Death and the Divine Feminine: Reincarnation and Resurrection in She and The Jewel of Seven Stars During the long nineteenth-century, spiritual, theological and philosophical ideas developed as esoteric religions flourished. These included Eastern philosophies such as reincarnation, and belief systems such as Blavatsky’s Theosophy taught these ideas alongside concepts of Divine Spiritual or Feminine energies. Many ideas consequently appeared within popular literature- especially within Gothic texts. Indeed, critics such as Maria Fleischhack argue that ‘Egyptianising fantastic fiction’ worked to combine ‘romantic quests with the belief in the supernatural.’ Maria Fleishhack, ‘Possession, Trance and Reincarnation: Confrontations with Ancient Egypt in Edwardian Fiction,’Victoriographies, Vol 7, No 3 (2017), p258. Two examples are H. Rider Haggard’s She and Bram Stoker’s The Jewel of Seven Stars; both involve a Divine Feminine and all-powerful ancient queen, exploring ideas of reincarnation and resurrection, and of life and death. This essay will argue that both Haggard and Stoker use these issues- alongside their malevolent ‘divine’ females- to critique the changing gender roles of the fin-de-siecle, as well as the dangers of seeking power. In other words, this essay demonstrates that both novels use the occult gothic to manifest a misogynist fear of women’s intellectual and sexual power. This can be seen through both authors’ use of the figure of the magical, ‘Oriental’ woman in order to warn against reaching too high in the search for hidden knowledge, especially in their geopolitical climate; by situating both Tera and Ayesha as reliant on explicitly male human intervention and desires, Stoker and Haggard attempt to limit their power within the novels. The Theosophical Society’s foundation saw their beliefs and core principles spread across the globe. Such principles included ‘an immanentist and evolutionary vision of spirituality,’ teaching that ‘the universe, seen and unseen, was One Life, which evolved to consciousness... governed by the mechanisms of karma and reincarnation.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine: Theosophy and Feminism in England (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p4Julie Chajes notes Madame Blavatsky’s work, Isis Unveiled, taught ‘a doctrine of ‘exceptional reincarnation,’ meaning the occasional return to Earth life of a spirit who had failed to achieve immortality.’ Julie Chajes, Recycled Lives: A History of Reincarnation in Blavatsky’s Theosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), p30However, the Theosophical Society’s publication, The Theosophist, showed that at least between 1870 and 1881 ‘the importance of reincarnation in (Blavatsky’s) thought... was minimal.’ Julie Chajes, Recycled Lives, p32 In fact, in August 1882 Blavatsky published an article claiming that ‘it had always been maintained that the same personality would not return to life on Earth under normal circumstances;’ Julie Chajes, Recycled Lives, p38 suggesting that Blavatsky rejected reincarnation for an albeit brief amount of time. Yet Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke argues that by the end of the same year Blavatsky had ‘revised her view in the context of the septenary constitution of humans, which functioned as an integral part of the process of reincarnation.’ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p221 Regardless, Theosophy borrowed notions of karma and the immortality of the soul from Eastern, mystical traditions. The Imperial activity of this period, especially concerning Egypt and the so-called ‘Egyptian Question’ also lead to a fundamentally Eastern outlook; as Joy Dixon has argued, ‘the racial politics of empire were crucial in framing the context for the emergence of a feminine/feminist spirituality within the Theosophical Society.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine, p11This turn towards the East ’as political and economic speculation proliferated’, Ailise Bulfin suggests, was the reason that many authors ’turned in large numbers to the gothic as a suitable medium for the treatment of fears concerning the consequences of the (Suez) canal’ Ailise Bulfin, ‘The Fiction of Gothic Egypt and British Imperial Paranoia: The Curse of the Suez Canal,’ English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920, Vol 54, No 4 (2011), p412 and explains why they began to incorporate ideas reflective of such philosophies. Frances Swiney, a prominent figure to split from Blavatsky’s Theosophists, published The Awakening of Women in 1899. Within this, she ‘celebrated... Anglo-Saxon womanhood in particular as the pinnacle of evolution; a concern with racial purity dominates the work.