sensors
Article
TiO2-x/TiO2-Structure Based ‘Self-Heated’ Sensor for
the Determination of Some Reducing Gases
Simonas Ramanavicius 1 , Alla Tereshchenko 2,3 , Renata Karpicz 1 , Vilma Ratautaite 1,3 ,
Urte Bubniene 1,3 , Audrius Maneikis 1 , Arunas Jagminas 1 and Arunas Ramanavicius 1,3, *
1
2
3
*
Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Sauletekio av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania;
simonas.ramanavicius@gmail.com (S.R.); renata.karpicz@ftmc.lt (R.K.); vilma.ratautaite@gmail.com (V.R.);
urte.bubniene@gmail.com (U.B.); andrius.maneikis@ftmc.lt (A.M.); arunas.jagminas@ftmc.lt (A.J.)
Department of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Information Technologies,
Odesa National I.I. Mechnikov University, Pastera 42, 65023 Odesa, Ukraine; alla_teresc@onu.edu.ua
Department of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences,
Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
Correspondence: Arunas.Ramanavicius@chf.vu.lt
Received: 12 November 2019; Accepted: 17 December 2019; Published: 21 December 2019
Abstract: In this research we report the gas-sensing properties of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure,
which was ‘self-heated’ by current that at constant potential passed through the structure.
Amperometric measurements were applied for the evaluation of sensor response towards ethanol,
methanol, n-propanol and acetone gases/vapours. The sensitivity towards these gases was based
on electrical resistance changes, which were determined by amperometric measurements of current
at fixed voltage applied between Pt-based contacts/electrodes deposited on the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
layer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure,
which is mainly based on Ti3 O5 /TiO2 formed during the hydro-thermal oxidation-based sensing-layer
preparation process. Additionally, photoluminescence and time-resolved photoluminescence decay
kinetics-based signals of this sensing structure revealed the presence of TiO2 mainly in the anatase
phase in the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure, which was formed at 400 ◦ C annealing temperature.
The evaluation of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based gas-sensing layer was performed at several different temperatures
(25 ◦ C, 72 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C, 180 ◦ C) and at these temperatures different sensitivity to the aforementioned
gaseous materials was determined.
Keywords: nonstoichiometric titanium oxides; TiO2-x /TiO2 ; Ti3 O5 /TiO2 ; photoluminescence; anatase;
rutile; sensor for reducing gases
1. Introduction
Among many other inorganic semiconductor-based structures, TiO2 -based structures are often
used for the development of gas-sensing devices due to their sensing properties [1]. Titanium dioxide
(TiO2 ) is an n-type semiconductor, which exists in three main phases (i) anatase, (ii) rutile and
(iii) brookite with bandgaps of 3.02, 3.23, and 2.96 eV, respectively [2]. All phases of TiO2 can be
relatively easily synthesized and/or converted from each to another by relatively simple thermal
treatment (annealing).
The attractiveness of TiO2 has significantly increased since its water-splitting ability under
ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation was discovered [3]. The discovery of the latter effect facilitated the
exploitation of catalytic TiO2 properties in the design of sensors for gases and gaseous materials.
Due to remarkable properties, many different TiO2 -based structures have found applications in various
technological areas including biosensors [4,5] and chemical sensors [6–10].
TiO2 -based gas sensors are not expensive. They mostly require simple analytical signal detection
and evaluation systems and offer good sensitivity towards many gases and gaseous materials,
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including both major types of gases: (i) reducing gases such as H2 S, H2 , CO, NH3 , CH3 OH, C2 H5 OH, and
many others volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and (ii) oxidizing gases such as O2 , NO2 , CO2 [11–13].
When TiO2 -based sensors are affected by different types of gases (reducing or oxidizing) such sensors
generate opposite (positive or negative) current/(electrical resistance)-based response, which depends
on the type of the gas. Electrical resistance measurement-based registration is one of the simplest
analytical signal-registration method in comparison to many other analytical techniques, e.g., (i) the
determination based on photoluminescence (PL) measurements [14] or (ii) based on more sophisticated
potentiodynamic electrical/electrochemical techniques such as impedance spectroscopy [15], etc.,
which can be applied for analytical signal registration in the case of TiO2 -based sensors.
The sensing mechanism of TiO2 -based gas sensors is complex and it can be described by
the superposition of several multi-step processes: (i) a gas adsorption/desorption on TiO2 surface,
which dependent on the nature of the gas is followed by enrichment or depletion of upper layer of
TiO2 -based structure by electrons, which significantly (ii) changes the conductivity of TiO2 -based grains
and (iii) the charge transfer between the grains. In these aforementioned processes the surface-to-volume
ratio of grains, the grain size and the Debay length are playing a crucial role in the charge transfer
ability of TiO2 -based layers. Therefore, the formation of nanostructured TiO2 with a very high number
of grains, i.e., a high number of boundaries between grains and increased surface on which gases of
interest can be adsorbed, are advantageous for the development of gas sensors [12,16–20]. Even the
sorption of gases on the surface of TiO2 -based structures is not a very simple phenomenon, which is
mostly based on several different phases, particularly physical-adsorption and chemisorption [21].
