The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology Paul Corby Finney, General Editor William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company Grand Rapids, Michigan Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2140 Oak Industrial Drive N.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505 www.eerdmans.com © 2017 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. All Rights Reserved Published 2017 Printed in the United States of America 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Set ISBN Vol. 1 (A-J) ISBN Vol. 2 (K-Z) ISBN Vol. 3 (Plates and Maps) ISBN 978-0-8028-3811-7 978-0-8028-9016-0 978-0-8028-9017-7 978-0-8028-9018-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Slipcase illustration: Ivory panel (416 × 143 mm) with an archangel (probably Michael); right panel of a diptych (left panel lost). In his right hand the figure holds a globe surmounted by a Greek cross; in his left, a long staff, perhaps a scepter. The architectural setting consists in an arch supported by fluted columns, capped with Corinthian capitals; there are steps beneath the plinths below left and right. Beneath the arch is a wreath enclosing a Greek cross; a scalloped shell frames the wreath. Above the arch, within a long narrow rectangular tabula, is written: +ΔΕΧΟΥ ΠΑΡΟΝΤΑ ΚΑΙ ΜΑΘΩΝ ΤΗΝ ΑΙΤΙΑΝ (“Receive the suppliant, although you know his guilt”); London.BM, OA.9999. (Photo courtesy Trustees of the British Museum) Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West the Doric except for a neck below the echinus, could either be extremely simple or else decorated on both echinus and neck. The Ionic c. had a pair of scrolls connected by a channel above an echinus. An astragal and a decorated neck might be added below the echinus (fig. 1). The canonical Corinthian c. had two rings of eight acanthus leaves surmounted by calices of foliage, each topped by two scrolling tendrils, with the volutes curling to the outside and the helices curling toward the center (fig. 2); the abacus curved inward on each side and was decorated with a flower rising on a long stem. In early Christian times, the stem was usually omitted. Sculptors produced several other types of c. beyond those mentioned by Vitruvius, and they too survived in the Latin West. The Corinthianizing c. was a radically simpler, more variable form of the Corinthian; it usually had a single ring of eight leaves surmounted by a ring of four leaves separated by scrolls, vines, or a vegetal calyx (fig. 3). Variations in Corinthianizing c. were endless; oak leaves, palm leaves, and palmettes frequently replaced acanthus leaves (as in fig. 3). In Roman times such capitals were usually intended for interiors. Particularly in late antiquity, Corinthianizing c. might consist only of four leaves; such minimal capitals were often intended for church furniture, such as supports for an altar table, altar canopy, or chancel barrier. Composite c. were a combination of Ionic and Corinthian, with large volutes beside an echinus, and one or two rings of acanthus leaves below (figs. 4-5, next page). The lotus c. had a row of tall lotus leaves topped by the usual abacus (fig. 6, next page). Early examples are known from the Sanctuary of Demeter in Pergamum, and in Roman times they were used as capitals for small columns in Athens and Rome. In some cases a ring of low acanthus leaves would circle the lower part of lotus c. In provincial areas undecorated impost c., which had roughly the shape of an inverted, truncated pyramid, were occasionally used at relatively early dates (as in the early 4th-c Porta Nigra at Trier, Germany). Covered with surface pattern, the form became popular in the 6th c. at Constantinople, but such c. were rarely produced in early Christian times in the West, which remained in that respect more conservative. C. were produced in a multistep process. The final stage, in which details of ornament and foliate decoration were carved, might be omitted in the quarry or workshop for fear of breakage Vemi, V. Les chapiteaux ioniques à imposte de Grèce à l époque paléochrétienne, BCH suppl. 17 (Paris, 1989). Zollt, T. Kapitellplastik Konstantinopels vom 4. bis 6. Jahrhundert n. Chr., Asia Minor Studien 14 (Bonn, 1994). Al.G. Capital: Latin West The uppermost element of a column, surmounting the shaft, which in turn is mounted on a base. Many types (or orders) of c. were produced in Roman times, and most continued to be used — at least on a sporadic basis — in Western early Christian architecture. The Doric, Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were described by Vitruvius in the 1st c. b.c. Doric c., which had a simple ovolo molding (echinus) below a square upper plate (abacus), went out of production in the West during late antiquity in favor of other, more complex types. The Tuscan c., which was like Fig. 1. Marble Ionic capital with decorated neck; temple of Saturn, Rome; ca. A.D. 330-70. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 2. Prokonnesian marble Corinthian capital; St. Paul’s f.l.m., Rome; A.D. 390. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 3. Prokonnesian marble Corinthianizing pilaster capital; storerooms, Ostia; 4th c. A.D. (After Pensabene, 1969, cat. no. 649) 257 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West Importation of Capitals from the Prokonnesian Quarries Throughout early Christian times, prefabricated c. were imported from the Prokonnesian quarries near Constantinople to the central and (in lesser numbers) western Mediterranean, even reaching northwestern Spain. Prokonnesian Ionics were simple, while Corinthian, Corinthianizing, composite, and impost c. usually had elaborate foliate ornament. Orthodox Corinthian c. were rarely produced in the  Prokonnesos, but a variant of the Corinthian in which the inner tendrils (helices) were eliminated and the calices simplified accordingly was exported in considerable numbers to the West in the late 4th and early 5th c. (fig. 7). A few schematic Corinthianizing c. were also exported from the Prokonnesos to the West (Volusianus deposit, Ostia; Carthage Museum). Simple Ionic capitals and Ionic impost capitals (with a large block incorporated above or in place of the abacus) were also exported from the Prokonnesos, reaching Ravenna and the Po. The quarries of the northern Greek island of Thasos and of Mt. Pentelikon near Athens both exported unfinished (schematic) Ionic c. to Rome. In the Adriatic basin, Prokonnesian imports, available in great quantities, dominated the market in the 5th and 6th c. Capitals in the Eastern manner were also produced locally, some in limestone. The types include rich but somewhat clumsy Corinthianizing and Ionic impost c. at Ravenna (S. Agata, Museo Nazionale) and, at  Salona, simple, four-leaf Corinthianizing and impost c. for window piers and table legs. In 6th-c. Rome a few rich c. for special purposes, such as altar canopies (in the Roman Church of San Clemente;  Ciborium), were carved by migratory carvers from Constantinople. A great quantity and variety of high quality Prokonnesian-Constantinopolitan c. reached Tunisia in the 5th and 6th c. A group of fully orthodox Corinthian c. in a Byzantine style and in Prokonnesian marble is reused in the Great Mosque of Kairouan. As at S. Clemente in Rome, these unusual c. in Tunisia may have been carved by a Constantinopolitan workshop transplanted to the West. After about 410, however, Prokonnesian c. rarely seem to have reached further west than Carthage or Rome. Correspondingly, sculptors in the western Mediterranean produced very few “mature” Byzantine types of c. After the Peace of the Church, vast numbers of columns and c. in obsolete structures became available for reuse, and builders throughout the Western Empire took ample advantage of this resource. At the same time, new c. continued not only to be imported from the East but also to be produced in many areas of the West. New production was used especially for small-scale capitals for church furniture, public fountains, and private houses, as can be seen most clearly at Ostia, the city near the harbor of Rome. Fig. 5. Schematic Corinthianizing capital (marble probably from Carrara), nave; S. Vitale, Rome; A.D. 401-17. (Photo by John Herrmann) Fig. 6. Carrara marble lotus capital; S. Clemente, Rome; 4th c. (Photo by John Herrmann) Fig. 4. Schematic Composite capital (marble probably from Carrara), open facade; S. Vitale, Rome; A.D. 401-17. (Photo by John Herrmann) during transport. These unfinished or “schematic” c. were often put into service without further decoration and eventually accepted as an independent type (figs. 4-5). 258 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West more linear, and to have more elaborately traditional structures than in the Greek East ( Capital: Greek East). Traditional structures were often preserved purely as linear pattern. Simple, schematic c. suited this drier Western taste, and c. with finished, more or less naturalistic foliage became rare. Throughout the entire Christian Roman Empire, newly made pieces tended to become compact, solid blocks. Openings separating scrolls and volutes from the central chalice ( Cup) were eliminated, and the core of the c. became an amorphous shape filling in the gaps between elements of traditional structure. Undercutting of all kinds was reduced. Simultaneously, sculptural profiling — particularly on the upper plate or abacus — was usually eliminated, producing flatter forms. Organic, naturalistic forms became more stylized. Refinements of detail tended to be eliminated, and the number