Delhi: Colonial and post-independence

Delhi: Colonial and post-independence Jaspreet Kaur 10 July 2020 One always wonders, what if we had not been colonized. Besides the important fact of perhaps no partition, no rioting that followed and the ‘colonial deprivation’ of India, an important aspect, that is often overlooked, is the physical landscape, which most certainly would have been very different. Europe, freed from most of its internal conflicts after the Westphalia peace treaties (1648) could now concentrate on its colonies. These treaties have also been identified as the beginning of the modern international system, based on the concept of Westphalian sovereignty. The rulers of the Imperial States could henceforth choose their own official religions. Catholics and Protestants were redefined as equal before the law, and Calvinism was given legal recognition as an official religion. On sovereignty, the Peace is credited with limiting the hegemonic aims of the Holy Roman Empire & respect for each other’s sovereignty - out of which the international law has emerged. On Secularism, the Peace curtailed the Universalist claims of the Catholic Church and made the separation of the public domain of the state and the private domain of religion. While the successful diplomatic negotiations in Osnabrück and Münster brought to the people of Europe the peace that they had long waited for, the newly pacified states turned their attention to the outside world, expanded their empire, and founded new colonies. The peace agreement of 1648 was the beginning of far-reaching cooperation between the major European powers in terms of technology, trade and administration, and this became the basis for inter-imperial expansion. The treaties categorized the countries as powers of the first, second or third order, whereas the 2nd and 3rd rank powers just had to accept that ordering principle - and tried to find leverage to bandwagon with the larger ones. After the relative peace in Europe there were considerable advances in science & technology. The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically reoriented during the course of the “long 18th century” (16851815) as part of a movement referred to as the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment. Post industrial revolution also saw new city planning principles such as the Garden City Concept, emerging from the need to get away from the overcrowded and deteriorated cities of the time. The garden city movement is a method of urban planning in which self-contained communities are surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. The idea was initiated in 1898 by Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom and aims to capture the primary benefits of a countryside environment and a city environment while avoiding the disadvantages presented by both. Now there is a reverse process of ‘gentrification’ to bring back people to the refurbished urban centers. These developments in Europe had been the result of their own “natural process of development”. When they took over African & Asian colonies, they brought with these thoughts and developments, catapulting the Colonial nations into development, which otherwise may have taken several decades. The result was a mix of the Imperial culture shock and the native development shock. In India the British first came in as “Orientalists” and soon turned into “Anglicists” thus changing their interest from the study and understanding of the Orient/ Asia to control. Various methods, such as census records, taxations etc were introduced to “sort out the colony”. For the first time “India” was under one central rule. While there have been several political, religious, economic and social ramifications, which we are well aware of, there was a big impetus on infrastructure development. Again it can be argued that were introduced for their own benefit, but we cannot deny that these have benefitted us in the long run – railway network, road network, hill station developments, cantonments, civil lines etc. The missionaries, though held responsible for conversions, also brought with them educational reforms and healthcare systems, introducing schools, colleges, universities, dispensaries, hospitals etc. many would be aware of how Calcutta Presidency College, largely due to the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the British officers was opened up for education of the masses, freed from the teaching of Sanskrit by Pandits to only Brahmin students. The culture of hybridization of Indian culture by Western traditions is very evident, what is also equally true is the impact of colonial culture on the metropolis. This is in terms of social organization, forms of hierarchy of the urban structure, patterns of space, building types etc. Many of these were the result of their colonial experiments. Today Delhi can be considered a mega city, but this was not the case in the past. 