During the physical adsorption phase gas molecules (mostly oxygen), which are initially adsorbed on
the surface of TiO2 from air, are replaced by molecules of other gases, which are present in gaseous
specimen. This process is mainly determined by Van der Waals and electrostatic interactions between
TiO2 and the adsorbed gas molecules. During the next phase, adsorbed molecules dependently on
their structure and/or orientation on the surface are either attracting or donating electrons to the TiO2
surface layer, which induces the variation of conductivity by the aforementioned mechanism.
Despite some recent developments in TiO2 -based hetero-structure based sensors, n-type pure
TiO2 -based gas sensors are characterized by relatively high resistance and relatively poor sensing
activity, therefore, various TiO2 -based hetero-structures are used instead of pure TiO2 . Coupling of
TiO2 with various materials can result in increased sensing-ability. The most promising structures
are based on coupling of TiO2 with other semiconducting materials, which can increase sensitivity,
alternate selectivity, reduce response time, lower operational temperatures in comparison to pure
TiO2 -based sensors [17–25].
One option of modification and/or formation of hetero-structures, which are sensitive to various
gaseous materials, is related to the application of conducting polymers such as polypyrrole (Ppy),
which is used in order to form TiO2 /Ppy-based hetero-structures suitable for the determination
of liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) such as propane and butane [26]. TiO2 /Ppy-based sensors
operated at relatively low temperatures, which are close to the room temperature. Some other
authors have demonstrated the sensitivity of ultra-thin TiO2 /Ppy-based hetero-structures towards
NH3 gas [27], which was advanced towards much higher sensitivity by another research team [28].
Advancement in the application of TiO2 /Ppy hetero-structures is attributed to the formation of n-p
hetero-junctions between TiO2 and Ppy layers. Similar hetero-junctions were reported for TiO2 and
another conducting polymer polyaniline (PANI) based hetero-structures TiO2 /PANI, which were
sensitive towards NH3 [27,29–31].
The primary aim of this research is to demonstrate the ability to form layer of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures, which will be suitable for the design of gas sensor operating at relatively
low temperatures. The next aim was to demonstrate that relatively low resistance of formed
TiO2-x /TiO2 layer can be applied for ‘self-heating’ of the sensing structure and to evaluate how
the selectivity and sensitivity of the here designed gas sensor depends on the temperature of
TiO2-x /TiO2 -based sensing-structure.
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1. Experimental
1.1. Formation of TiO2 Sample
A Si wafer (1) was oxidized in electric oven with increased concentration of oxygen to form
a few micrometers thick oxide (SiO2 ) layer (2) over the Si wafer. After that the metallic titanium
(Ti) layer (3) of 100 nm thickness was sputtered by a magnetron. Amorphous non-stoichiometric
titanium oxide (TiO2-x ) and titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) based hetero-structure (TiO2-x /TiO2 ) was formed by
hydrothermal oxidation of Si/SiO2 /Ti-based wafer in aqueous alkaline solution. Finally, platinum (Pt)
electrodes/(contact zones) (Figure 1, Section 3) were formed on the top of the crystalline TiO2 by
magnetron sputtering.
Figure 1. (A) Schematic view (layer-by-layer) of initial structure, which was used for the design of
—
— layer (100 nm) of SiO—; 3—thin layer (100 nm) of Ti deposited
sensor: 1—Si-based
wafer; 2—thin
2
—
by magnetron sputtering. (B) Schematic view (layer-by-layer) of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based sensor structure:
—
—
1—Si-based wafer; 2—thin layer
(100 nm) of SiO2 ; 3—nonstoichiometric TiO2-x /TiO2 layer formed by
—
hydrothermal oxidation; 4—Pt electrodes/(contact zones) deposited by magnetron sputtering.
The next step in sensor development procedure was based on annealing of Ti-based structures,
which was performed at three different temperature regimes:
(i) 50 ◦ C/1 h + 400 ◦ C/2 h temperature for the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) structure;
(ii) 50 ◦ C/1 h + 600 ◦ C/2 h temperature for the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 (600 ◦ C) structure;
(iii) 50 ◦ C/1 h + 800 ◦ C/2 h temperature for the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 (800 ◦ C) structure.
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All the aforementioned procedures enabled us to form mixed crystal phase TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures (Figure 1, layers 4 and 5) at over-layer containing significant amount of TiO2 in the
form of anatase and/or rutile phases and TiO2-x , which was formed in the deeper layers of the structure
below fully oxidized stoichiometric TiO2 .
Finally, platinum-based electrodes were deposited on the formed TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C), TiO2- x /TiO2
◦
(600 C) and TiO2-x /TiO2 (800 ◦ C) layers by magnetron sputtering. The dimensions of the structure
were: 8 mm—length of the structure and 3 mm—distance between platinum electrodes deposited over
the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based layer. The thickness of formed titanium layer was 100 nm, the measurements
were performed at 25 ◦ C (room temperature), 72 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C, 180 ◦ C. The humidity of the supplied
aforementioned gaseous materials containing air stream was constant during all parts of measurements
with methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, and acetone vapour: partial pressure of water in the air stream
was 3.170 kPa, which corresponds to 100% of relative humidity at 25 ◦ C and at 101.325 kPa pressure.
