third force" could be drawn into the war and a real decision thus produced. This stage lasted until the summer of 1854, by which time Prussian neutrality was certain and Austrian.(!) belligerence uncertain.”5 1 cf. Bass 2011, p.1f. cf. Fesser 2003, p.1ff. 3 cf. Vocelka 2010, p. 570f. 4 cf. Fesser 2003, p.1ff. 5 Taylor 2009, p.1. 2 2 This was the reason why the Allied Powers had to go by sea, due to the neutrality of Prussia and Austria. The latter did not play an active role in the Crimean War, but in this case, Austria deployed troops on its eastern border. Andrew Lambert writes in his column: “By early August Austrian troops had created a neutral buffer between the combatants.”6 The consequence of this decision was, that the allied troops (England, France and the Ottoman Empire) could use the territory of both Germanic Powers to attack Russia. So, England and France decided to bring the war to the Crimean peninsula7. The Russians withdrew their forces from the Danube region and furthermore behind Prut (Romania). The Allies decided to attack Sevastopol to gain a necessary victory.8 On Allied Powers’ side was William Howard Russel, the first war correspondent and war reporter from the London Times which was the first time in military history for a journalist reporting directly from the battlefield, He influenced the public opinion in a substantial way. 3. Media in the 19th century Newspapers were already quite common all over Europe the reporters of which informed their readers about culture, politics and society. Since the Congress of Vienna in 1815 had brought peace to the nations and the pentarchy of the five powers was installed, the powerful nations Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, France and Austria secured the peace in Europe for more than 40 years.9 So the readers have an interest in know something about war. The morse telegraph, which was developed by Samuel Morse in 1844, allowed to transmit messages via telegraph lines very fast.10 The correspondents were now able to send messages to the newspapers, so that the press could inform the people as fast as possible. The upcoming war between Great Britain and Russia motivated the newspapers to influence the public opinion in favour of Turkey and against Russia. In the newspapers of Great Britain Emperor Nikolaus I was pictured like a despot, since he had suppressed the uprising in Poland in 1830/31 and in Hungary in 1849, supporting the Habsburg Monarchy.11 6 Lambert 2011, p.1. cf. Taylor 2009, p.1. 8 cf. Fesser 2003, p.2. 9 cf. Schroeder 2004, p.41f. 10 cf. o. V. http://www.history.com/topics/telegraph [26.05.2012]. 11 cf. Fesser 2003, p.1ff. 7 3 3.1. From the “Russian bear” to the “mad Tsar” Sir Howard Russel, knighted in 1895, was the first reporter in the Crimean War. He reported with telegrams directly from the front. After the war had been declared his opinion about it was positively influenced, as Russel writes in one of his telegrams: “Never did a set of finer fellows leave Old England for the good and glory of their country than the brigade of Guards which has just arrived. It is not of the personnel of the men –great British Anakim as they are –that this is said, but of the spirit, cheerfulness and good humour[!sic] they displayed on the passage.”12 The London Times printed his messages in their original form, making it possible to see how the public opinion was influenced by his telegrams. Russel was close to the officers as well as to the normal soldier. The first battle in the Crimean war – the battle of Alma – was commented with respect to the enemies and respect for the own soldiers. He also emphasized the troops’ good morale, as quoted below: “(…) English, I hope you will fight well to-day! “Hope”! Exclaimed a voice from the ranks, “sure you know we will!”(…).”13 Referring to The Punch, another popular British newspaper, the Russian Empire should respect the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire. If they would not, the British were able and ready to defend the Ottoman turkey from the aggression of the “Russian bear”, as shown in Figure 1 below: Figure 1 - PAWS OFF, BRUIN! (The Punch 1853, 24, p.222). 12 13 Russel 1855a, p.2. Russel 1855a, p.173. 4 The Punch, also had some power of opinion-making, when it placed some critical comments under the displayed cartoons, like: “We recommend the Bear (…), in his own security, (…) we would advise him to keep his paws off from Turkey, who thought incapable of the noble art of Self-defense may find “troops of friends” when occasion requires . Should Turkey call (…), how could we refuse (…). (…) we would have him remember, that he occupies a very ordinary position among the heads of our countrymen.”14 Furthermore The Punch reported, that the soldiers’ children would be safe, when their fathers were fighting against the Russian enemies. So, The Punch was in its own way also supporting the military mobilization. Figure 3 - BRITTANIA TAKING CARE OT THE SOLDIERS`S Figure 2 THE SOLDIER`S DREAM CHILDREN (The Punch 1854, 26, p.85). (The Punch 1854, 26, p.131). The pictures in the newsletter about the brave soldier, dreaming of his wife and kids and on the other hand, the displayed care of Britannia (Figure 2) for the kids, should motivate the guards on the frontline (Figure 3). The Punch published: “(…)That we who fight for truth and right, must win, whatever betide, for that the god of battles goes forth upon our side. (…) God defend the right!”15 14 15 The Punch 1853a, p.22. The Punch 1854a, p.85. 