of elements tended to be reduced, making c. simpler. In the Latin West, c. tended to be drier and Regional Workshops Rome Roman production, which was invariably executed in marble, was the most consistently dry and austere. Corinthian capitals dropped out of general use in favor of solider, blockier composites and Ionics. Schematic c. were much more popular than those with finished decoration (figs. 4-5). Roman schematic composites were occasionally exported to southern Gaul and north of the Alps. Elaborate designs of early Imperial times were occasionally copied in shaky, linear terms, as in the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum (ca. a.d. 340-70; fig. 1). The carving of the leaves on the neck takes up designs from the Aegean area. In the revived prosperity of “Theodosian” Rome and Ostia (ca. 360-410), house construction, catacomb decoration, restoration of public buildings, and, above all, church construction called forth great numbers of newly carved c. (figs. 1-2, 4-5, 8). A series of Roman titular (parish) churches seems to have been completely furnished with schematic composite c. Those in S. Vitale range from grandly conservative (fig. 4) to exuberantly hybrid (fig. 5). The hybrid c. mix the composite and the Corinthian orders and could be considered Corinthianizing. S. Paolo was an especially ambitious project built with newly carved capitals made largely with imported marble. Ionic c. shaped on Thasos and finished in Rome stood in the triumphal arch, and Corinthians and composites made of marble from the Prokonnesos and carved in Rome alternated in the naves. Fully decorated c. ran down the central spaces (fig. 2), while schematic c. were used in the side aisles. The finished acanthus leaves at S. Paolo have deeply grooved points, in the manner of Eastern c., such as the example from Portus (fig. 7). The capitals of the Temple of Saturn (fig. 1) are probably earlier works by the sculptors active at S. Paolo. Ionic capitals at Rome and Ostia often had necks decorated with smooth leaves. At times these productions have a remarkable linear elegance (fig. 8). Unfinished Ionic c. shipped to Rome from  Thasos and Athens were usually collected in marble depots, where they were given this kind of decoration before being installed in a building. In Rome, as elsewhere in the Latin West, old capitals were also accumulated in such depots, and both new and old c. could be used together in the same structure. Rome’s late 4th-c. acceleration was terminated by the sack of the city in 410. Workshops limped on for another century, and there were occasional bursts of activity, as in San Stefano Rotondo (468-83), where most of the Ionic c. in the central colonnade were new local production. In the surrounding colonnade, however, older c., as well as pieces imported from the Prokonnesos and Thasos, were used. In the 6th c. the principal colonnades of Roman churches were invariably erected with c. of much earlier times ( Spolia). Fig. 7. Prokonnesian marble Corinthian capital (without inner scrolls); Palazzo Sforza-Cesarini, Rome; exported from the Prokonnesian quarries; excavated at Portus (Harbor of Rome); ca. A.D. 400. (Photo by John Herrmann) North Africa Workshops in early Christian North Africa ( Tunisia and  Algeria) produced a great range of traditional c. types, some much like those of central Italy, and others with variations stemming from local Punic traditions. Made of local marble, limestone, or sandstone, c. progressively became more blocky and stylized. In Ionic and composite c, the spiraling scrolls could be replaced by simple discs, at times filled with a flower, and the channel connect- Fig. 8. Ionic capital with Christograms, cut from reused block of Carrara(?) marble; ca. A.D. 330-80; Rome, Antiquarium Communale. (Photo by John Herrmann) 259 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West Fig. 9. Schematic Composite capital, Great Mosque, Kairouan, Tunisia; marble, 4th or 5th c. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 11. Corinthianizing pier, limestone; ca. 390-430; Tébessa Museum. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) ing the scrolls would be suppressed (fig. 9). Except for the discform volutes and the connectors to the leaves below, such capitals are highly similar to those produced in Rome (fig. 4). Ionic c. could be variable and capricious, often based on pre-Roman Carthaginian and Numidian designs. The abacus was often omitted, scrolls could spring upward in a V shape from the center of the capital, or S-shaped scrolls could curl out from the center, as in a Corinthianizing c. at Ostia (fig. 3). Some of these abbreviated and unclassical designs were transmitted from Africa around the western Mediterranean in the 4th c., probably by migratory African stoneworkers. During