During the measurement of signals towards water, initially a dry air stream was supplied and mixed
with 1170 ppm of H2 O containing air stream at corresponding ratio.
Platinum (Pt) contacts were formed by magnetron sputtering using sputter from VSTSER (Tel-Aviv,
Israel) in direct current (DC) regime under Argon (Ar) atmosphere (20 mTorr pressure) using 1” diameter
and 99.99% purity Pt target. Contacts geometry was determined by a mask. In order to improve
adhesion between TiO2-x /TiO2 -based layer and platinum at first a thin (20 nm) titanium (Ti) layer was
sputtered on which Pt contacts were formed. Sputtering power for Ti layer formation was 2.55 W/cm2
with the growth of 0.13 nm/s. During the formation of the Pt procedure, magnetron power was
3.06 W/cm2 , with layer growth of 0.08 nm/s.
1.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)-Based Characterization of Formed TiO2-x /TiO2 -Based
Hetero-Structure
The structural properties of the obtained TiO2 samples on silicon substrates were determined using
a scanning electron microscope (SEM) Helios NanoLab 650 from FEI (Eindhoven, The Netherlands).
1.3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Characterization of TiO2-x /TiO2 -Structure
The phase composition of thin films was determined by X-ray diffractometer D8 Advanced from
Bruker (USA) with grazing-incident X-ray diffraction (XRD) over a 2θ range of 22◦ –65◦ using Cu Kα
(= 1.5046). Films for XRD investigations were based on: (i) metallic Ti (100 nm) layer deposited over Si
substrate covered by 300 nm SiO2 layer (ii) TiO2−x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) hetero-structure, which was formed
by the oxidation of the same metallic Ti layer (mentioned in part ‘i’) according to the aforementioned
protocol of hydrothermal oxidation at 400 ◦ C.
The diffraction pattern was generated by X-ray beam at grazing incidence angle of 2◦ . XRD data
library ‘CDD Database PDF2010-PDF-2/Release 2010 RDB’ was applied for the analysis of XRD patterns.
TiO2 -powder, which by producer was declared as TiO2 anatase (TiO2(anatase) ) phase, was received
from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, United States) and was used as XRD control while was investigated at
the same grazing incidence angle of 2◦ over similar 2θ range of 22◦ –65◦ .
1.4. Photoluminescence (PL)-Based Characterization of TiO2-x /TiO2 -Structure
Optical properties of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures deposited on oxidized silicon substrates
were investigated by photoluminescence (PL) studies using Edinburgh-F900 spectrophotometer
(Edinburg Instruments Ltd., Livingston, UK). The photoluminescence spectra of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures were excited by solid-state laser with an excitation wavelength of 375 nm (the average
pulse power was about 0.15 mW/mm2 , the pulse duration 70 ps) and photoluminescence was measured
in the range of 400–700 nm. For comparison, the photoluminescence spectra of similar oxidized silicon
substrates were also registered. All fluorescence spectra were corrected accounting the sensitivity of
the instrument.
Photoluminescence measurements of ‘self heated’ structure were performed at different
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Photoluminescence measurements of ‘self-heated’ structure were performed at different voltages
that heated the sensor up to particular temperatures. The exact temperature was followed with a
thermocouple attached to the TiO2-x /TiO2 hetero-structure.
The position and intensity of the photoluminescence maximum was determined as corresponding
2−x
characteristics of a Gauss function using the
Origin program.
1.5. Determination of Analytical Signal towards Reducing Gases by TiO2-x /TiO2 -Structure Based Sensor
Measurements of current passing through the sensor structure were performed by
potentiostat/galvanostat Autolab 30 Eco Chemie Gmbh (Utrecht, The Netherlands), which was
2−x
controlled by NOVA software. The TiO2−x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) sample was investigated under different
constant voltages, which were applied by potentiostat on platinum-based electrodes deposited on the
increased. In present
research we have registered a variation of current (Δ
TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) layer.
Evaluated gas concentrations were fixed at: 105 ppm for water, 118 ppm for methanol, 53 ppm for
ethanol, 18 ppm for n-propanol, 220 ppm for acetone.
Electrical resistance of TiO2−x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based gas-sensitive structure decreased due to
their increased conductivity, therefore, current passing through TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based structure
increased. In present research we have registered a variation of current (∆I) at constant potential. These
Then relative response (Δ
variations of measured current (I) (Figure 2) were converted into resistance (R) of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
−
structure according to Ohms law: Δ
R = V/I
(1)
—
where V is applied
voltage.
Figure 2. Representation of typical analytical signal registered by TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based structure.
It should
should be
be noted
noted that Δ
∆I, the duration of signal development and the regeneration of sensor after
It
measurements were different for different gases and different concentrations of those gases.
Then relative response (∆R, %) was calculated as:
∆R = 100 × (Rfinal − Rinitial )/Rinitial (%)
(2)
where Rinitial is initial resistance of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based structure calculated from Iinitial at
baseline, Rfinal —final resistance calculated from Ifinal (Figure 2).
