Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information i THE ENGLISH PHRASAL VERB, 16 50 – P R E S E N T Providing a detailed and comprehensive account of the development of phrasal verbs from Early Modern to present-day English, this study covers almost 400 years in the history of English, and provides both a diachronic and synchronic account based on over 12,000 examples extracted from stratiied electronic corpora. he corpus analysis provides evidence of how registers can inform us about the history of English, as it traces and compares the usage and stylistic drifts of phrasal verbs across ten diferent genres – drama, iction, journals, diaries, letters, medicine, news, science, sermons, and trial proceedings. he study also sheds new light on the morphosyntactic and semantic features of phrasal verbs, proposing a new approach to the category, considering not only their grammatical features, but also their historical development, by discussing the category in terms of a number of central mechanisms of language change. P au l a R o d r í g u e z - P u e n t e is PhD Lecturer of English Language and Linguistics at the University of Oviedo, Spain. She has published widely in international journals such as English Studies, English Language and Linguistics, and Folia Linguistica Historica and has contributed to prestigious edited volumes. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information ii STUDIES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE General editor Merja Kytö (Uppsala University) Editorial Board Bas Aarts (University College London), John Algeo (University of Georgia), Susan Fitzmaurice (University of Sheield), Christian Mair (University of Freiburg), Charles F. Meyer (University of Massachusetts) he aim of this series is to provide a framework for original studies of English, both present-day and past. All books are based securely on empirical research, and represent theoretical and descriptive contributions to our knowledge of national and international varieties of English, both written and spoken. he series covers a broad range of topics and approaches, including syntax, phonology, grammar, vocabulary, discourse, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics, and is aimed at an international readership. Already published in this series: Christiane Meierkord: Interactions across Englishes: Linguistic Choices in Local and International Contact Situations Haruko Momma: From Philology to English Studies: Language and Culture in the Nineteenth Century Raymond Hickey (ed.): Standards of English: Codiied Varieties around the World Benedikt Szmrecsanyi: Grammatical Variation in British English Dialects: A Study in Corpus-Based Dialectometry Daniel Schreier and Marianne Hundt (eds.): English as a Contact Language Bas Aarts, Joanne Close, Geofrey Leech, and Sean Wallis (eds.): he Verb Phrase in English: Investigating Recent Language Change with Corpora Martin Hilpert: Constructional Change in English: Developments in Allomorphy, Word Formation, and Syntax Jakob R. E. Leimgruber: Singapore English: Structure, Variation, and Usage Christoph Rühlemann: Narrative in English Conversation: A Corpus Analysis of Storytelling Dagmar Deuber: English in the Caribbean: Variation, Style and Standards in Jamaica and Trinidad Eva Berlage: Noun Phrase Complexity in English Nicole Dehé: Parentheticals in Spoken English: he Syntax-Prosody Relation Jock O. Wong: he Culture of Singapore English © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information iii Marianne Hundt: Late Modern English Syntax Irma Taavitsainen, Merja Kytö, Claudia Claridge, and Jeremy Smith: Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence Arne Lohmann: English Co-ordinate Constructions: A Processing Perspective on Constituent Order Nuria Yáñez-Bouza: Grammar, Rhetoric and Usage in English: Preposition Placement 1500–1900 Anita Auer, Daniel Schreier, and Richard J. Watts: Letter Writing and Language Change John Flowerdew and Richard W. Forest: Signalling Nouns in English: A Corpus-Based Discourse Approach Jefrey P. Williams, Edgar W. Schneider, Peter Trudgill, and Daniel Schreier: Further Studies in the Lesser-Known Varieties of English Jack Grieve: Regional Variation in Written American English Douglas Biber and Bethany Gray: Grammatical Complexity in Academic English: Linguistic Change in Writing Gjertrud Flermoen Stenbrenden: Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1050–1700: Evidence from Spelling Zoya G. Proshina and Anna A. Eddy: Russian English: History, Functions, and Features Raymond Hickey (ed.): Listening to the Past: Audio Records of Accents of English Phillip Wallage: Negation in Early English: Grammatical and Functional Change Marianne Hundt, Sandra Mollin, and Simone E. Pfenninger: he Changing English Language: Psycholinguistic Perspectives Joanna Kopaczyk and Hans Sauer (eds.): Binomials in the History of English: Fixed and Flexible Alexander Haselow: Spontaneous Spoken English Christina Sanchez-Stockhammer: English Compounds and heir Spelling David West Brown: English and Empire: Language History, Dialect, and the Digital Archive Paula Rodríguez-Puente: he English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present: History, Stylistic Drifts, and Lexicalisation Earlier titles not listed are also available. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information iv © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information v THE ENGLISH PHRASAL V E R B , 1650 – P R E S E N T History, Stylistic Drifts, and Lexicalisation PAU L A RO D R Í G U E Z - P U E N T E Universidad de Oviedo © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information vi University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, ny 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107101746 DOI: 10.1017/9781316182147 © Paula Rodríguez-Puente 2019 his publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2019 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A. A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Rodríguez-Puente, Paula, author. Title: he English phrasal verb, 1650–present : history, stylistic drifts, and lexicalisation / Paula Rodríguez-Puente, Universidad de Oviedo. Description: Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2018. | Series: Studies in English language | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identiiers: LCCN 2018039894 | ISBN 9781107101746 (hardback) | ISBN 9781107499249 (paperback) Subjects: LCSH: English language – Verb phrase. Classiication: LCC PE1319.R74 2018 | DDC 425/.6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018039894 ISBN 978-1-107-10174-6 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information vii Contents page x xiii xvii xix List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 Corpus and Methodology 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3 he English Phrasal Verb Purpose and Framework he Importance of Phrasal Verbs 1650–Present Introduction he Corpora 2.2.1 ARCHER: A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers 2.2.2 he Old Bailey Corpus 2.2.3 he International Corpus of English, Great Britain 2.2.4 Further Sources of Data A Note on the Genres 2.3.1 Journals/Diaries 2.3.2 Personal Letters 2.3.3 Drama and Fiction 2.3.4 News 2.3.5 Scientiic and Medical Discourse 2.3.6 Sermons 2.3.7 Trial Proceedings 2.3.8 A Reclassiication Proposal for the Genres in ARCHER and the OBC Methodology Delimiting the Scope of the Study: What Are Phrasal Verbs? 