50 years back the key concern was ‘economic affordability’ and not ‘sustainability’. The first master plan was developed in 1912 during the colonial period, leading to the 8 th city & the post-independence plan was approved in 1962, resulting in the 9 th city. The British Delhi was designed as the capital of the Empire, and the latter was primarily a residential city. The latter a result of Nehru’s desire to sort out the overcrowding and unplanned growth. Survey work for this had started in 1955. The new Capital aspired to be a ‘Civic Citizen Habitation’ and no longer an Imperial Capital. New Delhi was planned as a ‘Garden City’ and to some extent as the Haussmanian boulevards of Paris. The public buildings on the Raisina Hills and the King’s Way axis (Rajpath) constituted the heart of the city. The arrangement of the bungalows followed the accepted rules of power: higher up in rank were placed closer to Raisina Hills in the Lutyen’s Bungalow zone. Indians who were not in the government system lived in settlements at a considerable distance from Raisina Hills and some away from New Delhi itself. The villages of Malcha and Raisina were acquired to build the capital city. Several areas including around the Pura Qila were cleared as well. The typical model of a colonial city was to separate the old fort/city/ native settlement which were usually on river banks by a railway line/ maidan, with the new civil lines areas. This was primarily done for hygiene and sanitation. Another factor was also the 1857 mutiny when considerable parts of Shahjahanabad were destroyed and the British then moved to ‘their secure areas’. The first railway proposals for India were made in Madras in 1832. The country's first train, Red Hill Railway (built by Arthur Cotton to transport granite for road-building), ran from Red Hills to the Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. In 1845, the Godavari Dam Construction Railway was built by Cotton at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry, to supply stone for the construction of a dam over the Godavari River. In 1851, the Solani Aqueduct Railway was built by Proby Cautley in Roorkee to transport construction materials for an aqueduct over the Solani River. India's first passenger train, operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway and hauled by three steam locomotives (Sahib, Sindh and Sultan), ran for 34 kilometres (21 mi) with 400 people in 14 carriages on 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge track between Bori Bunder (Mumbai) and Thane on 16 April 1853.The Thane viaducts, India's first railway bridges, were built over the Thane creek when the Mumbai-Thane line was extended to Kalyan in May 1854. Eastern India's first passenger train ran 39 km (24 mi) from Howrah, near Kolkata, to Hoogly on 15 August 1854. The first passenger train in South India ran 97 km (60 mi) from Royapuram- Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road (Arcot) on 1 July 1856. On 24 February 1873, a horse-drawn 3.8 km (2.4 mi) tram opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street. On 9 May 1874, a horse-drawn tramway began operation in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. In 1897, lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies. On 3 February 1925, the first electric passenger train in India ran between Victoria Terminus and Kurla. The organization of Indian railways into regional zones began in 1951, when the Southern (14 April 1951), Central (5 November 1951), and Western (5 November 1951) zones were created. Post-independence city planning follows the principles of zoning, marking and clearly separating residential, commercial & industrial areas. Zoning principles had been defined in Germany in the 1800s and then spread to France & US in the 1860s. Both the 8th & the 9th city, therefore based on ‘foreign principles’. There were some, like the British architect Henry Lancaster who strived to go beyond just the Anglo-Saxon decorations on the facades of public buildings. He wanted to integrate the traditional typologies like the house courtyards, haveli, bazaars, mandis etc. During the conceputalisation of the 1962 plan two organisations worked on it – TCPO (Town & Country Planning Organisation) & the American Ford Foundation. The former wanted an integrated model with no zonal separations & the latter proposing the strict Western zoning principles. PWD was established to carry out all construction. When Hardinge, the Viceroy of India, announced the plan to move the British Indian capital city to Delhi was along with the Coronation Durbar for King George V and the Queen Mary, would take place in Delhi in December 1911, Sujan Singh and 22-year-old Sobha Singh, who was then a contractor working on the Kalka-Shimla railroad, shifted base to Delhi as building contractors. Building contracts then being given out. Sujan Singh-Sobha Singh were accepted as seniorgrade