1.6. Determination of Electrical Resistance Variation with Temperature
Measurements of resistance vs. temperature, were performed by system based on closed cycle
helium cryostat made by Sumitomo Heavy Industries (Tokyo, Japan) combined with RDK-408D 4K
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cold head and SRDK Series cryocooler and CSA-71A compressor unit. Temperature was controlled
by Lakeshore 340 temperature controller (Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc., Westerville, OH, USA).
Resistance was measured by Tektronix DMM 4050 multimeter (Tektronix UK Ltd., Bracknell, UK).
This closed-cycle helium cryostat was used for measurement of resistance and was performed only
after exact equilibration of temperature at each selected point in the temperature range from 4.2 K to
310 K, with 5 K intervals between measurement points. Temperature was changed in cyclic manner
in two ways: black cycles shows points measured by cooling
down, red squares shows points by
−3
−3
increasing temperature. Measured performed in vacuum 10 Torr.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. SEM-Based Structural Characterization of TiO2-x /TiO2 -Based Layer
SEM images of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure at different at some extent s (Figure 3A,B)
illustrate that the sample has a highly porous surface with nanostructures in the form of nano-plates
and nano-sponges, which significantly enhanced both (i) surface area and (ii) surface to volume ratio
of the gas-sensitive area of sensor. Therefore, such formations are very beneficial in order to obtain
increased surface area, which is available for gas adsorption and enhances the sensitivity of such
a structure.
A
B
1 μm
2 μm
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure at
different magnification: (A)—at ×25000; (B)—at ×50000.
—
—
2.2. XRD Characterization of TiO2-x /TiO2 -Structure
The XRD pattern of metallic Ti (Figure 4, A(metallic Ti) ), which was observed for initial metallic
Ti layer of 100 nm thickness that was formed by magnetron sputtering and was used for further
hydrothermal oxidation at 400 ◦ C into a TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure, represents all
characteristic peaks of metallic Ti well (according to PDF ‘00-044-1294 for metallic Ti’).
(according to PDF ‘
for metallic Ti’
2−x
f broad ‘peak area’ in
γ
reported in the PDF ‘00
for γ
’
γ
according to PDF ‘01
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) with PDF ‘01
’
’
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Figure 4. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of: A(metallic
— Ti) —metallic Ti layer of 100 nm thickness,
— TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based
which was formed by magnetron sputtering; B(TiO2-x/TiO2-structure)
—
hetero-structure, which was formed from above mentioned metallic 100 nm—thick Ti layer;
C
—TiO
-powder,
which was
as ‘control
sample’ and by supplier (Sigma-Aldrich) was
(TiO2 was
powder)
which
used
as 2‘control
sample’
and used
by supplier
(Sigma
declared as 99.3% TiO2 in the anatase phase.
The XRD pattern of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) (Figure 4, B(TiO2−x/TiO2-structure) ) represents relatively high
morphisms (α , β , γ , δ , and λ phases) is ‘a close
dispersion in TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure, but according to Fukushima et al. [32] even
neighbour’ of the Magnéli phase
–
the presence of broad ‘peak area’ in titanium oxide based pattern between 27◦ and 37◦ can be assigned
to the presence of Ti3 O5 , Ti4 O7 and/or Ti8 O15 . Thus, in our research we have observed a much better
at n = 3). According to
PDF ‘00
for γ
′
expressed XRD peak between 34◦ and 37◦ (Figure 4, Inset, area 1), which is in good agreement with
b = 5.0747 Å, c = 7.1810 Å, β = 109.865°), which is superconducting at low temperatures (below 3 K)
γ-Ti3 O5 reported in the PDF ‘00-040-0806 for γ-Ti3 O5 ’ and also in relatively good agreement with
. Differently from the ‘most respectful’ member of
the XRD pattern presented by Yoshimatsu et al. [33] for γ-Ti3 O5 formed by pulsed laser deposition.
—
Results obtained by Yoshimatsu et al. [33] showed low-temperature superconductivity in both Ti4 O7
and γ-Ti3 O5 films. In addition, these authors reported relatively broad XRD peaks at 36–38◦ for
γ-Ti3 O5 and at 42–43◦ for Ti4 O7 . The peak observed in our research (Figure 4, B(TiO2−x/TiO2-structure)
and Inset, area -1) according to the shape-like-features and signal to noise ratio is very similar to that
‘intergrowths’ is observed, as it has been
at 36–38◦ for γ-Ti3 O5 , but just some shift is observed because preparation procedures of both films
were very different, therefore, the composition and stoichiometry of both TiO2-x -based structures
discussed here can be different at some extent. Another broad peak area (Figure 4, Inset, area 2)
‘intergrowths’
is in well agreement with our results based on photoluminescence (Fig
between 36◦ and 39◦ is assigned to TiO2(anatase) according to PDF ‘01-075-2545 for TiO2(anatase) ’ and
control XRD pattern (Figure 4, C(TiO2 powder) ) registered at the same experimental conditions for
TiO2(anatase) powder purchased from Sigma Aldrich, where according to match between XRD patterns
(Figure 4. C(TiO2 powder) ) with PDF ‘01-089-0552 for TiO2(rutile) ’ we have detected the presence of some
TiO2(rutile) phase.