3.1 3.2 Introduction he Verbal Element 1 1 8 13 17 17 17 17 22 24 25 26 27 30 32 33 35 37 38 41 43 46 46 47 vii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information viii viii Contents 3.3 3.4 3.5 4 he Relationship between Phrasal Verbs and the Processes of Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5 48 48 55 74 75 76 84 103 104 he Particles 3.3.1 Morphological Characterisation 3.3.2 he Semantics of Particles 3.3.3 Summary Phrasal Verbs as a Unit 3.4.1 Semantic Types of Phrasal Verbs 3.4.2 Syntactic Characteristics: Tests of ‘Phrasal-Verbness’ 3.4.3 Summary Summary and Conclusions Introduction Grammaticalisation Lexicalisation Idiomatisation Views on the Efect of Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation on Phrasal Verbs 4.5.1 Phrasal Verb Particles as Grammaticalised Items 4.5.2 Phrasal Verbs as the Result of Lexicalisation 4.5.3 Phrasal Verbs as Idiomatised Units Proposed Model for the Relationship between Phrasal Verbs and Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation 4.6.1 Graded Categorisation: Gradience and Gradualness 4.6.2 Phrasal Verbs as a Gradable Category Summary 117 118 120 123 139 139 142 151 Phrasal Verbs 1650–1990: Linguistic Aspects 5.1 5.2 5.3 153 153 Introduction Phrasal Verbs in Late Modern English and Twentieth-Century English: Linguistic Aspects 5.2.1 Morphological Features and Distribution 5.2.2 Semantic Characteristics 5.2.3 Syntactic Features 5.2.4 Nouns and Adjectives Derived from Phrasal Verbs Summary and Conclusions 154 155 181 194 205 211 6 Phrasal Verbs 1650–1990: Cross-Genre Distribution 6.1 6.2 Introduction Cross-Genre Analysis of Phrasal Verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 6.2.1 Phrasal Verbs in Diaries and Journals 6.2.2 Phrasal Verbs in Personal Letters 6.2.3 Phrasal Verbs in Drama and Fiction 6.2.4 Phrasal Verbs in News © in this web service Cambridge University Press 107 107 107 111 115 215 215 218 223 235 240 247 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information ix Contents 6.3 7 6.2.5 Phrasal Verbs in Medicine and Science 6.2.6 Phrasal Verbs in Sermons 6.2.7 Phrasal Verbs in Trial Proceedings Discussion of Findings Conclusion Appendix I: List of Phrasal Verb Constructions with a Fixed Syntactic Order Appendix II: Raw and Normalised Frequencies of Phrasal Verb Particles in ARCHER and the OBC Appendix III: List of the Twenty Most Common Combinations Distributed across Genres Appendix IV: Raw Frequencies of Particles Distributed across Genres Bibliography Index © in this web service Cambridge University Press ix 253 260 264 271 278 287 289 290 292 293 319 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information x Figures 2.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Distribution of genres in ARCHER and the OBC according to the dimensions of (in)formality and their speech-like vs. written characterisation page 43 Normalised igures of bring up per 1,000,000 words in the HC and ARCHER 127 Normalised frequencies of bring up per 1,000,000 words in the CLMETEV 128 Normalised frequencies of put down per 1,000,000 words in the HC and ARCHER 131 Normalised frequencies of put down per 1,000,000 words in the CLMETEV 131 Normalised frequencies of take in per 1,000,000 words in the HC and ARCHER 132 Normalised frequencies of take in per 1,000,000 words in the CLMETEV 133 Cline of lexicalisation in phrasal verbs 146 Cline of idiomatisation in phrasal verbs 146 Distribution of the combinations that break the ‘phonological constraint’ in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 159 Distribution of phrasal verb particles in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 162 he development of particles which show a tendency to increase in frequency in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 164 he development of recent phrasal verb particles. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 165 he development of the particle forth in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 167 x © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xi xi List of Figures 5.6 he development of about, around, and round in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 5.7 he development of phrasal verbs from 1650 to 1990 in ARCHER and the OBC 5.8 Diachronic development of phrasal verbs in ARCHER 5.9 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of phrasal verbs in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 100,000 words 5.10 Distribution of phrasal verb passives per genre in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 5.11 Diachronic distribution of the VPO and VOP arrangements with nominal objects in ARCHER and the OBC 5.12 Distribution across semantic groups of the VPO and VOP arrangements with nominal objects in combinations with up 5.13 Diachronic distribution of -ing nominalisations in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 5.14 Cross-genre distribution of phrasal verb -ing nominalisations in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 5.15 Diachronic distribution of phrasal verb derivations other than -ing nominalisations in ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 5.16 Diachronic distribution of phrasal verb derivations other than -ing nominalisations in ARCHER and the OBC excluding the follow-up examples from 1950 to 1990. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 5.17 Cross-genre distribution of phrasal verb derivations other than -ing nominalisations in ARCHER. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.1 Frequency of phrasal verbs across genres in ARCHER and the OBC. Boxplot analysis 6.2 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in diaries and journals. Boxplot analysis 6.3 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in diaries and journals over time. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.4 he development of phrasal verbs in letters in ARCHER. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.5 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in drama and iction. Boxplot analysis © in this web service Cambridge University Press 169 175 177 187 199 201 202 207 208 210 210 211 219 224 225 236 241 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xii xii List of Figures 6.6 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in drama and iction over time. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.7 he development of phrasal verbs in drama excluding the iles 1944bagn.d7b and 1960bolt.d8b. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.8 he development of phrasal verbs in news in ARCHER. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.9 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in medicine and science. Boxplot analysis 6.10 Comparison of the frequency of phrasal verbs in medicine and science over time. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.11 he development of phrasal verbs in sermons in ARCHER. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.12 he development of phrasal verbs in the trial proceedings from the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.13 he development of phrasal verbs in the trial proceedings from the OBC and the legal cross-examinations from the ICE-GB. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.14 Diachronic development of phrasal verbs in the speechrelated text types from ARCHER and the OBC. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.15 Diachronic development of phrasal verbs in the writingbased and writing-purposed from ARCHER. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words © in this web service Cambridge University Press 242 244 248 254 255 261 266 266 273 274 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xiii Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Classiication of group-verbs (Denison 1981: 24–33) page 4 Common classiications of phrasal verbs and related structures 7 Periodisation of the English language 13 Number of words of British English across genres in ARCHER 18 Number of words of American English across genres in ARCHER 19 Number of iles and words per subperiod in the OBC sample 23 Total iles and number of words of diaries and journals in ARCHER 3.1 29 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of combinations containing up as an emphatic particle in the text types from ARCHER and the OBC 65 Common terminology for the three levels of meaning in verb-particle combinations traditionally distinguished in the literature 77 Tests for phrasal verbs. Turn on as a case in point 106 Syntactic tests of cohesion applied to the combination ring up 144 Degrees of prototypicality in phrasal verbs 149 Most common verbs used in the formation of phrasal verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 156 Raw igures and normalised frequencies per 10,000 words of verb types in ARCHER and the OBC 156 Diachronic distribution of most common verbs used in the formation of phrasal verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 157 Comparison of the origin of the verbal element in the combinations between the subperiods 1650–99 and 1950–90 in ARCHER 160 xiii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xiv xiv 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 List of Tables Raw and normalised frequencies per 100,000 words of the distribution of the eight most frequent particles in ARCHER and the OBC 163 he development of about, around, and round in drama. Raw and normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 170 Most common phrasal verb combinations in ARCHER and the OBC 172 Diachronic distribution of the ifteen most common combinations in ARCHER and the OBC 173 Ratio of type/token frequency of phrasal verbs in the seven subperiods of ARCHER 179 Ratio of type/token frequency of phrasal verbs in the four subperiods of the OBC 179 Raw and normalised frequencies per 10,000 words of new types per corpus subperiod in ARCHER 180 Raw and normalised frequencies per 10,000 words of new types per corpus subperiod in the OBC 180 Raw igures and percentages of the distribution of semantic types of phrasal verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 187 Patterns of transitive phrasal verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 195 Distribution of the two main transitive phrasal verb patterns and object types in ARCHER and the OBC 200 Raw and normalised igures of phrasal verbs per 10,000 words across the genres in ARCHER 221 Raw and normalised igures of phrasal verbs per 10,000 words in the OBC 221 Raw and normalised frequencies per 10,000 words of phrasal verbs in diaries and journals 231 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in diaries and journals. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 233 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in diaries and journals 234 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in letters. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 238 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in letters 240 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in drama and iction 245 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xv xv List of Tables 6.9 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in drama and iction. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.10 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in news 6.11 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in news. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.12 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in medicine and science 6.13 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in medicine and science. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.14 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in sermons 6.15 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in sermons. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words 6.16 Raw and normalised frequencies (per 10,000 words) of new types introduced over time in trial proceedings 6.17 Diachronic distribution of semantic types of combinations with up in trial proceedings. Normalised frequencies per 10,000 words © in this web service Cambridge University Press 246 252 253 258 259 264 264 269 270 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xvi © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xvii Acknowledgements his book deals with the development of phrasal verbs from the end of the Early Modern English period to the present day, and with the relationship between these structures and the processes of lexicalisation, grammaticalisation, and idiomatisation. he manuscript is a revised version of my doctoral dissertation, which was publicly defended at the University of Santiago de Compostela in September 2013. he structure of the chapters has been changed, new data have been added, and a number of valuable comments that I have received on the original version have been taken into consideration. he inal result represents a signiicant personal achievement, one which would not have been possible without the help and support of many people over many years. First of all, I would like to acknowledge the support of the research team Variation, Linguistic Change and Grammaticalization (University of Santiago de Compostela), sponsored by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (grant FFI2017-86884-P). I am especially grateful to María José López-Couso, my PhD supervisor, for her professional guidance, constructive criticism, and constant encouragement, and Teresa Fanego, the team leader, for supporting my research from the outset. I would like to express my deepest appreciation for the guidance of those who have helped to orientate and reine my research during various visits abroad, namely Christian Mair (University of Freiburg), David Denison and Nuria Yáñez-Bouza (University of Manchester), and Terttu Nevalainen and the members of the Research Unit for Variation, Contacts and Change in English (VARIENG) at the University of Helsinki. he greatest debt of gratitude goes to Nuria, not only as my ‘supervisor- and mentor-in-theshadows’, but for generously providing me with her self-collected data, which made possible an important part of the corpus research presented in this monograph. To her I owe my enthusiasm for historical sociolinguistics, historical pragmatics, and corpus analysis. his book would not have been written without her unfailing help and encouragement. xvii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xvii xviii Acknowledgements I would also like to thank Helen Barton, the Commissioning Editor for Linguistics at Cambridge University Press, for her support and understanding from the irst moment she received the initial book proposal and manuscript, and especially Merja Kytö, the editor of the series Studies in English Language, for her valuable comments and suggestions for improvements, these always made in a friendly and sympathetic way. My gratitude also goes to colleagues and friends from various departments of the Faculty of Philology of the University of Santiago de Compostela and the Faculty of Philology and Translation of the University of Vigo for support on both the academic and personal level. I am likewise very grateful to my colleagues and friends from the Department of Philology of the University of Cantabria, especially to my P., for his support, encouragement, and valuable friendship during the years I spent in Santander, and to my friends and colleagues from the Department of English, French, and German from the University of Oviedo, where I currently hold the position of PhD Lecturer (Ayudante Doctora). Last but by no means least, I would like to express my warmest gratitude to the closest members of my family. So, I dedicate this book to Uxía, Álvaro, and mamá, in recompense for the many hours that it has kept me away from them. hank you all for your patience, understanding, and constant support. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xix Abbreviations Corpora ARCHER = A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers BNC = British National Corpus BROWN = A Standard Corpus of Present-Day Edited American English CED = A Corpus of English Dialogues CLMETEV = A Corpus of Late Modern English Texts Extended Version: 1710–1920 COCA = A Corpus of Contemporary American English 1990–2010 COHA = Corpus of Historical American English CONCE = A Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English FLOB = Freiburg-LOB Corpus of British English FROWN = Freiburg-Brown Corpus of American English HC = Helsinki Corpus of English Texts 850–1710 ICE-GB = International Corpus of English, Great Britain LOB = Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus OBC = he Old Bailey Corpus Dictionaries BT = An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary CCDPV = Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs CALD = Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary COD = Collins Online English Dictionary DGTL = A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics KCLL = Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics LDOCE = Longman English Dictionary Online MDO = Macmillan Dictionary Online MPVP = Macmillan Phrasal Verbs Plus MWO = Merriam-Webster Online xix © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Frontmatter More Information xx xx List of Abbreviations ODCIE = Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English OED = Oxford English Dictionary RDLL = Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics TFD = he Free Dictionary Grammatical Terms AdvP = Adverb Phrase DO = Direct Object IO = Indirect Object NP = Noun Phrase O = Object P = Particle PartP = Particle Phrase PP = Prepositional Phrase PredC = Predicative Complement PrepO = Prepositional Object S = Subject V = Verb Periods EME = Early Middle English EModE = Early Modern English LME = Late Middle English LModE = Late Modern English ME = Middle English OE = Old English PDE = Present-Day English Other AN = Anglo-Norman NF = Normalised Frequencies Tkns = Tokens TTR = Type/Token Ratio © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Table of Contents More Information vii Contents page x xiii xvii xix List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 Corpus and Methodology 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3 he English Phrasal Verb Purpose and Framework he Importance of Phrasal Verbs 1650–Present Introduction he Corpora 2.2.1 ARCHER: A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers 2.2.2 he Old Bailey Corpus 2.2.3 he International Corpus of English, Great Britain 2.2.4 Further Sources of Data A Note on the Genres 2.3.1 Journals/Diaries 2.3.2 Personal Letters 2.3.3 Drama and Fiction 2.3.4 News 2.3.5 Scientiic and Medical Discourse 2.3.6 Sermons 2.3.7 Trial Proceedings 2.3.8 A Reclassiication Proposal for the Genres in ARCHER and the OBC Methodology Delimiting the Scope of the Study: What Are Phrasal Verbs? 3.1 3.2 Introduction he Verbal Element 1 1 8 13 17 17 17 17 22 24 25 26 27 30 32 33 35 37 38 41 43 46 46 47 vii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Table of Contents More Information viii viii Contents 3.3 3.4 3.5 4 he Relationship between Phrasal Verbs and the Processes of Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5 48 48 55 74 75 76 84 103 104 he Particles 3.3.1 Morphological Characterisation 3.3.2 he Semantics of Particles 3.3.3 Summary Phrasal Verbs as a Unit 3.4.1 Semantic Types of Phrasal Verbs 3.4.2 Syntactic Characteristics: Tests of ‘Phrasal-Verbness’ 3.4.3 Summary Summary and Conclusions Introduction Grammaticalisation Lexicalisation Idiomatisation Views on the Efect of Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation on Phrasal Verbs 4.5.1 Phrasal Verb Particles as Grammaticalised Items 4.5.2 Phrasal Verbs as the Result of Lexicalisation 4.5.3 Phrasal Verbs as Idiomatised Units Proposed Model for the Relationship between Phrasal Verbs and Grammaticalisation, Lexicalisation, and Idiomatisation 4.6.1 Graded Categorisation: Gradience and Gradualness 4.6.2 Phrasal Verbs as a Gradable Category Summary 117 118 120 123 139 139 142 151 Phrasal Verbs 1650–1990: Linguistic Aspects 5.1 5.2 5.3 153 153 Introduction Phrasal Verbs in Late Modern English and Twentieth-Century English: Linguistic Aspects 5.2.1 Morphological Features and Distribution 5.2.2 Semantic Characteristics 5.2.3 Syntactic Features 5.2.4 Nouns and Adjectives Derived from Phrasal Verbs Summary and Conclusions 154 155 181 194 205 211 6 Phrasal Verbs 1650–1990: Cross-Genre Distribution 6.1 6.2 Introduction Cross-Genre Analysis of Phrasal Verbs in ARCHER and the OBC 6.2.1 Phrasal Verbs in Diaries and Journals 6.2.2 Phrasal Verbs in Personal Letters 6.2.3 Phrasal Verbs in Drama and Fiction 6.2.4 Phrasal Verbs in News © in this web service Cambridge University Press 107 107 107 111 115 215 215 218 223 235 240 247 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Table of Contents More Information ix Contents 6.3 7 6.2.5 Phrasal Verbs in Medicine and Science 6.2.6 Phrasal Verbs in Sermons 6.2.7 Phrasal Verbs in Trial Proceedings Discussion of Findings Conclusion Appendix I: List of Phrasal Verb Constructions with a Fixed Syntactic Order Appendix II: Raw and Normalised Frequencies of Phrasal Verb Particles in ARCHER and the OBC Appendix III: List of the Twenty Most Common Combinations Distributed across Genres Appendix IV: Raw Frequencies of Particles Distributed across Genres Bibliography Index © in this web service Cambridge University Press ix 253 260 264 271 278 287 289 290 292 293 319 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 1 Ch apter 1 Introduction 1.1 he English Phrasal Verb Phrasal verbs, or particle verbs, are one of the most idiosyncratic features of the English language, as well as of other Germanic languages, such as German and Dutch. hey pose multiple problems for non-native speakers, because their meanings must be learned separately from those of their verbal bases (give vs. give up, ind vs. ind out), as the union of two elements of the compound often gives rise to new non-compositional forms outwardly similar to idioms, in which the meaning of the individual elements a priori does not relate to the sense of the compound (e.g. fall out ‘argue’, put down ‘criticise’). From the point of view of a researcher, phrasal verbs are certainly an interesting and challenging topic of study due to the peculiarities of these combinations, which is relected in the vast amount of work looking into their nature from synchronic and diachronic perspectives, but also within the ields of translation studies and second-language acquisition, among others. It is widely acknowledged that the frequency of phrasal verbs in English has increased considerably from Early Modern English (EModE) times (see, e.g., Spasov 1966: 125, Pelli 1976: 102, Martin 1990, Wild 2010: 227, Diemer 2014), but what is it that brings a verb and a particle together in an idiomatic construction, and by what means? Why does the union between verb and particle seem stronger in some cases than in others? Why are sometimes other constituents allowed between the verb and the particle (e.g. hey cleaned it all up vs. *hey found it all out) or why can the particle occasionally be moved to clause-initial position (e.g. Out came the sun vs. *Up blew the tank)? Is this linked to their relationship, if any, with the processes of grammaticalisation, lexicalisation, and idiomatisation? What are the deining characteristics of phrasal verbs that distinguish them from other similar structures? Can any verb function as the verbal element of a combination or should it display certain characteristics to make it eligible? Moreover, 1 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 2 2 Introduction what is the nature of the particles? Are they adverbs, prepositions, or something diferent? What is the function, if any, of particles which apparently combine redundantly with some verbs (e.g. He delivered [up] the certiicate; hey illed [out] the form)? Has the range of available particles kept constant over time or have new elements entered the inventory, whereas others have fallen into disuse? Are (and indeed were) phrasal verbs typical of colloquial spoken language, and should they be avoided in formal writing? his