5 After the next few months The Punch continues to show the Russian Empire as Russian Bear, while the Russian victory in Sinope on 30 November 1853, where the Turkish fleet was destroyed, was only noted in a small column.16 After the victory of the Alma, The Punch displayed both pictures: the exploding Russian bubble (Figure 4) and the victory of the allied troops (Figure 5), which should demonstrate that the English alliance would be successfully in the war. This kind of propaganda was used to influence the public opinion.17 It should be noted that after the battle of Alma the cartoons started to concentrate on the Tsar. The change from the “Russian Bear” to the “Mad Tsar” was completed. Figure 5 - VICTORY OF THE ALMA Figure 4 - BURSTING THE RUSSIAN (The Punch 1854, 27, p.148). BUBBLE (The Punch 1854, 27, p.149). In his correspondence Russel also mentioned the loss of manpower. The main problem of the British troops was not the loss of men who fell in battle, it was the disastrous care of the wounded. Additionally, the sanitary conditions were extremely bad, which meant that cholera claimed furthermore victims. Russel wrote in his report of the battle of Alma: “When I was looking a the wounded men going off to-day, I could not see an English ambulance. Our men were sent to the sea, three miles distant, on jolting arabas18 or tedious litters.”19 16 cf. Cross 2006, p.4f. cf. The Punch 1854b, p. 146. 18 Schubkarren 19 Russel 1855a, p.185. 17 6 3.2. Charge of the light Brigade in the Media Another extraordinary event in the Crimean War, which drew enormous media attention, was the battle of Balaklava. The siege of Sevastopol was a prequel to the First World War. The allied troops secured their positions around the town. The supplies were delivered from the harbor of Balaklava.20 The charge of the light Brigade happened by a misunderstanding between Lord Lucan and Captain Nolan, as Russel wrote in his documents: “When Lord Lucan received the order from Captain Nolan, and had read it, he asked, we are told, “Where are we to advance to?” Captain Nolan pointed with his finger to the line of the Russians, and said “There are the enemy and there are the guns, sir, before them; it is your duty to take them”(…).”21 But Russel reported also that Lord Cardigan was against the Charge, in fact, that cavalry should never act without infantry support. But in the fact that he was subordinated to Lord Lucan, he began the attack.22 Compared to the fact-based report of Russel, the newspaper The Punch reported very euphorically and with a variety of poems and reports. It should be noted, however, that The Punch did not mention the Charge of the light Brigade explicitly, they reported from the attack in their newspaper as a kind of a poem: “How our Light Brigade, true martyrs to the point of honor, fell! “T(hat )was sublime, but t(hat) was not warfare,” that charge of woe and wrack, That led sex hundred to the guns, and brought two hundred back! Enough! The order came to charge, and charge they did – like men; (…) But for you, true band of heroes, you have done your duty well(…).”23 That was the typical “Punch” language, another difference, between William Howard Russel and the publisher of the newspaper. According to Anthony Cross, The Punch was an instrument of power which strongly influenced the public opinion in England.24 20 cf. Fesser 2003, p.4. Russel 1855a, p.230. 22 cf. Russel 1855a, p.231. 23 The Punch 1854b, p.219. 24 cf. Cross 2006, p.6ff. 21 7 In the cartoon (Figure 6) The Punch pictured Lord Cardigan as the hero of the battle of Balaklava. Figure 6 - A Trump Card(igan) (Punch 1854, 27, p. 209). While The Punch celebrated the survivors as heroes, Russel reported on the chronological sequences of the battle, the mistakes of those who are responsible for the wounded and the dead as well, as quoted: “Captain Nolan was killed by the first shot fired, as he rode in advance of the Hussars, cheering them on. Lord Lucan was slightly wounded. Lord Cardigan received a lance thrust through his clothes.”25 Roger Fendon took one of his most popular pictures from the Battle of Balaklava, and called it Shadow of the valley of death. The valley was the place where the Light Brigade attacked the Russian defense position. This picture (Figure 7) shows the fired cannonballs. Figure 7 - Shadow of the valley of death (Fenton 1855). 25 Russel 1855a, p.232. 