Titanium pentoxide (Ti3 O5 ) with polymorphisms (α-, β-, γ-, δ-, and λ-phases) is ‘a close neighbour’
of the Magnéli phase [34–38], and sometimes it is designated as the first member of the Magnéli
phase, because their chemical formula is consistent with that of the Magnéli phase (TinO2n-1 at
n = 3). According to PDF ‘00-040-0806 for γ-Ti3 O5 ′ , Ti3 O5 possesses a monoclinic cell (a = 9.9701 Å,
b = 5.0747 Å, c = 7.1810 Å, β = 109.865◦ ), which is superconducting at low temperatures (below 3 K)
similarly to Ti4 O7 -based Magnéli phase [33]. Differently from the ‘most respectful’ member of Magneli
phase—Ti4 O7 , which in crystal structure is having TiO2(rutile) -based shear planes [39,40], in Ti3 O5 there
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Additional
for the
PROOF
ofplanes
sensors-653898:
are no corrections
such TiO2 -rutile
based
shear
[33]. Therefore, in our XRD patterns we are observing only
signs of M3 O5 and TiO2(anatase) without any presence of rutile. Such a composition was formed because
for the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures we have applied 400 ◦ C temperature at which
the In
formation
of M3 O5 -TiO2(anatase) ‘intergrowths’ is observed, as it has been reported and investigated
1)
equation:
by other research teams [41] and very recently has been confirmed by some other research group in
R=V/I
(1) is in well
different conditions [42]. The
formation of above mentioned M3 O5 -TiO2(anatase) ‘intergrowths’
agreement with our results based on photoluminescence (Figure 5A) and photoluminescence decay
(Figure 5D) measurements, which are discussed in the next chapter, where we are clearly observing
effects
induced
2)
Figure
5: by the presence of TiO2(anatase) .
Figure 5. (A) Photoluminescence spectra of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) sample (1), and silicon substrate
Fig. 5.
(2); (B) Photoluminescence spectra of TiO2-x /TiO2 (600 ◦ C) sample (1), and silicon substrate (2);
(C) Photoluminescence spectra of TiO2-x /TiO2 (800 ◦ C) sample; (D) Photoluminescence decays of
TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) sample at different photoluminescence emissions bands under 375 nm excitation.
2.3. Photoluminescence Properties of Hybrid TiO2-x /TiO2 -Based Structures
All photoluminescence spectra of the evaluated TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structures were characterized
by a wide photoluminescence maximum in the region of wavelengths between 415–500 nm. However,
the quality of the photoluminescence signals of all three TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structures were very
different. As it is demonstrated in the Figure 5, this depends on the temperature that is applied for the
annealing of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structures, because at different temperatures different phases of TiO2
on the surface of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structures were formed. TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) structure, which was
formed by annealing at 400 ◦ C, generated the most intense photoluminescence signal (Figure 5A).
The upper layer generates the strongest photoluminescence signal and the spectrum of TiO2-x /TiO2
(400 ◦ C) is characterized by photoluminescence peaks, which are observed at 415, 440, 470 nm of
the main photoluminescence band (Figure 5A). These photoluminescence peaks reveal the presence
of TiO2(anatase) in TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) hybrid-structure. TiO2-x /TiO2 (600 ◦ C) structure, which was
formed by annealing at 600 ◦ C, also has demonstrated some photoluminescent properties but the
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photoluminescence signal was about 10 times lower (Figure 5B) and revealed presence of mixed
TiO2(anatase) and TiO2(rutile) structures of TiO2-x /TiO2 (600 ◦ C) sample.
TiO2-x /TiO2 (800 ◦ C) structure, which was formed by annealing at 800 ◦ C, was characterized by
very weak, about 100 times lower photoluminescence signal, than that was observed for TiO2-x /TiO2
(400 ◦ C) sample (Figure 5C). Thus TiO2-x TiO2 (800 ◦ C) structure is not suitable for further investigations
required for optoelectronic sensors and, as revealed by the results below, this structure was also not
suitable for the sensing of gases selected for this research.
TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) structure showed the most interesting and the highest quality
photoluminescence signal. Therefore, during the next experiment, which was also based on
photoluminescence spectrum registration, this structure was investigated under different constant
voltages, which were applied by potentiostat on platinum-based electrodes deposited on the TiO2- x /TiO2
(400 ◦ C)-based layer. The plots of photoluminescence spectra (Figure 6A) vs. applied voltage are
shown in Figure 6B. The elevated voltage from 1 V to 5 V, results the decrease of intensity of the main
photoluminescence maximum and a small shift of photoluminescence maximum position towards
shorter wavelengths.
Figure 6. (A) Photoluminescence spectra of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based sample at different applied
voltage; (B) The changes in spectral position of photoluminescence maximum vs. voltage of TiO2-x /TiO2
(400 ◦ C)-based sample; (C) The changes in photoluminescence maximum intensity vs. voltage of
TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based sample; (D) The plot of temperature vs. voltage of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400
◦ C)-based sample.