the 4th c., schematic versions of the lotus c. were used in the Villa of the Aviary at Carthage. Schematic Corinthianizing c. of various types carved of the local marble were reused in the Mosque of Sidi Abu Marwan at Hippo Regius, Algeria. The early Christian pieces in the mosque can be distinguished from the pre-Constantinian c. by their blocky abacus ornaments and, in some cases, the omission of an abacus. Simple Tuscan capitals were widely used in churches in Algeria. In Tunisia and eastern Algeria, both schematic and fully decorated Corinthian c. were fairly abundant, although the balance may have shifted toward schematic c. in the 5th c. In decorated c., acanthus leaves enlivened with linear surface pattern were packed into a dense shell around the central core of the c. The compositions were enriched with extra floral embellishments plus an occasional bird or animal. Asiatic/Prokonnesian influence is usually evident in the treatment of the foliage. This hybrid decorative tradition reaches a rough but exuberant climax in St. Crispina, Tébessa, Algeria, ca. 390 (fig. 10). The diagonal incisions on the abacus reflect early Byzantine influence. Native Romano-Punic traditions played a part in the c. sculp- Fig. 10. Corinthian capital, St. Crispina, Tébessa, Algeria; limestone (probably Keddal quarries, Tunisia); late 4th c. (Photo by John Herrmann) Fig. 12. Corinthianizing capital from Henchir Zirara, Algeria; late 5th c.; Algiers, Musée national des antiquités et des arts islamiques. (Photo by John Herrmann) 260 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West ture of western North Africa in a pier topped by a Corinthianizing c. also at Tébessa (fig. 11). The surface of the pier is decorated with geometric patterns in the “chip-carving” technique, a kind of decoration also seen on metal belt buckles of the time. The main leaves of the c. are schematic, but the palm branches and palmettes of the upper part are rendered in the same flat, ornamental technique used on the pier. This flat, stylized decoration can be traced back to Roman and even Punic times in western North Africa, as is most evident at Volubilis, Morocco. Foliage much like that seen at Volubilis also appears sporadically, as in a Corinthianizing c. from Henchir Zirara, Numidia (eastern Algeria), where the lower leaves have stacks of horizontal lobes flanking a broad central stem (fig. 12), and volutes at the upper corners are palm leaves. The tips of the volutes are turned into solid, rosette-filled discs, giving a new twist to the old North African tradition of disc volutes (as in fig. 9). Innovative figural elements appear in the Henchir Zirara c.; between the volutes is a miniature date palm, and at the corners fish (inspired perhaps by Roman dolphin c.) dive down over the discs. C. like this late 5th-c. piece represent a somewhat chaotic but vigorous folk-art tradition. Schematic Corinthian c. of the 4th c. and 5th c. in North Africa occasionally omit the inner scrolls (helices) and supporting leaves of orthodox Corinthians and become “reduced Corinthians” or “mildly Corinthianizing” c. (fig. 13). The composition was probably influenced by imported Byzantine products (fig. 7). From the end of the 4th c. onward, more or less orthodox schematic Corinthian c. tend to become flatter and sketchier; several examples in Timgad (Algeria) are datable from their location in the basilica of the Donatist bishop Optatus (386-97), but their poor quality probably indicates that they date from the completion of the church after the bishop’s arrest and death. A more attractive example of the type, carved in the local marble from Mt. Mahouna, is in Guelma (Algeria; fig. 14). The abacus is minimized, and only the upper edges of the volutes and helices are indicated, suggesting influence from Byzantine “leather leaf ” capitals. Some capitals in the Arian cathedral of Ravenna (S. Spirito, 493-526) have similar scrolls and could be similar in date. Eventually, schematic Corinthian c. develop the system of volutes, helices, and its calyx of supporting leaves as a vigorous series of curling ridges, as in a c. in Guelma (fig. 15). Decorative values were enhanced by treating the axis of the leaves as raised ridges and adding areas of chevrons. Such schematic Corinthian c. were used in various churches in Algeria and in slightly less ornamental form in Tunisia. They and their successors probably date from the 6th c. into post-Byzantine times of the 7th and 8th c. In Byzantine times of the 6th and 7th c. and influenced by Eastern fashions, local North African carvers produced a few impost c. (figs. 13-15). An example in Kairouan has a workshop inscription in Latin. In Caesarian Mauretania sculptors decorated the pyramidal body of impost c. with the leaves of traditional Corinthian or Corinthianizing c. (Tiaret region, Algeria; Volubilis, Morocco). The Tiaret region also produced cubic capitals decorated with geometric rosettes, which probably stem from post-Byzantine times. Similar forms appear in S. Pedro de Nava, Spain, in the 8th or 9th c. Fig. 13. Schematic Corinthianizing capital, limestone (Keddel quarries, Tunisia); late 4th or early 5th c.; Carthage, Museum of the Roman Villas. (Photo by John Herrmann) Fig. 14. Schematic Corinthian capital, Mahouna marble, 5th c.; Guelma, Algeria, Jardin Archéologique. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Spain In the 4th and 5th c. Spanish workshops produced numerous schematic c., which were often much like those of western North Africa. Composite c. have disc volutes with struts connecting them to the leaves below, like composites produced in Africa Proconsularis (Tunisia and eastern Algeria; fig. 9). Schematic Corinthian and Corinthianizing c. in Spain also show North African connections. A variety of schematic Corinthian with flattened, simplified forms Fig. 15. Schematic Corinthian capital, Mahouna marble, 6th c.; Guelma, Algeria, Jardin Archéologique. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) 261 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West was produced in Lusitania (southwestern Spain and Portugal), although the best-preserved examples are in Rome (fig. 16). Simple Corinthianizing c. with worked acanthus were produced with a mere four leaves (figs. 17). They followed Asiatic (Proconnesian) designs established in the 3rd c. In both traditions the volutes form a V-pattern, the acanthus leaves have deeply grooved surfaces, and at times an ivy leaf decorates the chalice. Spain also manifests a much wilder tradition of the far west. Hybridization among the various orders of capitals takes place freely. Palm branches, palmettes, or oak leaves displace traditional acanthus leaves. Unusual Corinthianizing capitals with highly stylized palm branches or palmettes were excavated in the villa of Els Munts (Tarragona; fig. 18). The fine-toothed foliage and the composition (volutes and helices above two rings of leaves) suggest influence from Asia Minor. The palm branches, the blocky volumes, and the uninhibited treatment of detail, however, are basically Western. The helices that push up to the top of the capital prefigure c. in Gaul of the 7th c. The Els Munts villa was filled with 2nd-c. sculpture, and the portico with its Corinthianizing c. and classically fluted and profiled shafts can hardly be later than the 4th c. Palm branches, palmettes, and oak leaves were also applied to Corinthian and composite c. At times these hybrids can have a classical elegance, as in an orthodox Corinthian in Merida, in which acanthus has been replaced by oak leaves (fig. 19). In this case the leaves have grooved lobes, unlike the oak leaves of earlier times. The tips of the leaf calyces curl into volutes, as in the Corinthian c. of 2nd and 3rd c. Volubilis. Catalonia is exceptional in having a few c. that reflect sophisticated Constantinopolitan models of the Justinianic or postJustinianic times. They are “kettle capitals” with globular bodies decorated with vines, interlace, and a Greek monogram. An explosion of capital production seems to have taken place in the heyday of the Visigothic kingdom from the late 6th through the beginning of the 8th c. Capitals of all earlier types were copied, sometimes in a flat, linear style, as in a Corinthianizing capital in Córdoba (fig. 20) or in a robustly sculptural style, as in a canonical Corinthian capital in Seville (fig. 21). The late date of the latter is particularly evident in the interconnected leaves of the lower ring. Composite four-leaf c. made of marble from the Pyrenees (fig. 22) spread out on both sides of the mountains, and their lively scrolls and awkward acanthus distinguish them from their predecessors Fig. 16. Schematic Corinthian capital, marble, 5th or 6th c.; Rome, Palazzo Barberini garden. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 17. Corinthianizing capital with four leaves, marble, 6th c.; Seville, Museo Arqueológico. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 18. Corinthianizing capital with palm leaves, marble; Els Munts, 4th c.; Tarragona, Museu Nacional Arqueològic. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 19. Corinthian capital with oak leaves, marble; 3rd-4th c.; Hotel Parador, Merida. (Photo by John Herrmann) 262 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West of around 400. Capitals of all orders were hybridized or abbreviated, Byzantine acanthus was occasionally taken up, and secondary detail, such as profiling of the abacus, tended to increase. This eclectic proto-Carolingian renaissance of Visigothic Iberia was restricted in scope, though not terminated, after the Arab conquest of most of the peninsula between 711 and 717. Gaul A great variety of capital types also characterizes architectural decoration in southwestern Gaul. The capitals of La Daurade in  Toulouse, which were used in decorative wall arcading ca. 400, included chaotic hybrids of Ionic and Corinthianizing c. (fig. 23). The mixture can be compared to Ionic capitals in Algeria or Corinthianizing pilasters in Italy (fig. 3). Also from La Daurade comes a small but richly ornamented composite c. with two rings of four leaves and rosette-filled volutes (fig. 24, next page). Its chalice is fluted, as in the four-leaf composite in Spain (fig. 22), and topped by a very classical braid. Small composite c. were also in fashion in the early 5th c. on the west coast of Italy, where they appear in the Christian schola at Ostia, near S. Anastasia in Rome, and in S. Felix at Cimitile; the fashion, like the rosette-filled volutes, may ultimately go back to North Africa. Four-leaf Corinthianizing capitals with V-shaped volutes like those in northern Italy, Algeria, and Spain (fig. 17) were also common. Traditional Western/Roman acanthus leaves (i.e., folded lobes with rounded, ungrooved points) survive on the La Daurade c. and many other Gallic productions, but Eastern-style acanthus (with pointed, grooved points) was also taken up, whether applied to Corinthian capitals of canonical Western type or used in copies of imported Byzantine capitals. As in Spain, the 7th c. marks an upswing in capital production in terms of both quantity and quality. Canonical Corinthian and Corinthianizing capitals, including an example with dolphins (at Poitiers), reflect their Roman antecedents closely in composition. At the same time, play with earlier forms becomes livelier and more inventive. Rings of four acanthus leaves frequently replace the traditional rings of eight. Strange mixtures of palm, Doric, and composite c. appear. A pair of Corinthianizing c. with elegantly drawn oak leaves from S. Denis presents an especially original and attractive composition (fig. 25, next page). One oak leaf extends unexpectedly from the lower into the upper ring, the volutes and helices are omitted, and the calyces have a curly lushness that evokes heads of lettuce. Fig. 21. Corinthian capital, marble, 7th c.; Seville, Museo Arqueológico. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 22. Composite capital with four leaves, probably marble from the Pyrenees, 7th c.; Barcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya. (Photo by Annewies van den Hoek) Fig. 23. Ionic-Corinthianizing capital from La Daurade, Toulouse, probably marble from the Pyrenees; ca. 400. (Photo copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Image source: Art Resource, NY) Fig. 20. Corinthianizing capital, Great Mosque, Córdoba; marble, 7th c. (Photo by John Herrmann) 263 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Capital: Latin West Capital: Latin West Fig. 24. Composite capital from La Daurade, Toulouse, probably marble from the Pyrenees; ca. 400; Nice, Abbaye de Roseland. (Photo courtesy Monuments Historiques) Fig. 25. Corinthianizing-Corinthian capital from St. Denis, marble; 5th7th c.; Paris, Musée de Cluny. (Photo by John Herrmann) Bibliography Brandenburg, H. “Die Verwendung von Spolien und originalen Werkstücken in der spätantiken Architektur,” in Antike Spolien in der Architektur des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, ed. J. Poeschke (Munich, 1996), 11-48. ―. “Basilica di S. Stefano Rotondo — der letzte Grossbau der Antike in Rom. Die Typologie des Baues, die Ausstattung der Kirche; Die kunstgeschichtliche Stellung des Kirchenbaues und seiner Ausstattung,” in Santo Stefano Rotondo in Roma. Archeologia, storia dell’arte, restauro, ed. H. Brandenburg and J. Pál (Wiesbaden, 2000), 35-65. ―. “Beobachtungen zur architektonischen Ausstattung der Basilika von S. Paolo fuori le mura in Rom,” in Alvarium. Festschrift für Christian Gnilka, ed. Wilhelm Blümer et al., JbAC suppl. 33 (Münster, 2002), 83-107. ―. Ancient Churches of Rome from the Fourth to the Seventh Century (Turnhout, 2004). ―. “Die Architektur der Basilika San Paolo fuori le mura,” RM 112 (2005-6): 237-75. Cadenat, P. “Chapiteaux Tardifs du limes de Maurétanie Césarienne dans la region de Tiaret,” AntAfr 14 (1979): 247-60. Cambi, N. “Jugoslawien,” in Brenk.1977, no. 374b (Salona). Christern, J. Das frühchristliche Pilgerheiligtum von Tebessa (Wiesbaden, 1976), 181-82, 273-76, pls. 40-41. ―. “Nordafrika,” in Brenk.1977, no. 305a, b (capital: Bir-el-Ater; Kasseriner). Deichmann, F. W. Ravenna, Hauptstadt des spätantiken Abendlandes, vol. 1: Geschichte und Monumente (Wiesbaden, 1969), 63-69, figs. 23-52. Delestre, X., “Techniques et materiaux de construction,” in Hippone, ed. X. Delestre (Aix-en-Provence, 2005), 87-91. De Rossi, G.