monograph addresses these and other questions concerning the nature and development of phrasal verbs from the end of the EModE period to the present day. he term phrasal verb has been chosen because it is the most common designation of the category and the predominant one in English grammar books,1 although probably not the most appropriate (see Aarts 1992: 89, Claridge 2000: 46, Cappelle 2007: 41–3). As noted by Huddleston and Pullum et al., the label suggests that the combinations at issue ‘form syntactic constituents belonging to the category verb’, although this is not necessarily so ‘despite their idiomatic interpretations’ (2002: 274). Cappelle (2007: 41) also points out that the term implies that ‘a phrasal verb is in the irst place still a verb, seemingly difering only from simplex verbs […] in having a small added element’. However, the semantic weight of such a small element has proved to be of great importance, and thus the traditional ‘verbo-centric approach’ (Cappelle 2007: 42) needs to be reconsidered. Other labels employed in the literature for the same concept include verb-adverb combination (Kennedy 1920), compound verb (Curme 1931, Kruisinga 1931), two-word verb (Anthony 1954, Taha 1960), discontinuous verb (Live 1965), verb-particle construction (Lipka 1972), verb-particle combination (Fraser 1976), particle verbs (Dehé 2002), verbal idiom, and, more speciically, verb + intransitive preposition idiom (Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002). here is widespread disagreement as to what the concept ‘phrasal verb’ refers to, mainly because it has often been used (and is still used) as a cover term including related but distinct categories, such as the so-called prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs.2 In general terms, I understand phrasal verbs as combinations of a verb and a post-verbal particle, 1 2 See, e.g., Mitchell (1958), Bolinger (1971), Quirk et al. (1985), Alexander (1988), Palmer (1988), McArthur (1989), Greenbaum (1996), Biber et al. (1999), Huddleston and Pullum et al. (2002: 274). See, e.g., Halliday (1985: 184), and especially most phrasal verb dictionaries, such as the Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (CCDPV), Macmillan Phrasal Verbs Plus (MPVP), Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English (ODCIE). © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 3 1.1 he English Phrasal Verb 3 which function as relatively unitary structures lexically and semantically as, for example, put up in (1) below.3 (1) More than 70,000 shopkeepers have been forced to put up the shutters in the past year. (BNC CH2 W_newsp_tabloid) One of the main distinguishing features of phrasal verbs has to do with the nature of the post-verbal particle, which ‘is best of all described as an adverb, but not as a preposition’ (Claridge 2000: 46; see also Heaton 1965: 45) or, in Huddleston and Pullum et al.’s (2002: 272, 597–661) terminology, an intransitive preposition. Phrasal verbs are thus distinguished from prepositional verbs, whose particle is a preposition (2), and phrasalprepositional verbs (3), which contain both an adverb and a preposition. (2) So, I am looking after their interests. (BNC J9M S_meeting) (3) Menzies was seething and he broke in on the last words. (BNC A0N W_ict_prose) Such terminology is based on a rather simplistic characterisation of the type of particle present in each combination, as noted by Mitchell (1958: 106), who distinguishes two main categories: non-phrasal and phrasal. Hence phrasal verbs are classiied under the heading ‘phrasal’, indicating the presence of an adverbial element (see Spasov 1966: 11, Claridge 2000: 32), whereas simple verbs and prepositional verbs are classiied under the label ‘non-phrasal’ because they do not include any adverbial component. In this way, Mitchell’s classiication agrees with one of the most common views: that the particles in phrasal verbs qualify as adverbs and those in prepositional verbs as prepositions, whereas phrasalprepositional verbs require both an adverb and a preposition (see also Palmer 1988: 216). A more complex and thorough classiication is suggested by Denison (1981: 24–33, 1998: 222), who not only considers the particle-type, but also the object-type of the combinations (see also Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002: 286–90). He divides what he calls group-verbs into eight diferent categories, whose features are synthesised in Table 1.1. Denison’s eight categories, though, are not mutually exclusive. A verbparticle combination can be classiied within more than one category depending on the elements it combines with. Compare in this respect (4a–b) and (5a–b). 3 For further discussion of this deinition, see Chapters 3 and 4 of the present work. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 4 4 Introduction Table 1.1 Classiication of group-verbs (Denison 1981: 24–33) Group-verb Particle DO PrepO Example Class 1 (intransitive phrasal verbs) Class 2 (transitive phrasal verbs) Class 3 (prepositional verbs) Class 4 (phrasalprepositional verbs) Class 5 (idiomatic collocations) Class 6 1 Ø Ø back out ‘withdraw’ 1 + Ø bear out ‘conirm’ 1 Ø + go for ‘attack’ 2 Ø + look forward to ‘anticipate’ 2 + + let (sb.) in on (e.g. a secret) 1 + + 2 2 Ø + Ø Ø foist (sth.) on (sb.) ‘fasten or ix unwarrantably’ come on in ‘enter’ put (sth.) back together ‘repair’ Class 7 Class 8 (4) a. He was installing a fuel gauge on top of the tank when it blew up. (BNC K1L W_news_script) b. US troops later blew up the radio transmitter to prevent further broadcasts. (BNC AAL W_newsp_brdsht_nat_report) (5) a. Meanwhile Mr. Cottle inally gave in and took a piece of bread and butter. (BNC ACV W_ict_prose) b. Norman Lamont declined the Prime Minister’s ofer of a move to Environment Secretary and gave in his resignation. (BNC K1N W_news_script) As can be seen, both blow up and give in can be classiied within class 1 (see (4a) and (5a)) and class 2 (see (4b) and (5b)). he meaning of the phrasal verb can be the same independently of whether it is used transitively or intransitively, as is the case with blow up in (4a) and (4b), where it means ‘explode’. However, in other cases the meaning of the combination changes accordingly with transitivity. In (5a) give in means ‘yield’, whereas in (5b) its meaning is ‘hand in’. Some combinations, in turn, can also be classiied within both class 2 and class 3, as is the case with get through in (6a) and (6b), respectively. (6) a. You see the message had obviously got through. (BNC J8B S_meeting) b. I doubt that she’ll do it until you’ve got through your exams. (BNC KB9 S_conv) © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 5 1.1 he English Phrasal Verb 5 A ninth category can be added to Denison’s list, as discussed by Cappelle (2005: 234–7; see also Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002: 286–7): namely, a ditransitive pattern which contains one particle and two objects, as in run up ‘make (a garment, etc.) by sewing quickly or simply’ (OED s.v. run up 7.c.