Figure 6B,C show the position and the intensity of the photoluminescence maximum, which is
changing depending on the voltage applied to TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based sample. The position
(Figure 6B) of the photoluminescence maximum was determined as a maximum of Gauss function,
which represented the best fitting with registered photoluminescence spectra. At voltage values (from
1 V to 5 V) tested in this experiment the spectral position of the photoluminescence maximum (λmax )
gradually shifts towards the infrared (IR) region (Figure 6B). In general, the difference between the
(λ
positions
λmax for TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based sample at 0 V and 5 V is about 5 nm. A similar trend
the positions
λ
related
to the decrease
in photoluminescence intensity of the main maximum with increasing voltage
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was observed (Figure 6C). The decrease of photoluminescence intensity by the increase of applied
voltage from 0 V to 5 V has been determined, and it shows that the concentration of photoluminescence
emitting centers in TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) hetero-structure is reducing by increasing voltage. The plot of
temperature vs. voltage of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based sample (Figure 6D) illustrates dependence in
tested potential interval, which can be predicted from Ohms law, followed by basic recalculations into
the heat released by this system.
Such behavior of the photoluminescence spectra vs. applied voltage can be caused by an increased
sample temperature, which is dependent on electrical current flowing through the TiO2- x /TiO2
(400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure. Thus, a rapid decrease in the photoluminescence intensity of TiO2
with an increase in voltage at U ≥6 V is related to the increase of the sample temperature, which leads
to the temperature-based quenching of photoluminescence of TiO2(anatase) [43–45]. Photoluminescence
studies of nanostructured TiO2 at room-temperature were reported in some other research: (i) the
photoluminescence of TiO2(anatase) colloidal particles of different sizes occurs from the shallow trap
levels, which are located between 0.41 and 0.64 eV below the conduction band [46]; (ii) the narrow
photoluminescence emission bands of TiO2(anatase) powder, which originated from the self-trapped
exciton emission (STE) in crystalline TiO2(anatase) containing TiO6 octahedral sheet-based structures,
was reported [47,48]. In addition to registration of photoluminescence spectra, we have measured
the photoluminescence decay kinetics for TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure at different
narrow photoluminescence emission bands (Figure 5D). The photoluminescence of TiO2(anatase) decay
non-exponentially with dominating fast component, which is characterized by a decay of about
0.6 ns. The photoluminescence decay kinetics presented here clearly verify the self-trapped exciton
emission origin of photoluminescence, which from the broad range of non-stoichiometric titanium
oxides (TiO2−x ) and stoichiometric titanium oxides (TiO2 ) is the most characteristic for crystalline
TiO2(anatase) [49].
2.4. Electrical Resistance Variation with Temperature
Electrical resistance measurements of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure revealed the oxidation of
metallic titanium-based layer, because by thermal oxidation the resistance of the sample has increased
from 0 Ω (for bare Ti-based layer) up to 72 Ω (for formed TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure). The increase of
resistance together with the shift of photoluminescence signals clearly shows the formation of TiO2 in
the phase of anatase and rutile. However, stoichiometric TiO2 -based layers have relatively low electrical
conductivity, which is typically of 10−10 S/m, but it was demonstrated that the conductivity of TiO2 -based
layers can be significantly increased by heat-based treatment at a high temperature in a reducing
gas-based environment [50]. Further investigations revealed the formation of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures, because only TiO2 based structures have relatively high band-gap and, therefore,
they do not conduct well while the presence of TiO2-x in forms of Ti2 O3 , Ti3 O5 and/or Ti4 O7 significantly
increases the conductivity of such hetero-structures. It should be noted, that an important issue related
to TiO2-x conductivity is that these oxides at the stoichiometry of Tin O2n- 1 (with 3 < n < 10) are
forming so called Magnéli phases [51], which possess some properties of metallic conductor [52,53].
As seen from resistance vs. temperature dependence (Figure 7, area 1), in the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures at temperatures below 150–180 K reported here, we have also determined some signs
of such transition into metallic conductivity, which is characteristic of presence of Magnéli phases.
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Figure 7. Temperature dependence of electrical resistance (R(T)) for the TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based
hetero-structure. Temperature was changed in two ways (indicated by black and red arrows): (i) black
cycles shows points measured by cooling down, (ii) red squares shows points by increasing temperature.
Measured was performed in vacuum using helium cryostat.