contractors. Plans for the new city were drawn immediately after the Coronation Durbar. For the South Block and War Memorial Arch (now India Gate), Sir Sobha was the sole builder. He also worked on some parts of the Viceregal House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) and Vijay Chowk. The South Block in New Delhi for which Sobha SIngh was the sole contractor. Sir Sobha bought as much land in Delhi as he could. He bought several extensive sites at as little as Rs 2 per square yard, freehold. There were few other takers, and he came to be described as adhi dilli ka malik (the owner of half of Delhi). He constructed many residential and commercial buildings, including the Connaught Place market complex, as well as the Chelmsford, A.I.F.A.C.'s Hall, Broadcasting House (All India Radio), The National Museum, Dyal Singh College, T.B.Hospital, Modern School, Deaf and Dumb School, St. Columba's School, Red Cross Buildings and Baroda House. Built in 1945, Sujan Singh Park has seven blocks with 12 apartments each. It is a short walking distance from the expat-favoured Khan Market, considered to be one of India’s most expensive patches of real estate. The colonies, through which the megacity expanded, post-independence are part of British and American heritage. The earlier colonies were home to the wealthier British. Later lower level government employees lived in colonies such as Jungpura (1914), Karol Bagh (1938), Lodhi Colony, Daryaganj colony (1940s). Initially constructed by CPWD & then by DDA & other private entities, cooperative societies, colonies soon became ‘Indian” in the way they were inhabited, as in group housings where people tend to form ethnic groups. Examples of occupational colonies are Press Enclave & Gulmohar Park (journalists), Niti Bagh (lawyers), Panchsheel Park (civil engineers) etc. Immediately after independence the refugee colonies came up, such as Malviya Nagar, Lajpat Nagar where industrial lots were situated within residential areas for convenience. Lajpat Nagar was a refugee rehabilitation colony, Defence Colony was for rehabilitation of displaced soldiers, South Extension a result of enterprising speculators. While the 1962 masterplan was being drafted, some colonies had already been built …Malviya Nagar, Kalkaji, Lajpat Nagar, Kasturba Nagar, Kidwai Nagar, Lakshmi Bai Nagar, Sarojini Nagar, Jor Bagh, E/W Nizamuddin, Moti Bagh, Sundar Nagar, Kaka Nagar, Golf Links and Defence Colony. Hauz Khas Enclave, Green Park and Kailash Colony were still under construction. Jungpura and Lodhi Colony were from British time. In West Delhi the refugee colonies included: Rajinder Nagar, Patel Nagar, Krishna Nagar, Rajouri Garden, Moti Nagar, Tilak Nagar, Tihar, Azadpur. Karol Bagh and Sari Rohilla were from colonial period. In the North are: Shakti Nagar, Pratap Nagar, Roop Nagar, Harijan Colony, Timapur, Model Town, Radio Colony, Roshanara gardens, Malkaganj, Kingsway, Vijay Nagar. In the East (across Yamuna) came up Krishna Nagar, Gandhi Nagar, near Shahadra. Local changes and adaptations were also found in residential typologies such as the Bungalow (from Bengal), which became the principle building type of the Civil Lines. The Bungalow being ‘healthier’ than the haveli. The plan though classical in origin soon was adapted to local customs: the kitchens were separated from living areas due to strong smell of Indian cooking, and the bathrooms have rear entrances, easily accessible for the ‘untoucables’ to clean. The development of this typology was parallel to the change in family structure to nuclear from earlier structure of joint families. Bungalow plot eventually got reduced in size and became a house plot. With the arrival of the British churches and convents got added to the city. Central market replaced the bazaar, and semi-public spaces gave way to gardens and parks. Railway stations, cinema halls, institution buildings, hospitals, clubs, cricket and tennis facilities, golf courses, police & fire stations, were added. The old Indian city use to be the clear urban center separated from the green forest land. Semi-public open spaces were streets, chowks, religious building spaces etc. Many building styles coexist in Delhi. The post-Independence mix of Greek, Gothic, Romanesque, Renaissance ….documented rather hilariously by Gautam Bhatia in his book ‘Punjabi Baroque’. In the British plan, the earlier ruins, tombs, monuments (Puran Qila, Humayun’s Tomb, Safdarjung Tomb…) were relegated as “follies” in Lutyen’s City, metamorphosed into tourist attractions to avoid issues of integration. Large areas near the Red Fort and Chandini Chowk were altered to improve the area’s “health”. A geometrical composition of rotaries, axis was overlaid. Best known buildings are the Viceroy’s House (Rashtrapti Bhawan by Lutyens) and the secretariats by Baker with juxtaposition of classic, Hindu, Persian and Buddhist motifs. The other noteworthy buildings are: St. James’s