(b)) in Cappelle’s example in (7). (7) hey ran him up a new coat. Whatever the particle or the object, what seems clear is that all eight categories in Denison’s classiication and the ditransitive pattern described by Cappelle possess a number of common characteristics, which has often led to their classiication within the larger group of the so-called multiword verbs (see, e.g., Biber et al. 1999: 403, Claridge 2000, Gries 2003: 1) or group-verbs (see, e.g., Denison 1981: 9). Multi-word verbs are ‘combinations that comprise relatively idiomatic units and function like single verbs’ (Biber et al. 1999: 403). hey are, then, ‘analytic constructions’ which ‘nevertheless represent a semantic unity that is characteristic of a single word or lexical unit’ (Claridge 2000: 26). his deinition of phrasal verb as a discontinuous lexical item is one of the most common in the literature,4 although the question of whether phrasal verbs belong within the lexicon, syntax, or phraseology has been discussed at length in recent years.5 As pointed out by Nevalainen (1999a: 421), ‘cases where phrasal sequences of more than one word are reduced to one-word status fall between grammar and lexis’, because multi-word units such as phrasal verbs ‘do not always have the grammatical integrity required of words as lexicographical units’. Similarly, Declerck (1991: 11) remarks that phrasal verbs are variously treated as single words (two-part verbs) or as combinations of verbs (two-word verbs), mainly because they present features that favour a morphological analysis (e.g. their ability to be the input for morphological derivation, as in lookers-on) and characteristics that lead to their reading as phrasal representations (e.g. the ability of the combination to be split by other syntactic elements such as noun phrases or adverbs).6 Although there is signiicant disagreement as to what structures should be classiied as multi-word verbs, or as to the terminology which should be used to refer to them, most works (Quirk et al. 1985: 1150–68, Biber 4 5 6 See, e.g., Mitchell (1958), Bolinger (1971), Lipka (1972), Declerck (1976), Denison (1981), Quirk et al. (1985), Brinton (1988), McArthur (1989), Claridge (2000), Hampe (2002). Recent neurolinguistic studies seem to support the idea that phrasal verbs belong to the lexicon, rather than to syntax, since they behave as word-like stored items (see Cappelle et al. 2010, Pulvermüller et al. 2013). For a detailed discussion, see Los et al. (2012: 14–51). © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 6 6 Introduction et al. 1999: 403–28, Claridge 2000: 26–45) seem to agree that sequences of the type illustrated in Table 1.1 must be included in this category.7 Other subtypes of multi-word verbs are verbo-nominal combinations (8),8 verbadjective combinations (9), or verb-verb combinations (see (10) and (11)).9 (8) Where’s Daddy’s gone to have a shower. (BNC KST S_conv) (9) To that charge Shaun David do you plead guilty or not guilty? (BNC F7W S_courtroom) (10) I made do with peripheral vision, which, after all, is the next best thing. (BNC FYV W_ict_prose) (11) You know, think it was about ten year old when she got rid of it. (BNC KB7 S_conv) he subtypes of multi-word verbs shown in (8) to (11) bear certain similarities with the structures in Table 1.1, inasmuch as they are also combinations of a verb and a post-verbal element, which, though difering from particles in their form,10 behave very much as such in other respects. Brinton and Akimoto (1999: 1–20), in turn, consider phrasal verbs within the group of composite predicates because of the resemblance they bear to the other two subtypes, complex verbs (similar to verbo-nominal combinations as in (8)) and complex prepositions such as (12). (12) he work is being carried out on behalf of English heritage. (BNC K1F W_news_script) Table 1.2 summarises some of the classiications that have been proposed for phrasal verbs. Whereas there seems to be general consensus in regarding phrasal verbs as within the larger group of multi-word verbs, distinguishing between them and other members of the class turns out quite problematic, mostly because ‘phrasal verb’ is also used as a cover term for prepositional and phrasal-prepositional verbs. A common topic of discussion here is precisely where to draw the line between them and diferent though related multiword structures. he answer to this question is far from easy, though. It 7 8 9 10 For a diferent classiication, see Huddleston and Pullum et al. (2002: 283–90), who distinguish several types of ‘verbal idioms’ with regard to the type of particle but also to the type of object. Another proof of the current terminological confusion with reference to the various verb-particle combinations is that verbo-nominal combinations are called ‘group verbs’ by Spasov (1966: 11), a term which overlaps with Denison’s (1981) label to refer to his eight classes of verb-particle combinations. For further details on other subtypes of multi-word verbs, see Claridge (2000: 46–82) and Rodríguez-Puente (2007: 43–61). he post-verbal elements in verbo-nominal, verb-adjective, and verb-verb combinations are quite often referred to as particles, because they are similar to those in phrasal verbs as regards their syntactic and semantic behaviour. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 7 7 1.1 he English Phrasal Verb Table 1.2 Common classiications of phrasal verbs and related structures Multi-word verbs (Quirk et al. 1985) Multi-word verbs (Biber et al. 1999) Multi-word verbs (Claridge 2000) Composite predicates (Brinton & Akimoto 1999) phrasal verbs phrasal verbs phrasal verbs phrasal verbs prepositional verbs prepositional verbs prepositional verbs – phrasal-prepositional phrasalverbs prepositional verbs phrasal-prepositional verbs – verb-adjective combinations – verb-adjective combinations – verb-verb combinations verb-verb combinations – – – verbo-nominal combinations verbo-nominal complex verbs combinations types I and II verb + PP combinations verbo-nominal combinations type III – – – complex prepositions For a diferent classiication, see Huddleston and Pullum et al. (2002: 272–90). hese authors distinguish between prepositional verbs (e.g. refer to), which select a speciied preposition, and verbal idioms or idioms whose major element is a verb. Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive phrasal verbs are included within the latter category, along with other multiword structures or ‘constructions’. has been addressed in numerous works, which typically seek to delimit the concept by looking at the meaning of combinations and applying a series of syntactic tests. Regarding their semantics, one of the most commonly held views is that the meaning of phrasal verbs ranges on a scale from literal to idiomatic (e.g. Bolinger 1971, Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002, him 2012), although some authors employ the idiomaticity criterion to distinguish phrasal verbs from other verb-adverb combinations (e.g, Live 1965: 441, Fraser 1976), while others prefer the term ‘free combination’ (Quirk et al. 1985: 1152, 1162–3, Biber et al. 1999: 403, Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002: 280) to refer to combinations with a literal meaning. he syntax of phrasal verbs has also received considerable attention. Under the framework of transformational grammar, Fraser (1965, 1970a, 1970b, 1976) was one of the irst authors to try to trace a clear line between the syntactic behaviour of verb-adverb combinations and phrasal verbs proper. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 8 8 Introduction However, many of his tests were later refuted (see especially Bolinger 1971, Declerck 1976, Lindner 1983, Darwin & Gray 1999, Cappelle 2005), not least because many notable exceptions could be found.11 he diiculties in drawing a clear-cut line between phrasal verbs and other related categories, both semantically and syntactically, have led some writers to suggest a ‘fuzzy grammatical category’ (Gardner & Davies 2007: 341), which, for reasons which will become clear over the course of this monograph, seems ininitely more appropriate. As will be argued in Chapters 3 and 4, there is much variability in the semantic and syntactic behaviour of combinations which suggests that, although the verb and the particle seem to form a single lexical unit, the degree of semantic and syntactic bondedness between the two elements difers greatly and ultimately relates to gradualness in change. he remainder of this chapter deals with the purpose and framework of the current book. Chapter 2 introduces the primary and secondary sources, the methodology used for the extraction of examples, and also explores some of the (diachronic and synchronic) features of the various text types analysed herein. Chapter 3 reviews and assesses the morphosyntactic and semantic features of Present-day English (PDE) phrasal verbs, and Chapter 4 evaluates them from a diachronic perspective in relation to the processes of lexicalisation and idiomatisation. Chapters 5 and 6 present corpus indings on the linguistic features and distribution of phrasal verbs from the end of the EModE period to the present day. More specifically, Chapter 5 looks at the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of these constructions, as well as their diachronic distribution, and Chapter 6 discusses aspects related to the distribution and characteristics of these two-word combinations across ten diferent genres. Finally, Chapter 7 ofers some concluding remarks and some suggestions for further research. 