The R(T) dependence (temperature dependence of electrical resistance, Figure 7) is roughly
temperature independent from 310 K down to relatively low temperatures 180–150. Such an R(T)
–
dependence (almost constant R(T) with respect to T with some increase of conductivity when
temperature is decreasing) is expected for a heterogeneous mixture of strongly disordered metal/(metal
oxide)-based layer, and proves that the TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure is strongly
disordered and composed of many randomly oriented nanocrystals and of many different TiO2-x phases
and probably even some metal clusters randomly distributed in the volume of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structures. It is also remarkable that the roughly constant R(T) dependence also exhibits a series
of small resistance jumps in the range of a few percent. These resistance jumps might be induced by the
metal-semiconductor transitions within the involved Magneli phases, which is actually a combination
of a variety of different Tin O2n-1 phases rather than a single phase. Interestingly at 40 K the increase of
electrical resistance is observed (Figure 7, area 2), similar increase, which was followed by the drop of
conductivity below 4 K, observed by some other authors [33], which have reported superconductivity in
Ti4 O7 and γ-Ti3 O5 films. Some earlier research illustrated that so called Magnéli phases can be observed
in TiO2-x -based layers [54] as planes based on Tin O2n-1 that are penetrating through a matrix of TiO2 ,
and therefore, this shear plane based on Tin O2n-1 structure can conduct relatively well [52,53]. There are
some indications that the conductivity of properly doped or reduced TiO2 , which partly turns into
Tin O2n-1 , at low temperatures is based on n-type conductivity along the aforementioned shear planes.
Similar conductivity features are exploited in memristor-type devices based on TiO2 , in which electrical
resistance is changed by the oxidation/reduction of the TiO2 -based layer by applied corresponding
potentials [55]. In other research, it has been reported that the Ti3+ -containing TiO2-x /TiO2 , has localized
oxygen vacancies, which are beneficial for the electron mobility in n-type semiconducting TiO2-x /TiO2
structure [56]. We predict that the aforementioned oxygen vacancies are offering advanced gas-sensing
ability for TiO2-x /TiO2 hetero-structure evaluated in our research. The reduction of TiO2 -based
layers leads to the formation of non-stoichiometric titanium oxides, which are represented by the
general formula Tin O2n-1 (where n is in the range between 3 and 10 (3 < n < 10) and are known
as Magneli phases [51]. In non-stoichiometric titanium dioxide (TiO2-x ) with a low x (0 < x < 0.10),
the dominating point defects in the structure are based mainly on Ti3+ and Ti4+ interstitials and on
oxygen vacancies [57]. However, the Magneli phases in which x is in the range between 0.10 and 0.34
(0.10 < x < 0.34) extended planar defects and crystallographic shear planes, which are varying according
to the oxygen deficiency are observed [52,58]. TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure, which due to the
formation of Ti3+ has Tin O2n-1 doped TiO2-x clusters (Figure 1B, 3rd layer) with significantly advanced
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electrical conductivity, can be synthesized by several different methods: plasma treatment [59],
metallic zinc-based reduction [60], high-energy particle bombardment [61], laser irradiation [62] and
some reactions at higher temperatures [63]. In addition to these methods, in recent research we
have demonstrated that the hydro-thermal approach applied here is also suitable for the formation
of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures from initially deposited titanium-based layer. Due to good
electrical conductivity and chemical stability, the aforementioned Magneli phases are applied in
variety of applications, e.g., cathodic protection, batteries, catalyst support for fuel cells, waste and
contaminated water treatment [50,64,65]. However, the majority of Magneli phases based research
has been related to the fabrication of powders [19,20], only few attempts to form Magneli phase
based fibers of ~250 µm with tenable conductivity have been reported [54]. By contrast with those
research projects, we have produced thin layer of TiO2-x -based Magneli phases by oxidation of metallic
titanium-based layer, which was deposited by magnetron sputtering. However, due to polymorphism
of Ti3 O5 based difficulties the growth of a single Ti3 O5 crystal is still very challenging, therefore physical
properties of Ti3 O5 are still under debate [33]. Only several studies have dealt with the structural phase
transitions accompanying metal–insulator transition of Ti3 O5 , which were induced: (i) by irradiation
with visible-light pulses for β ↔ λ transition [37], (ii) at 450 K temperatures for α ↔ β transition [34]
and at 240 K temperatures for δ ↔ γ transition [35–38]. In addition, metal–insulator transition around
350 K was reported by Yoshimatsu et al. [33]. Such a temperature region (240–350–450 K), where the
most significant variation of Ti3 O5 conductivity was observed, is in good agreement with our recent
research, because we clearly observed the variation of conductivity based on the presence/absence of
gaseous compounds in temperature region between room temperature (298 K) and 180 ◦ C (453 K).
2.5. Gas Sensing by TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) Hetero-Structure-Based Sensor
Changes of electrical current passing through TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure at fixed potential
were evaluated and recalculated into changes of resistance (∆R %) using Equations (1) and (2). ∆R was
evaluated as analytical signal of this sensor. Results presented in Figure 8 illustrate that already
at room temperature (25 ◦ C) the sensor shows some sensitivity towards humidity and to all four
gaseous materials (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, acetone) evaluated here. But the signals determined
amperometrically at constant 0.5 V potential, which was required for the achievement of 25 ◦ C,
temperature towards humidity and towards all the aforementioned gases were very different. In the
presence of water, the resistance decreased, while in the presence of methanol, ethanol, n-propanol and
acetone the resistance of the sensor increased. It is observed due to different nature of these compounds.
On the surface of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure adsorbed water tends to fill the boundaries between TiO2-x
and TiO2 grains and therefore it enhances the conductivity of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure, while
all other materials have much lower conductivity in comparison to species, which they are replacing
during physical- and/or chemical-sorption of methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, acetone. Therefore,
the conductivity of the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure at some extent decreases (in the range of 1% in
comparison to initial conductivity of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure). There are clear indications that
sensitivity towards humidity tends to decrease by elevation of temperature from 72 ◦ C to 180 ◦ C,
because at higher temperatures H2 O evaporates from the surface of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure.