Church, St. Martin’s Church, St. Stephen’s College, St. Thomas’s Church, Redemption Cathedral, St. Stephen’s Hospital, Sacred Heart Cathedral, Hardinge Library, Delhi Gymkhana club, Chelmsford Club, New Delhi Club, Indian Clerical Enclave, Talkatora Club, Madras Club, Bench Bar Club, Chartered Bank Club, Municipal Club, Northern Railway Club. The Old Delhi Railway Station was built in 1900, Willingdon airport in 1929, near Safdarjung tomb. Markets included Connaught Place, Gole market. Some of the new parks were: Lady Wellington Park, Talkatora Garden, Nehru Park, Jantar Mantar garden, Queen Victoria Garden, Safdarjung Garden, King Edward’s Park, Roshanara Garden, Ajmal Khan Park, Nicholson Park, Reserve forest on the Ridge, Lodi Golf Links, and Qudsia Garden & Hayat Baksh Bagh within the Red Fort. Sports included, Irwin stadium, Delhi Race course. British period also brought in a new education system. Besides Convent & Mission schools, English Public Schools or Modern schools were built – Butler Memorial Girl’s School, St. Xaviwer’s School, Queen Mary’s School, Indraprastha College for women, Lady Hardinge medical college, Tibbia College, Lady Irwin college, Modern School, St. Columbus school, St. Stephen’s College… Post-independence was a chaotic period and a large part of city planning, involving several agencies & ministries. One of the major activities was to house the refugees from Pakistan. New markets sprung up near these areas. Another building type that emerged were the foreign embassies and areas like Diplomatic Enclave in Chanakyapuri. As Delhi began to spread it occupied the empty fields between existing villages, which are now referred to as the urban villages – Hauz Khas, Shahpur Jat, Lado Sarai, Munirka, Muhammadpur, Bsantnagar… Some of the Govt built refuge colonies were Patel Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, while private organisations built Hauz Khas Enclave, Greater Kailash. Which basically involved establishing a street network and assigning plots to owners who could build any which way. Some of the richer colonies of the 1950s were Golf Links, Sundar Nagar, Jor Bagh and Nizamuddin. For govt employees were: Kaka Nagar, Bapa Nagar and RK Puram which had pre-designed with Type I, II, III, IV quarters. Post-Independence no new buildings representing power were erected. The buildings which came up were: Supreme Court, CPWD Bhawans, Nirman Bhawan, Akashvani Bhhawan, Rail Bhawan, Dak Tar Bhawan, Transport Bhawan, Yojana Bhawan. The total number of hospitals in 1949 were only 14, this increased to 27 by 1956 and dispensaries from 24 to 69. A new unit called Health Care Center rose from 15 in 1953 to 10 in 1957. Medical service institutions increased from 38 to 107. Tuberculosis Building was built in early 1950s. Several more open spaces were added in 1962. Defence Services Club & 14 public and semi-public auditoriums were added. Other buildings include: Odeon Cinema, Curzon Cinema, National Museum, IIC, Rabindra Bhawan, Azad Bhawan, Claridges Hotel, Akbar Hotel, International (Oberoi) Hotel, Hotel Janpath… From 1948 to 1957 a total of 424 schools were added. Colleges/Universities increased from 9 to 31 in 1957 – Junior Modern School, Delhi School of Economics, Kirorimal College, American International School, IIT… Some of the known architects of the time were: Joseph Allen Stein, Sathe & Kothari, Cyrus S.H.Jhabvala, Chowdhury & Gulzar Singh, Achyut Kanvinde & Rai, Habib Rahman, Shivnath Prasad, Baba Deolalikar, Durga Bajpai & Piloo Modi, Vanu Bhuta, T.J. Manickam, Jehangir P.J. Billimoria…. Nehru had a penchant for ‘modernity’ and the new plan was proudly described as the first finished example of modern planning in India. Between 1947 and 1942 the city expanded haphazardly. The phenomenon of internal migration was overwhelming and irreversibly changed the city’s balance. After 1947, priorities, typologies, styles and relationships between public buildings changed from religious and royal buildings of pre-colonial to power buildings of colonial to post-independence public and community buildings. The focus seems to be again shifting to building and leaving a legacy of ‘power buildings’. References: 1. 'The Peace of Westphalia also had its dark side', Milette Raats, Universität Utrecht; Reinhold Eckstein, Universität Marburg; Eureka Alert, 19 Sept 2018 2. Westphalia, Wikipedia 3. The Myth of Westphalia, Understanding Its True Legacy Could Help the Middle East, Michael Axworthy and Patrick Milton, Foreign Affairs, December 22, 2016 4. Westphalian Eurocentrism in International Relations Theory, Turan Kayaoglu, International Studies Review, Vol. 12, No. 2 (June 2010), pp. 193-217 5. Urbanisation in India: Case Studies in the Developing World, Robert Bradnock, 1984 6. Negotiating Cultures: Delhi’s Architecture and Planning from 1912 to 1962, Pilar Maria Guerrieri, 2018 7. The Indians who Built New Delhi, Anshika Jain, Live History, 15 November 2019