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine, p168A major difference with Swiney and the Theosophical Society was the fact that, ‘where most Theosophists posited, at least over the very long term, an androgynous ideal, the Divine Hermaphrodite, Swiney uncompromisingly proclaimed the “Divine Feminine”.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine, p168 Swiney further taught that ‘men were simply imperfect women, physiologically and spiritually.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine, p168This idea of a divine, distinctly feminine spirit was, Swiney suggested, represented in ‘a “sublime feminism”’ found within both ‘Gnosticism and Egyptian mysticism... which a degenerate West neglected at its peril.’ Joy Dixon, Divine Feminine, p169Thus, many authors began to use the so-called Orient as ‘images of sex as well as race merged in the mythology of the dark continent and the Orient.’ Elain Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle, (London: Virago Press Ltd., 1992), p81 In Orientalism, Edward W. Said explains that the Orient ‘was almost a European invention, and had been since antiquity a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and landscapes, (and) remarkable experiences.’ Edward W. Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin, 2003 [1978]), p1 Not only did the political situation combining Egypt with Empire demand the attention of the West, the rise of Egyptology also filled it with images of mystery, magic and mummification. Certainly, both Haggard and Stoker were themselves amateur Egyptologists and well read on the subject William Hughes, Beyond Dracula: Bram Stoker’s Fiction and its Cultural Context (London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 2000), p37, and at the very least Haggard had been exposed to Spiritualism during his own life. Peter Pels, ’The Magic of Africa: Reflections on a Western Commonplace,’ African Studies Review, Vol 41, No 3 (Dec 1998) Roger Luckhurst has also argued that Haggard developed his own belief system incorporating reincarnation with his Christian faith. Roger Luckhurst, The Mummy’s Curse: The True History of a Dark Fantasy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) p192 Thus, his novels are, Carolyn Burdett argues, ‘founded on archaeological discovery‘ as well as ‘on contemporary ideas about the occult associated with Theosophy.‘ Carolyn Burdett, ‘Romance, reincarnation and Rider Haggard’ in Nicola Bown, Carolyn Burdett and Pamela Thurschwell, ed. The Victorian Supernatural (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p227 As for Stoker, less is known about his beliefs but he was also exposed to some level to Spiritualism and esotericism, being a member of the Society for Psychical Research. Thus, both authors’ decision to place a powerful, divine female authority at the center of their narratives reflects the proliferation of such ideas within society at this time. As we shall explore, Stoker’s Sorcerer Queen Tera in The Jewel of Seven Stars serves as a commentary of the West’s obsession with uncovering ancient secrets and learning knowledge of the Ancients; Haggard’s Ayesha, the eponymous She, explores anxieties and curiosity about alternative modes of society and immortality, alongside misogynistic views of women’s power. Both texts also explore motifs of life and death and how reincarnation functioned in the Western mind amidst the explosion in popularity of Egyptology. Of course, gender is important within both novels, and the characterization of these all-powerful women sheds light on their understanding of such concepts. There is a malevolence to both Ayesha and Tera; Ayesha especially as we learn of her ‘snake-like grace’ and the way in which ‘her entire frame seemed to undulate’ H. Rider Haggard, She (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p132with every movement. Further, Haggard emphasizes her malignance by telling us that she is a ’temptress’ drawing Leo ’into evil,’ Haggard, She, p205seated on ’her barbaric chair’ with her ’veiled shape’ looking ’terrible;’ Haggard, She, p159when Holly first sees Ayesha unveiled he ’shrank back blinded and amazed’ at the ’celestial... awful loveliness’ that ’struck (him) as evil.’ Haggard, She, p143The Biblical analogy of the serpent cannot be ignored here, Ayesha playing the part of the Devil tempting Leo into sin. Daniel Karlin, ’Introduction’ in H. Rider Haggard, She, pxxvi There is also an animalistic sexuality to the way Ayesha is described by Haggard throughout She, representing the erotic power of “the eternal feminine.” Mark Doyle, ’Ustane’s Evolution versus Ayesha’s Immortality in H. Rider Haggard’s She,’ Philosophy and Literature, Vol 38, No 1A (Oct 2014), pA61 This is emphasized, especially, in comparison with Ustane. Mark Doyle observes how ’the mortal Ustane shows her feminine potency through courage and constancy.’ Mark Doyle, ’Ustane’s Evolution versus Ayesha’s Immortality’, pA61Even though she must know she would face Ayesha’s wrath, Ustane still stands and faces her, her face ’torn with passion’ Haggard, She, p186as she taunts Ayesha, crying ’in anguish’ for Ayesha to ’Destroy me, then, if thou hast the power!’ Haggard, She, p186Ayesha’s response of striking Ustane down is described by Holly as a ’dreadful manifestation of inhuman power’ to which Ayesha ’but laugh(ed) a little.’ Haggard, She, p186 Compared with Ustane’s devotion to Leo and bravery, Ayesha seems fickle, jealous and unreasonable. And, whilst she does indeed kill Ustane and remove her rival for Leo’s affections, her immortal beauty is eventually destroyed. Doyle also suggests that this is a way for Haggard to question the ’stability of the ”eternal feminine,” which, whilst Freudian, has similarities to Theosophy’s Divine Feminine/Spirit. This is why Ayesha is a threat; ’Haggard’s heroes’, writes Elain Showalter, ’seek this goddess only to destroy her. She is about the flight from women and male dread of women’s sexual... power.’ Elain Showalter, Sexual Anarchy, p83 Moreover, her power and freedom violate the socially accepted gender norms for women at the fin-de-siècle; Showalter notes that 1881, the year the adventure commences, was the year Cambridge started admitting women and ’the strongholds of male knowledge began to fall.’ Elain Showalter, Sexual Anarchy, p85 As Doyle has argued, she also violates ’the natural evolutionary order by her power and immortality.’ Mark Doyle, ’Ustane’s Evolution versus Ayesha’s immortality’, pA71Thus, her death comes in consequence of ’the laws of nature as much as those of the patriarchy.’ Mark Doyle, ’Ustane’s Evolution versus Ayesha’s Immortality’, pA71This is an argument echoed by Holly, who saw ‘the finger of Providence in the matter’ and that in ‘opposing herself against the eternal Law’ she was ‘swept back with shame and hideous mockery.’ Haggard, She, p258In many ways, Ayesha’s death is an ironic inversion of the status she held whilst alive. When her face begins to age, it causes Leo to ’recoil a step or two’ Haggard, She, p256 from her; the face that drew him to her is now causing him to reject her. Her skin becomes ‘like an old piece of withered parchment‘ and her hand becomes ‘a human talon like that of a badly preserved Egyptian mummy.’ Haggard, She, p257This is a particularly poignant piece of imagery as we had previously been told how perfectly the dead had been preserved in the city of Kor. Haggard, She, p105 In death, the once magnificent Ayesha becomes nothing more than a husk. Similarly, the fact that both women are in positions of usually masculine political power creates anxiety for the male protagonists of both novels. Not only ruled by a Queen, the Amahaggar are matrilineal and observe an ‘indifference to paternity’ Robert Fraser, Victorian Quest Romance: Stevenson, Haggard, Kipling and Conan Doyle, (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers Ltd., 1998), p42 that has been noted by many critics. Further, Ayesha’s ’forthrightness of mind and manner’ and conversation with Holly as an equal ’quite unman (him),‘ Robert Fraser, Victorian Quest Romance, p42-43 Fraser argues. Tera is more explicitly depicted with masculine qualities, especially once she possesses Margaret Trelawny. This masculinization of Tera is one of the main origins of fear within The Jewel of Seven Stars; her position as Queen in a culture that traditionally only venerated Kings renders her ‘frightening because she has usurped power usually allotted only to men.’