8 Russel closed his report from Balaklava with a complete list of dead, missed and wounded. According to Russel 169 were killed or missing and 218 wounded. He also added the loss of horses amounting to about 520.26 4. The impact on society and politics The Crimean War was the first war, where journalists like Howard Russel reported directly from the frontline. With his reports about the supply problems and the large number of losses he impressed the English population. Anthony Cross wrote: “It was Russell's reports that triggered the wave of public outrage both at the ineptitude of commanders in the field, from Lord Raglan down, and of home-based politicians and administrators, beginning with the Prime Minister, Lord Aberdeen.”27 4.1. From Aberdeen to Palmerston The change from Aberdeen to Palmerston happened in February 1855. The Punch criticized Aberdeen in the years 1853 and 1854 about his inactivity against the Russians. As Aberdeen was replaced by Palmerston, The Punch welcomed him with the picture in figure 8 Figure 8 - ABERDEEN TO PALMERSTON (The Punch 1855, 28, p.5). 26 27 cf. Russel 1855a, p.234. Cross 2006, p.10. 9 4.2. Florence Nightingale Russel`s reports pointed out, what the wounded soldiers needed most. The effects of Russell's reports and the images caused an outcry to improve the sanitary situation among the population. So, Florence Nightingale began her work as a nurse behind the frontline with 34 volunteers. Before she had taken control over the hospital of Scutar, it was the hospital with the highest death rate in the Crimean war.28 The Punch called her a “ministering angel"29 and Miranda Seamour wrote in 2004: “(…)a ministering angel who brought comfort to the dying (…)”. 30 Her popularity was very high, The Punch mentioned her several times. And her reputation in Britain was enormous, according to Elisabeth Fee: “(…)and even the Queen was impressed. Nightingale’s work brought the field of public health to national attention. She was one of the first in Europe to grasp the principles of the new science of statistics and to apply them to military— and later civilian—hospitals.”31 After the end of the Crimean war, she was known as the “Angel of Crimea”. The Los Angeles Times, presented her picture in an obituary (Figure 9 & Figure 10). She died on the 13 August 1910 in London.32 Figure 10 - Angel of Crimea Figure 9 – PRAISED BY BRITISH QUEEN (The Daily Mirror 1910). (The Daily Mirror 1910). 28 cf. Fee 2010, p.1. cf. The Punch 1855a, p. 37. 30 Seymor 2004, p.1. 31 Fee 2010, p.1. 32 cf. The Daily Mirror 1910, p.1. 29 10 5. Conclusion Finally, in my opinion, it is true, that the Crimean War (1853 – 1856) had an impact on the reports in the media. There is an interaction between the role of reporters like Sir Howard Russel (knighted 1895), photographers like Roger Fendon, local heroes like Florence Nightingale and the kind of warfare. It seems true, that Russel reported to the Times those scenes he had seen and not what the generals wanted to be reported. In further wars, generals and leaders took care of what frontline reporters were supposed to report. For those journalists it was necessary to have permission from the government or the military leadership. The power of journalism was known after the Crimean War it was like a window in the future. As example the siege of Sevastopol can be used as an example for the trench warfare, which should dominate the World War I (1914-1918). The role of war reporting was increased significantly and influenced the meaning of the people in their home countries. Propaganda was the next logical step in the relation between war & media and if we take a look in our times, the roles of newspapers, radio and television reports are significant high and we have social media networks. For me it seems clear that the future of war reporting is in the hand of the people, as example the war reports from Syria now or the information’s about the Arabic revolution in Egypt. With today technology, everyone can share and view videos from “public” reporters. This could be useful but from another point of view, there is a danger because the customer decides if the videos or reports are true, or faked. 11 6. Bibliography 6.1. Primary Literature Russel, Howard William (1855a): The War. From the landing at Gallipolli to the death of Lord Raglan. London: George Routledge & CO. Farringdon Street: New York 18, Beekman Street. In:http://books.google.at/books?id=kutBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA277&dq=Sir+William+howard+Ru ssel+crim&hl=de&sa=X&ei=kiuFT871KqSj4gTz7vj8Bw&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q= guards&f=false [20.05.2012]. Russel, Howard William (1855b): The War. From the death of Lord Raglan to the evacuation of the Crimea. London: George Routledge & CO. Farringdon Street: New York 18, Beekman Street. In:http://books.google.at/books?id=4DQpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA454&dq=Sir+William+howard+ Russel+crim&hl=de&sa=X&ei=kiuFT871KqSj4gTz7vj8Bw&ved=0CEYQ6AEwAw#v=onepage &q&f=false [20.05.2012]. The Examiner (1854): Who is MRS Nightingale. In: http://newspapers11.bl.uk/blcs/researchtools/BB3205473881.pdf [29.05.2012]. The Daily Mirror (15. August 1910): Angel of Crimea Answer last call. In: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/thedailymirror/2010/08/florence-nightingale-dies.html [29.05.2012]. The Punch (1853a): Volume 24. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia600302.us.archive.org/13/items/punch24a25lemouoft/punch24a25lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1853b): Volume 25. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia600302.us.archive.org/13/items/punch24a25lemouoft/punch24a25lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1854a): Volume 26. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://books.google.at/books?id=wggDAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y [20.05.2012]. 12 The Punch (1854b): Volume 27. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://books.google.at/books?id=wggDAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1855a): Volume 28. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia700409.us.archive.org/19/items/punch28a29lemouoft/punch28a29lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1855b): Volume 29. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia700409.us.archive.org/19/items/punch28a29lemouoft/punch28a29lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1856a): Volume 30. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia600502.us.archive.org/17/items/punch30a31lemouoft/punch30a31lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. The Punch (1856b): Volume 31. London: Published at the office, 85, Fleet street. In: http://ia600502.us.archive.org/17/items/punch30a31lemouoft/punch30a31lemouoft.pdf [20.05.2012]. 6.2. Secondary Literature Bass, Garry (2011): Why the Crimean War matters. In: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/books/review/book-review-the-crimean-war-a-historyby-orlando-figes.html?_r=1&pagewanted=al%20 [20.05.2012}. Cross, Anthony (2006): The Crimean War and the Caricature War. In:http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4214321?uid=3737528&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&ui d=4&sid=47699034590647 [20.05.2012]. FEE Elisabeth / Garofalo Mary E: (2010): Florence Nightingale and the Crimean War. In: http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/american-public-health-association/florence-nightingale-andthe-crimean-war-BnYjUFYEo5 [29.05.2012]. Fenton, Roger (1855) Shadow of the valley of death. In: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2001698869/resource/ [27.05.2012]. 13 FESSER Gerd (2003): Europas erstes Verdun. Im Sommer 1853 begann der Krimkrieg – und zum ersten Mal zeigte sich der Krieg in seiner neuen, industriellen Gestalt. In: http://pdf.zeit.de/2003/33/A-Krimkrieg.pdf [27.05.2012]. LAMBERT, Andrew (2011): The Crimean War. In: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/crimea_01.shtml [27.05.2012]. Schroeder, Paul (2004): Systems, Stability and Statecraft: Essays on the international history of modern Europe. o.O.: Palgrave. SEYMOUR Miranda (2004): 'Nightingales': Nurse's Aides. NYTimes. In:http://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/24/books/review/24SEYMOUR.html?_r=1&pagewanted= print&position= [29.05.2012]. TAYLOR A.J.P. (2009): Crimea: the War That Didn't Boil In:http://www.historytoday.com/ajp-taylor/crimea-war-didnt-boil [27.05.2012]. Vocelka, Karl (2010): Geschichte der Neuzeit. 1500-1918. Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhler Verlag Ges.m.b.H. und Co.KG. o. V. http://www.history.com/topics/telegraph [25.05.2012]. 14 6.3. Table of Figures Figure 1 - PAWS OFF, BRUIN! (The Punch 1853, 24, p.222). .............................................. 4 Figure 2 THE SOLDIER`S DREAM (The Punch 1854, 26, p.131)......................................... 5 Figure 3 - BRITTANIA TAKING CARE OT THE SOLDIERS`S CHILDREN (The Punch 1854, 26, p.85). ............................................................................................................................... 5 Figure 4 - BURSTING THE RUSSIAN BUBBLE (The Punch 1854, 27, p.149). .................... 6 Figure 5 - VICTORY OF THE ALMA (The Punch 1854, 27, p.148). ...................................... 6 Figure 6 - A Trump Card(igan) (Punch 1854, 27, p. 209). .................................................... 8 Figure 7 - Shadow of the valley of death (Fenton 1855). ....................................................... 8 Figure 8 - ABERDEEN TO PALMERSTON (The Punch 1855, 28, p.5)................................. 9 Figure 9 – PRAISED BY BRITISH QUEEN (The Daily Mirror 1910). ...................................10 Figure 10 - Angel of Crimea (The Daily Mirror 1910)............................................................10 15