-B. “La capsella d’argent africaine offerte au souverainpontife Léon XIII par S. E. Cardinal Lavigerie,” trans. J. de Laurière, BullMon 55 (1889): 313-97. Domingo Magaña, J. Capiteles tardorromanos y visigodos en la peninsula ibérica (siglos IV-VIII d. C.) (Tarragona, 2011). Domínguez Perela, E. “Capiteles hispánicos altomedievales,” AEA 65 (1992): 223-62. Duval, N., E. Marin & C. Metzger, eds. Salona, vol. 1: Catalogue de la sculpture architecturale paléochrétienne de Salone (RomeSplit, 1994). Ferchiou, N. “Une carrière régionale en Afrique. La pierre de Keddel,” RM 83 (1976): 367-402. ―. “Recherches sur le décor architectonique de la région de Segermes,” in Africa Proconsularis: Regional Studies in the Segermes Valley of Northern Tunisia, vol. 2 (Copenhagen, 1995), 653-711. Février, P.-A. “Gallien und Germanien,” in Brenk.1977, 293, nos. 356-57 (Fréjus, Poitiers, Jouarre, Toulouse). Fossard, D. “Les chapiteaux de marbre du VII siècle en Gaule. Style et evolution,” CA 2 (1947): 69-85. Gavault, P. Études sur les ruines romaines de Tigzirt (Paris, 1897). Gui, F., et al. Basiliques chrétiennes d’Afrique du nord (Paris, 1992). Guidobaldi, F., et al. S. Clemente, la scultura del VI secolo (Rome, 1992), pt. 1. Harrazi, N. Chapiteaux de la grande Mosquée de Kairouan (Tunis, 1982). Herrmann, J. “The Schematic Composite Capital” (Ph.D. diss., New York Univ., 1973). ―. The Ionic Capital in Late-Antique Rome (Rome, 1988). Kautzsch.1936, 1-24, pls. 1-4. Kinney, D., in Weitzmann.1979, no. 595. Larrieu, M., “Chapiteaux en marbre antérieurs à l’époque romane dans le Gers,” CA 14 (1964): 109-57. Leclercq, H., “Chapiteau,” DACL 3.2 (1948), esp. 475-81, figs. 2514-41. Leveau, P. “L’Aurès dans l’Antiquité,” Encyclopédie berbère, s.v. “Aurès,” online, sec. 12 (capitals in the zaouïa des Beni Babar, Algeria), http://encyclopedieberbere.revues.org/258; http:// encyclopedieberbere.revues.org/docannexe/image/258/img-2. jpg. Márquez, C. Capiteles romanos de Corduba, colonia patricia (Córdoba, 1993). Olivieri Farioli, R. “Corpus” della scultura paleocristiana bizantina ed altomedioevale di Ravenna, vol. 3: La scultura architettonica (Rome, 1969). Pensabene, P. Scavi di Ostia, vol. 7: I capitelli (Rome, 1969). ―. Les chapiteaux de Cherchel. Étude de la decoration architectonique, Bulletin d’archéologie algérienne, suppl. 3 (Algiers, 1982). ―. “La decorazione architettonica, l’impiego del marmo, e l’importazione di manufatti orientali a Roma, in Italia e in Africa (II-VI d.c.),” in Società romana e impero tardoantico, vol. 3: Le merci, gli insediamenti, ed. A. Giardina (Rome, 1986), 283-429. 264 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019. Cappadocia Cappadocia ception of Nazianzos (ca. 350) and Nyssa (ca. 375), none can be dated. The dates that have been assigned to these buildings (Kayseri basilica: late 5th c.; Tomarza: ca. 500; Kızıl Kilise: ca. 600) are only approximations (for detailed studies, see Kleinbauer.1992, Subject Index: “Cappadocia”). The fabric of most Cappadocian churches is volcanic stone. Masonry courses consist of relatively thin slabs on exterior and interior surfaces attached with generous quantities of cement to a core of loose, uncut debris. The overall effect creates the illusion of masonry walls built up of solid blocks of well-dressed ashlars. This pseudoashlar technique was exported to Armenia and Georgia and was continued under the Seljuks. Vaulted and domical superstructures appeared at a relatively early date (mid to late 4th c.) in C. Despite the distance from the sea, architectural  sculpture in  marble and other costly materials were imported into C. during the period of late antiquity. The provenance of several capitals ( Capital: Greek East) found at Kayseri is perhaps  Prokonnesian. Gregory of Nyssa describes a richly embellished Cappadocian villa fitted out with a wide range of luxury materials, imported exotic marbles, glass, mosaic,  opus sectile, bronze statues (gilded), painted panels, etc. Even if Gregory is exaggerating (perhaps describing lithic types he had seen in Constantinople), the villa in question must have been quite imposing. In addition to expensive materials imported into C. during late antiquity, we also have examples of work performed (at a pedestrian level) on materials quarried locally. For example, there is early Christian relief carving on an altar (Thierry, 2002, 104-7) found at Kayseri and transported there from Pusatlı near Tomarza (see map 10, G6); the 6th-c. relief shows the ascension of  Elijah and (possibly) St. Mammas milking animals. There is also some secular architectural evidence dating to the period of late antiquity in C., including a Justinianic  fortification described by Procopius (Aed. 5.4.7). ―. “Il reimpiego a Santa Maria in Domnica. I