1.2 Purpose and Framework My approach is irst and foremost diachronic, focusing primarily on the second half of the seventeenth century to the end of the twentieth century, a period in the history of the English language which is clearly underrepresented in the literature on phrasal verbs. British English is used in the irst instance, although frequent comparisons will be drawn with other varieties of English, especially American English. Empirical 11 hese and other questions relating the nature of the combinations to the elements that constitute them will be fully discussed in Chapter 3. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 9 1.2 Purpose and Framework 9 evidence is drawn from various corpora. he core sources for quantitative and qualitative data were A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers (ARCHER) and a sample of the Old Bailey Corpus (OBC), although further examples and evidence have been used from the Helsinki Corpus (HC), the Corpus of Late Modern English Texts Extended Version (CLMETEV), the database of examples of the Old English Dictionary (OED), the British National Corpus (BNC), a section of the International Corpus of English, Great Britain (ICE-GB), the World Wide Web, and several other diachronic and synchronic corpora representing both the American and British varieties of English.12 hus, although the primary dataset constitutes over 13,200 instances of phrasal verbs extracted from ARCHER and the OBC, numerous illustrative examples are taken from elsewhere. In view of the diiculties of classiication discussed above, prior to embarking on the task of tracing the recent history of phrasal verbs, one of my irst goals was to review and assess the existing deinitions and syntactic tests proposed in the literature, so as to arrive at a more solid initial conceptualisation of phrasal verbs. I argue that some traditional tests for the identiication of phrasal verbs must be ruled out, whereas others can be employed to test the degree of unity between the verb and the particle, rather than to distinguish phrasal verbs from verb-adverb combinations. To this end, I begin with the premise that in a phrasal verb the verb and the particle function as a single lexical and semantic unit, but that the degree of unity between the two elements difers across combinations. hat is, I will view phrasal verbs as a gradable category. his will be discussed at length in Chapter 3, where attention is paid irst to the two elements of the compound separately (the verb and the particle) and then to the morphosyntactic and semantic properties of the combinations themselves. While a large part of Chapter 3 is concerned with a review of general observations as to the status of phrasal verbs in PDE, building on previous research (Rodríguez-Puente 2013) I also argue for a more ine-grained classiication of the semantic types of phrasal verbs. Traditionally, phrasal verbs have been ascribed to three, albeit overlapping, semantic groups: literal, aspectual/aktionsart, and idiomatic (see, e.g. Spasov 1966, Bolinger 1971, Fraser 1976, Quirk et al. 1985, Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman 1999). My proposed classiication follows previous studies which have suggested that the meanings of phrasal verbs are best understood within a scale ranging from literal to idiomatic, but advocates a more ine-grained characterisation 12 A full description of all data sources is provided in Chapter 2. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Excerpt More Information 10 10 Introduction which also includes reiterative, emphatic, and metaphorical combinations. Reiterative combinations, where the particle repeats a semantic element already present in the verb (e.g. rise up), have been considered ‘pleonastic’ (him 2006a) or ‘redundant’ (e.g. Hampe 2002, Jackendof 2002: 76, Wild 2010: 235f), yet both terms are unfortunate in that they seem to suggest that the particle is an unnecessary element. Related to this are emphatic combinations (e.g. wrap up), which contain an apparently superluous particle which alters neither the meaning of the verb it combines with nor its argument structure or aspectual/aktionsart features.13 As opposed to previous classiications, and based on corpus results, I argue that such particles in fact fulil several functions in the compound: reinforcing the meaning of the verb, facilitating the division of labour between the verb and the particle, allowing several alternatives in the organisation of the information structure of the clause, and even providing the verb with a more colloquial, familiar tone.14 Finally, the metaphorical group includes those combinations whose meaning is quite transparent but somehow removed from its original connotation (e.g. throw away a fortune). he view that phrasal verbs are a gradable category is further addressed in Chapter 4 within the framework of lexicalisation. As noted by Brinton and Akimoto, ‘the processes involved in the development of complex verbs, phrasal verbs, and complex prepositions may be variously considered from the perspective of grammaticalization, lexicalization and idiomatization’ (1999: 11–12). he efect of grammaticalisation on the development of phrasal verb particles was amply discussed in Brinton’s (1988) comprehensive work (see also Denison 1985), but whereas phrasal verbs are often deined as lexicalised or institutionalised structures, a full discussion of phrasal combinations from the perspective of lexicalisation has not yet been given. Based on the syntactic characteristics of phrasal verbs as set out in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 aims to establish a cline of lexicalisation for the development of these combinations. Hence, I argue that the varying degrees of bondedness among PDE phrasal verbs relate to their historical development. Moreover, lexicalisation often (though not necessarily) entails idiomatisation, or the acquisition of non-compositional meanings, which accounts for the existence of varying degrees of compositionality in the combinations. Using corpus evidence and also drawing on previous research, Chapter 4 explores some of the ways in which idiomatic, noncompositional meanings are acquired by these combinations over time. 13 14 As would be the case with aspectual/aktionsart particles (see Section 3.3.2.2). See further discussion in Section 3.3.2.3. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Index More Information 319 Index action nominal, see action nominalisation test action nominalisation test, 97–8 adprep, 51, 52, 97 adverb, 2–3, 45, 48–52, 74, 86, 90–5, 97–8, 120–1, 166, 198 intensive, 70 of motion, 77 spatial, 126 reduction to, 135 adverb insertion test, 92–5, 103, 105, 142, 147, 279 adverbial particle, 50, 73, 85, 91, 104, 122, 135, 151 aggregation analysis, 11, 180–1, 190, 212, 234, 239, 245, 251, 253, 258, 263, 268 aktionsart, 57–63, 69–70, 183–5, 282 meaning, 72, 104, 119–20, 123–5, 149, 193–4 particle, 55, 57–61, 74, 76, 79, 126, 129, 188, 213 phrasal verb, 82–3, 187, 278 analogy, 68, 120, 125, 137, 151, 188, 212, 282 antonym test, 102–4 aspect, 36, 57–62, 66, 72, 74, 104, 108, 119–20, 125, 151 aspectual meaning, 62–3, 69, 71, 83, 120, 123–5 particle, 57–61, 76, 79, 82, 126, 129, 167, 188, 213, 278–9 phrasal verb, 9, 82, 147, 182–3, 194, 239, 246, 252, 258 atelic, 59 language, 2, 22, 24–6, 230, 234, 260, 265, 268–9, 275–6 marker, 151 style, 12, 15, 20, 42–3, 186, 198, 213, 227, 249 tone, 10, 46, 62, 68, 70, 74, 188, 215, 217, 279 colloquialisation, 34, 43, 216–17, 249, 252, 265, 275, 277 complex preposition, 6, 10, 107 complex verb, 6, 10, 107 composite predicate, 6 continuum, 18, 26, 42 of compositionality, 117, 147 formal–informal, 12, 16, 19, 27, 43, 217, 268, 271 oral–literate, 12 speech–written, 12, 16, 17, 271–2, 282 Corpus of Late Modern English Texts Extended Version (CLMETEV), 9, 25, 125, 127, 132 cross-examinations, see legal cross examinations decategorialisation, 109, 115–16 decolloquialisation, 43, 267–8, 270, 272, 275, 283 deinite noun phrase (NP) test, 90–2, 103, 105, 147, 279 degrammaticalisation, 111–12 democratisation, 216 derivation, 5, 52, 66, 74–5, 104, 122, 205, 208, 279 diary, 12, 22, 26–31, 41–3, 208, 217–35, 238–40, 255, 257–9, 271–2, 276–7 dimension, 16, 18–19, 24, 26, 30, 32, 38, 117, 273, 280, 285 directional prepositional phrase (PP), 77, 99–100, 104, 196 directional prepositional phrase (PP) test, 99–100 dislegomena, 172 division of labour, 10, 46, 72, 83, 119, 183, 188, 194, 279 drama, 18, 22, 26, 32–3, 40–3, 161, 170, 220, 223, 240–7 Dutch, 1 British National Corpus (BNC), 9, 25, 47, 64, 99, 125, 158, 215 cleft-formation test, 102, 104, 105, 148, 279 cline, 107–8, 145–7, 152, 280 collocation, 90, 100, 116–17, 121, 126, 143, 150, 195 colloquial expression, 137 319 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Index More Information 320 320 Index Early Modern English (EModE), 13–15, 31, 124, 188, 193–4, 215–17, 257, 261–7, 271–7 emphatic particle, 61–74, 82–3, 131, 136, 193, 252, 275–6 phrasal verb, 62, 64, 83–4, 182–4, 186–8, 193, 233, 238, 245–6, 252, 258–9, 263, 270 International Corpus of English, Great Britain (ICE-GB), 9, 17, 24–5, 44, 153–4, 202, 265, 267, 280 interrogatives test, see relatives test intransitive preposition, 2–3, 48, 50, 74, 90, 117 iction, 32–3, 220, 240–7, 276 igurative meaning, 54, 70, 72, 74, 79, 105, 124, 128, 137, 182–6 particle, see metaphorical particle phrasal verb, see metaphorical phrasal verb formal register, 16–19, 26–7, 37, 41–43, 64 style, 12, 34–5, 161, 244, 251 text-type, 194, 199, 208, 215–17, 222–3, 232, 253, 260, 263, 267–8, 271–6 writing, 2, 213, 228 free combination, 7, 77–8, 84, 94, 117, 182 French, 158–9, 211, 228–9, 238, 281 journal, 18–19, 26–31, 42–3, 161, 199, 217–35, 272–3, 276 German, 1, 58 Germanic, 1, 47, 159, 211, 278, 281, 284 gradience, 110, 121, 139–51, 279 gradient, 109, 139–41, 151, 280 gradualness, 8, 121, 141, 143, 152, 279 grammaticalisation, 1, 10, 106–13, 115–20, 125, 138–9, 141, 151, 279 hapax legomena, 172, 178, 234 Helsinki Corpus (HC), 25, 67, 125, 132, 145, 236, 275 idiom, 1–2, 55, 79, 81, 116–17, 195, 230, 262 idiomatic meaning, 10, 15, 79–81, 92–4, 115–117, 124–8, 133–4, 184–5, 188, 192–4 particle, 72, 74, 98–9, 119 phrasal verb, 79–82, 97–101, 124–38, 150, 182–7, 201, 233, 238–9, 245–6, 258–9, 263 phrase, 80, 113 idiomaticity, 7, 78, 88–9, 95, 103, 118, 201 idiomatisation, 107, 110, 115–17, 121, 123–39, 143–52, 186, 193–4, 213, 279–82 informal phrasal verb, 215 register, 41, 43 style, 12, 15, 34, 230 text-type, 18–20, 26–7, 30, 182, 217, 222, 235–6, 240, 271 tone, 62 -ing nominalisation, 45, 154, 205–6, 208, 213 © in this web service Cambridge University Press Late Modern English (LModE), 13–15, 30–1, 33–4, 154–213, 275–277, 281–3 Latin, 67–8, 158–60, 176, 182–3, 211, 215, 228–9, 238, 262, 275 Latinate, 11–12, 64, 75, 80, 120, 151, 158, 229, 257, 277 Latinisation, 229, 251, 284 legal cross-examinations, 24–5, 265, 267, 275 letter, 14–15, 18–19, 28, 30–3, 36, 42–3, 208, 220–3, 235–40, 257–8, 261, 271–6, 282–3 lexicalisation, 8, 10, 12, 106–8, 111–17, 120–3, 139, 141–6, 149–52, 279 literal meaning, 7, 55–7, 73–4, 78–9, 92–5, 110, 115–30, 143, 150–52, 188, 276 particle, 55–7, 74, 99, 101, 204 phrasal verb, 76–9, 97–100, 103–105, 122–6, 182–3, 186–7, 238–9, 245–7, 268–9 literate register, 20, 36, 236, 248, 255, 260 medicine, 12, 19, 26, 35–7, 193, 209, 232, 253–60, 268, 271–3, 275–7 metaphor, 70–1, 79, 81, 126–7, 129–30, 133 metaphorical meaning, 55, 70–2, 74, 88, 94–5, 115, 124, 128, 165–6, 183–4 particle, 70–1 phrasal verb, 10, 79–80, 147, 186–7, 278 metaphorisation, 109, 115–16, 126, 129 metonymic, 109, 119 metonymisation, 109 metonymy, 126 Middle English (ME), 13, 20, 68–9, 123–4, 161, 194, 202, 205–6, 213, 279, 282 multivariate analysis, 16, 20, 31, 33, 36, 41, 89, 273, 277, 282–3 multi-word verb, 5–6, 46, 72, 117, 176, 278–9 news, 18–19, 26, 33–5, 41–3, 161, 217–222, 234, 247–53, 259, 272 non-compositional meaning, 10, 55, 72, 76, 80–1, 101–2, 124–7, 130, 134, 138 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10174-6 — The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present Paula Rodríguez-Puente Index More Information 321 Index Old English (OE), 13, 20, 65, 108, 111, 114, 119–21, 123–5, 143, 161 oral dimension, 30 language, 22, 26, 37, 41–2, 268 style, 34, 213, 231–2, 236, 241, 244, 249, 272 partially idiomatic phrasal verb, see metaphorical phrasal verb particle coordination test, 98–9, 101, 104–5, 148, 204, 279 particle placement test, 85–91, 103, 105, 279 passivisation, 96, 103, 105, 148, 150–1, 279 passivisation test, 96 phrasal verb particle, 48–61, 70–1, 90–2, 97–8, 102–7, 116–20, 165–6, 203–4 phrasal-prepositional verb, 2–3, 6, 15, 46, 48 pleonastic particle, 10, 82 popular written genres, 36, 231–2, 240, 244, 247–9, 251, 272, 283 pre-planned discourse, 26, 37, 41, 265, 268, 272, 276, 282 preposing test, 94–5, 103, 105, 279 preposition stranding, see stranded preposition prepositional adverb, 49, 51–2, 74 prepositional verb, 2–3, 15, 46, 48, 84, 89, 96–8, 102, 117–18, 135, 145, 206 prescriptivism, 15, 176, 212, 216, 229, 277 productivity, 11, 54, 75, 110, 153–5, 157, 178–80, 209, 212, 213, 234, 245, 252, 258, 281 prototype theory, 139–40 reanalysis, 116, 125, 135–6 redundant particle, 10, 63, 74, 82, 104, 182–3, 229–30, 249, 276, 278, 284 reiterative particle, 120 phrasal verb, 68–9, 82–3, 105, 147, 154, 182–3, 186–8, 193, 212 relatives test, 102, 105, 147, 279 science, 12, 18–19, 35–7, 42–3, 64, 161, 199, 208, 217–23, 253–60, 271–7 semantic spreading, 72, 75 semi-idiomatic phrasal verb, see metaphorical phrasal verb © in this web service Cambridge University Press 321 sermon, 18–19, 26, 37–8, 41–3, 161, 168, 200, 219–23, 260–3, 276 Spanish, 159, 185 specialisation, 115–16, 126, 129–30, 134 speech-based text type, 18–20, 26, 31–2, 37, 41–2, 218 speech-like text type, 42 speech-purposed text type, 42 speech-related text type, 41–2, 217, 222, 232, 236, 244, 260, 263, 265, 271–2, 276–7, 282–3 spoken language, 15, 20, 22–4, 26, 39–42, 64, 216, 221, 232, 264–5, 268, 273, 275–7 standardisation, 242 stranded preposition, 27, 52, 230, 232, 284 stylistic, 12, 16, 33, 36–8, 75, 80, 217, 228–9, 249, 251, 253, 273, 282, 284 stylistically neutral, 217, 271, 274–5, 283 substitution test, 100–1, 104 telic, 59–63, 70, 74, 83, 119, 124 telicity, 59 transitive preposition, 48, 90 trial proceedings, 16, 22–4, 38–43, 64, 217–23, 234, 247, 262–70, 272, 275 Twentieth-century English, 13, 15, 20, 154, 213, 282 type/token ratio (TTR), 178–9, 181, 212, 234, 239, 245, 251, 253, 258, 263, 268 verb gapping test, 101–2, 104, 105, 148, 279 verb-adjective combination, 6 verb-adverb combination, 7, 9, 84, 177, 275, 279 verb-object-particle (VOP), 85, 89, 154, 195–6, 200, 202–3, 213, 282 verb-particle-object (VPO), 85, 87, 89, 144, 154, 195–6, 200–3, 213, 282 verb-verb combination, 6 verbo-nominal combination, 6, 145 witness depositions, 39–40, 274 writing-based and writing-purposed text type, 42, 64, 74, 217, 221–2, 251, 263, 267, 271–2, 276–7 written text type, 15, 18–20, 22, 26, 30, 33, 194, 208, 216, 231, 275–6, 282 www.cambridge.org