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science in Bram Stoker’s Fiction (Westport,CT: Greenwood Press, 2002), p86 Her burial chamber was littered with inscriptions and pictures that not only showed her power- that ‘she had achieved victory over Sleep’ Bram Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 2009), p98 (death)- but also gave prominence ‘to the fact that she, though a Queen, claimed all the privileges of kingship and masculinity.’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p98 The idea of Ancient Egyptian queens would have been prominent in this period, Howard Carter having discovered the tomb of the legendary Queen Hatshepsut in 1902. Roger Luckhurst, The Mummy’s Curse, p174Many of the ways Tera is depicted in the tomb, such as ‘pictured in man’s dress, and wearing the White and Red Crowns’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p98 were ways in which Hatshepsut herself was often depicted. Therefore, Stoker uses this contemporary advancement in knowledge of Ancient Egypt and the contextually recent concept of Egyptian Queens to center his novel around an ancient, dead Sorceress seeking resurrection, possessing ’an ungrateful feminine demand for... the power to destroy’ rather than the Victorian ideal of the suppressed, subservient and obedient woman. David Glover- Vampires, Mummies and Liberals: Bram Stoker and the Politics of Popular Fiction (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), p91 In her article ‘Possession, Trance and Reincarnation’, Maria Fleischhack observes how fear ‘is frequently translated into the loss of control experienced by Western characters, who are confronted by gender-fluid antagonists, as well as strong female characters who break free from their normative domestic roles.’ Maria Fleischhack, ’Possession, Trance and Reincarnation,’ p258This can easily be traced throughout Jewel, especially given the characters’ inability to control the situation. Similarly, Tera’s gender-fluidity is suggested through her funerary inscription. Corbeck notes that ‘it was new to (them) both to find the Hejet and the Desher (the two Crowns of Egypt)… on the Stele of a queen’ and explains that ‘it was a rule, without exception… that in ancient Egypt either crown was worn only by a king.’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p98 Interestingly, he also goes on to remark that ‘they are to be found on goddesses;’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p98 instantly linking Tera both to masculinity and kingship, as well as to Divine Femininity. William Hughes suggests that this ’may be read as another expression of the ambivalence towards strong-willed women which arguably punctuates Stoker’s writings,’ William Hughes, Beyond Dracula, p39which is something Andrew Smith agrees with, noting how Tera’s grotesque representation within the novel expresses discomfort with women in a position of power Andrew Smith, ’Love, Freud, and the Female Gothic: Bram Stoker’s The Jewel of Seven Stars’, Gothic Studies, Vol 6, No 1 (May 2004), p86. However, I believe this to be too simplistic: especially given the ambiguous yet apocalyptic ending of the novel. What is also important to consider is the way in which she affects Margaret Trelawny. Her would-be suitor, Malcolm Ross, ’accepts that (she) may sometimes be under the hypnotic control of Queen Tera’s astral body,’ Maria Fleischhack, ’Posssesion, Trance and Reincarnation’, p260 especially when she is showing ’unladylike’ behaviours or confidently expressing an opinion. Towards the denouement, Ross expresses that ‘the Margaret that (he) knew seemed to be changing.’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p154We are told that she ‘seemed to fall into a positive fury of passion’ and that ‘her eyes blazed, and her mouth took a hard, cruel tension;’ both signs that are the antithesis of the passive, demure ‘old’ Margaret, full of ‘grace and sweetness.’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p154 As Fleischhack has explained, this is ironic as it shows that he ’would rather believe... that Margaret is possessed by an ancient spirit than attribute an independent voice and complex identity to her.’ Maria Fleischhack, ’Possession, Trance and Reincarnation’ p260And, ultimately, in the ultimate masculinization, once her body has been removed to Trelawny’s Cornwall estate and undergone the ’metaphoric rape’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science, p81of unwrapping, she ’reacts by penetrating and devastating the psyches of those who seek to objectify her.’ Maria Fleischhack, ’Possession, Trance and Reincarnation’, p262It is that penetration that brings about the novel’s apocalyptic end and punishes the men who, Carol A. Senf argues, treated her in a manner ’more voyeuristic than scientific.’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science, p80 Tera may have some semblance of power over death and the ability to project her astral form but she is ultimately reliant on others to (correctly and successfully) perform the ritual to resurrect her. We are told by Corbeck that she knew that the priests of her time, full of hatred at her power, would ‘try to suppress her name’ after death, and therefore ‘had intended her resurrection to be after a long time.’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p98 Is it possible, then, that this suggests that both Haggard and Stoker believe that even divine entities require human intervention to act as an intermediary? Or is it simply a more mundane critique on the ultimate nature of womanhood? After all, both Ayesha and Tera are still powerful. Ayesha’s power comes from her victory over time itself, through the harnessing of the powers of the Pillar of Life and the ancient knowledge she wields over the ‘secrets of the earth and its riches.’ Haggard, She, p139 Tera’s power comes from her own mastery of ancient forms of black magic ‘by which she had power over Sleep and Will;’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p97 she is waiting for resurrection, at once both dead and alive. The importance of the argument around Stoker and Haggard’s treatment of the Divine Feminine within their works lies, I argue, in their treatment of the dichotomies of life and death. The themes of life, death, resurrection and reincarnation are central to both She and The Jewel of Seven Stars. However, She considers reincarnation most strongly, whereas resurrection is a major plot point within The Jewel of Seven Stars. The way Tera can experience a semblance of life, whilst waiting for the resurrection ritual to be performed, is through her astral connection with Margaret Trelawny. As many critics have noted, the moment when Trelawny and Corbeck enter Tera’s tomb is the time of Margaret’s birth, ‘establishing a simultaneously archaeological and psychological connection between them.’ Maria Fleishhack, ‘Possession, Trance and Reincarnation’ p259 Margaret is more than just a ‘biological regression’ Roger Luckhurst, The Mummy’s Curse, p174 as Roger Luckhurst has termed it; Stoker tells us throughout the novel on more than one occasion how much Margaret’s physical appearance is reminiscent of Tera’s. Indeed, we are told that Trelawny remarked on first seeing his infant daughter that ‘in both feature and colour she is a marvelous resemblance to the pictures of Queen Tera!’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p103 Andrew Smith has expressed this making Tera ‘indeed a Gothic monster, ...simply using the group to stage her resurrection.’ Andrew Smith, ‘Love, Freud and the Female Gothic’, p83-84 What makes her monstrous is her ability to control the actions of the living from beyond the grave. She is an ‘embodiment from the past, surviving by virtue of whatever occult forces, into the present.’ Robert Edwards, ‘The Alien and the Familiar in The Jewel of Seven Stars and Dracula,’ in William Hughes and Andrew Smith, ed. Bram Stoker: History, Psychoanalysis and the Gothic (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1998) p98-99 More than this, though, Tera controls an astral, non-corporeal form in which she can control the living and interact with their world. Corbeck and Trelawny hypothesize that this was why her hand was left unwrapped through the process of mummification, ‘so that wherever there was air she might move even as her Ka (spirit) could move!’ Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p99 This was a notion ‘deeply rooted in late-nineteenth-century occult belief.’ Maria Fleishhack, ‘Possession, Trance and Reincarnation’ p259 However, Ayesha seems to reject entirely the concept of a finite, final ‘death’ and teaches Holly a concept of reincarnation similar to that taught by the Theosophical Society. She shares with Holly her understanding that ‘there is no such thing as Death, though there be a thing called Change’ and that though people may appear to be ‘dead’, ‘even to the world are they born again and again.’ Haggard, She, p138 Carolyn Burdett has suggested that Haggard used his work to explore ‘the idea that the dead do indeed live again via the process of reincarnation,’ something Burdett links to ‘the emerging Theosophical movement.’ Carolyn Burdett, ‘Romance, reincarnation and Rider Haggard’, p217In fact, Fraser has linked Ayesha to the figure of Blavatsky explicitly, suggesting that she ‘conducts herself like Madame Blavatsky as she might have been acted by Sarah Bernhardt,’ Robert Fraser, Victorian Quest Romance, p43drawing attention to the exceedingly Blavatsky-adjacent philosophies espoused by Ayesha during her intellectual repartee with Holly. Yet as Burdett has put it, ‘her glory and her punishment is that she cannot die.’ Carolyn Burdett, ‘Romance, reincarnation and Rider Haggard’ p220The immortal queen herself laments this fate, most pointedly whilst Holly is accidentally spying on her after their initial meeting. In a scene almost reminiscent of ritual magic, Holly watches Ayesha bringing her ‘clenched hands’ up and down, making a ‘white flame of fire’ move with them Haggard, She, p150 before sobbing that ‘Alas, that I cannot die! Alas! Alas!’ Haggard, She, p152 The power that both women wield over life and death is also central to their characterization as figures of the Divine Feminine spirit. Indeed, in The Western Esoteric Tradition Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke has discussed Blavatsky’s concept of the ‘highly evolved adept, whose consciousness was far advanced beyond that of ordinary human beings;’ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Western Esoteric Tradition, p227a concept applicable to both Tera and Ayesha. However, whereas Ayesha insists the power that she wields is not magical, merely a form of science that Holly is unable to understand Haggard, She, p140, it is Trelawny who suggests Tera's is just an ancient form of knowledge concerning life and death. The Great Experiment, the final attempt by Trelawny to bring about Tera’s resurrection, ‘harnesses both ancient occult ritual and Edwardian scientific observation.’ William Hughes, Beyond Dracula, p35-36There is a conflict here, argues Senf, between ‘the modern technological age and the power of the mysterious past.’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science, p74In a sense, Trelawny is not performing the resurrection ritual genuinely. He intends to bring Tera back not in acquiescence with her wishes but in order to learn her secrets and test the ancient magics. Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p162 These ancient magical forces ultimately overpower the modern sensibilities of science and technology and ‘the forces of the present are absolutely annihilated by Queen Tera.’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science, p74For whatever reason, the Great Experiment apparently fails, and ‘unlike characters who are confident about the ability of modern science,’ Carol A. Senf, Science and Social Science,p 75 Ross is the only person to escape. We do not know definitively what happens to either Tera or Ayesha at the conclusion of The Jewel of Seven Stars or She. Whereas it may seem that the Great Experiment fails completely and, thus, Tera is still in her inanimate state, we cannot be sure. Ross believes he saw movement; he carries a body he believes to be Margaret out of the experiment chamber; he is left with nothing but Tera’s empty wedding shroud Stoker, The Jewel of Seven Stars, p188, suggesting that it was Tera he moved before she disappeared. As for Ayesha, she promises that she will return before she dies. Given Haggard’s continuation of her story with one sequel and two prequels, this promise is at least partially fulfilled. Whilst Haggard resurrects Ayesha in subsequent works, Stoker’s Tera stays dead; a rewrite where everyone survives and Ross marries Margaret still leaves the Great Experiment unsuccessful. Given their use of occult ideals and concepts throughout their work, both Stoker and Haggard offer critiques on the unknown potential- and, therefore, danger- of Divine Femininity and female empowerment. An empowered woman is an uncontrollable one. Therefore, like Tera, Ayesha and the empowered Margaret, they cannot survive or be successful in their imperialistic agendas. Divine Femininity must be shown its place and suppressed, especially in a time of economic and political crisis. Bibliography Bown, Nicola, Burdett, Carolyn and Thurschwell, Pamela, eds. 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