capitelli,” in Caelius, vol. 1: Santa Maria in Domnica, San Tommaso in Formis, e il Clivus Scauri, ed. A. Englen (Rome, 2003), 169-79. ―. “Tradizioni punico-ellenistiche a Volubilis. I capitelli corinzi e compositi,” Archeologia classica 62 (2011): 203-73. Pinard, M. “Chapiteaux byzantins de Numidie actuellement au Musée de Carthage,” Cahiers de Byrsa 1 (1951): 231-68. Pralong, A. “À propos des chapiteaux dits byzantins de Numidie du Musée de Carthage,” in CIAC 10 (1984), 445-62. Salama, P. “Recherches sur la sculpture géométrique traditionnelle,” in El Djezaïr, Ministère du Tourisme 16 (Algiers, 1977), 1-29; repr. with additions in Promenades d’antiquités africaines, by P. Salama (Paris, 2005), 247-73, 463. Schlunk, H. “Iberische Halbinsel,” in Brenk.1977, nos. 331-32, 338-39. Schlunk, H., & T. Hauschild. Die Denkmäler der frühchristlichen und westgotischen Zeit, Hispania antiqua (Mainz, 1978), pls. 46, 59, 65, 86-87, 91-92, 94-95, 106, 108-9, 112-13, 122, 133, 135-37. J.J.H. Capitolias  Beit Ras Cappadocia Province of the Roman Empire, Prefecture of the East, Diocese III (Pontus), east-central Turkey; an upland territory, mostly plateau, flanked by the Pontic range to the north and the Taurus range to the south. In his late 3rd-c. reorganization of the Empire, Diocletian reduced the eastern extent of C. in creating the Armenian provinces. Evidently Christianity came to C. at a relatively early date; the evidence indicates there was considerable early penetration of the new religion into rural Cappadocian settlements ( Rural Settlements). Christianity spread from C. into  Armenia and  Georgia. At Nicaea (325) 11 Cappadocian bishops were signatories. The capital city in the Diocletianic/Constantinian Pontus diocese was Caesarea ( Kayseri). The province drew considerable attention in the second half of the 4th c., thanks to the three great Cappadocian churchmen: Basil, Gregory of  Nyssa, and Gregory of  Nazianzos. In 373 the province was divided; Kayseri became the capital of Cappadocia I, and Tyana of Cappadocia II. Under Justinian a third subdivision (Cappadocia III) of the territory was introduced, with  Mokissos (see Berger, 1998) as its capital, 35 km south of Aksaray. In the early 7th c. Sasanians invaded C., and shortly thereafter Muslims took control of the territory. In 1071 the Seljuks annexed the territory. Christian settlements remained in C. until 1922-23. There are no extant early Christian monuments. Several examples were destroyed in the 19th and 20th c. The “underground cities” (Derinköy and Kaymaklı, both south of Avanos; see map 10, G5) cannot be assigned a precise date; they may be products of the Sasanian or Islamic periods of occupation. There are multiple  cave churches in C., but none can be dated to the early Christian period. The few freestanding churches are either single-aisled or three-aisled. The last remains of the three-aisled, early Christian basilica at Kayseri were destroyed in 1965. Basilicas built on a cruciform plan with a tower and dome over the crossing include the monastic churches at  Buzluk,  Kızıl Kilise, Sivasa, Sivrihisar, Skupi (Küçük Büyüngü; see Krautheimer/Ćurčić, 166), and Tomarza, and the famous octagonal churches at Nazianzos and Nyssa. None of these churches survives, and with the ex- Bibliography Berger, A. “Viranşehir (Mokisos), eine byzantinische Stadt in Kappadokien,” IstMitt 48 (1998): 349-429. ―. “Letzte Zuflucht. Eine frühbyzantinische Flucht Siedlung in Kappadokien,” AW 31 (2000): 273-79. Drobner, H. R. Archaeologia Patristica, SussSAC (Vatican City, 1996), 139-68; reviewed by G. Koch, ZKG 110 (1999): 394-98. Hild, F., & M. Restle. “Kappadokien,” RBK 3 (1978): 968-1115. ―. Kappadokien, TIB 2 (Vienna, 1981). Jolivet-Lévy, C., & N. Lemaigre-Demesnil. “Saint-Serge de Matianè, son décor sculpté et ses inscriptions (avec un appendice épigraphique par D. Feissel et J.-L. Fournet),” TravMém 15 (2005): 67-83. Lemaigre Demesnil, N. Architecture rupestre et décor sculpté en Cappadoce (Ve–IXe siècle), BAR.Int 2093 (Oxford, 2010). Pekak, S. “Niğde-Aktaş Konstantin ve Helena Kilisesi, 2001 çalışmaları,” Kazı sonuçları toplantısı 24.2 (2002): 405-14. Restle.1979. Rossiter, J. J. “Roman Villas of the Greek East and the Villa of Gregory of Nyssa,” JRA 2 (1989): 101-10. Stupperich, R. “Eine Architekturbeschreibung Gregors von Nyssa. Zur Diskussion um die Rekonstruktion des Martyrions von Nyssa im 25. Brief,” in Studien zum antiken Kleinasien, ed. A. Schütte et al., Asia Minor Studien 3 (Bonn, 1991), 111-24. Thierry, N. “La datation des églises de Cappadoce,” BZ 88 (1995): 419-55. ―. La Cappadoce de l’antiquité au Moyen Âge (Turnhout, 2002). G.K. 265 Copyrighted material. Not for reproduction or distribution. May not be published on institutional repositories or academia.edu before 1 January 2019.