A similar tendency at 180 ◦ C was observed for methanol and ethanol, but for n-propanol and acetone
the highest sensitivity was observed at the highest evaluated temperature of 180 ◦ C, while the best
sensitivity towards methanol and ethanol was determined at 150 ◦ C and the best selectivity towards
methanol was achieved at 72 ◦ C.
Different sensitivities towards various gaseous materials at different temperatures opens the
avenue to apply the array based on similar TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures, where between
Pt electrodes different constant potential will be applied and this will heat these structures up to
different temperatures, where TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structures will have different sensitivities. Therefore,
the read-out signals from such arrays can be evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA)-based
approaches and interpreted as analytical signals. With applied ‘self-heating’ of the sensor, the best
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selectivity towards methanol was achieved at 72 ◦ C, and for ethanol the temperature was 150–180
◦ C. For n-propanol and acetone signals increase with heating and reaches its maximum at 180 ◦ C.
Thus TiO2 thin films are the best for methanol detection at 72 ◦ C, for ethanol at 150 ◦ C and for acetone
at 180 ◦ C as the response to other gases are significantly lower. There are some indications that to all
other gaseous materials investigated here, TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures were the most sensitive
at even higher temperatures, but these temperatures were not available due to limitations of our
experimental set up.
Figure 8. The response of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure towards humidity (H2 O),
◦ C).
–
methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, and acetone at different temperatures (25–180
Figure 9 represents normalized response (∆R, %) of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) hetero-structure towards
ethanol at four temperatures evaluated here: 25 ◦ C, 72 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C. At 150 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C
temperatures the limit of detection (LOD) was 2.6 ppm (Figure 9, lines 3 and 4), while at 72 ◦ C it was
5.3 ppm and at room temperature (25 ◦ C) it was 10.6 ppm, due to relatively low response in comparison
(Δ
◦ C towards
to background
noise.
coefficient
ofresponse
variation
from
measurements
at 150
approaches
and The
interpreted
as analytical
signals.calculated
With applied
‘self12heating’
of the sensor,
the best
–
53 ppm of ethanol, was 8.8%. During the measurements of different ethanol vapour concentrations,
steady-state current was achieved within 4–20 s, dependently on ethanol concentration (4 s for the
lowest measured ethanol concentration and 20 s for the highest measured ethanol concertation).
–
It should be noted that for some volatile organic compounds
evaluated here the response of sensing
layer was even slower (e.g., towards the highest n-propanol concentration it exceeded 35 s). This fact
can be related to: (i) some inertia of gas supply system and (ii) the dimensions of analyte-molecule larger
molecules needs some more time to access deeper layers of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C)-based hetero-structure.
25
3 - 150 °C
20
ΔR, %
15
4 - 180 °C
10
180 °C
150 °C
5
72 °C
2 - 72 °C
25 °C
0
1 - 25 °C
-5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Сoncentration, ppm
Figure 9. The response of TiO2-x /TiO2 (400 ◦ C) hetero-structure towards ethanol, at different
temperatures: 25 ◦ C, 72 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C.
s exploited for ‘self heating’ of this sensor. Such ‘self heating’ is very
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3. Conclusions and Future Developments
In this research we have succeeded in forming TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure from a thin
metallic titanium-based layer. This structure as a sensing layer was integrated into a gas sensor suitable
for the determination of some reducing gases. Relatively high conductivity of the TiO2-x /TiO2 -based
hetero-structure was exploited for ‘self-heating’ of this sensor. Such ‘self-heating’ is very beneficial for
the development of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based sensors, because only at higher temperatures (from 72 ◦ C to
180 ◦ C) was advanced sensitivity of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based sensor towards methanol, ethanol, n-propanol
and acetone achieved. Analytical performance of the sensor proposed here can be adjusted by the
optimization of TiO2-x /TiO2 -based sensing structure and analytical signal registration approach, e.g.,
different methods of analytical signal registration (e.g., various potentiostatic, potentiodynamic and
galvanostatic methods), which at the same time will serve as heating protocols, can be also applied
in order to change the sensitivity/selectivity of here proposed TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structure.
Therefore, after some further investigations it can be applied to the design of sensors with different
selectivity and sensitivity.
Despite some progress in the preparation of TiO2 -based materials, practical exploitation of
TiO2 -based structures self-doped by Tin O2n-1 -based structures is still very limited, because according to
the best of our knowledge such hetero-structures have still been used for a limited number of practical
applications. We expect that the aforementioned titanium oxide TiO2-x /TiO2 -based hetero-structures
can find more advanced applications in sensing devices, catalysts, electrode materials, energy storage
devices, etc. However, better understanding of the structures formed by the procedure proposed
here and their sensing ability, which will meet the requirements of other specific applications, is still
required. In addition, more comprehensive understanding of the transition from the conducting
metallic titanium-based layer towards the semiconducting TiO2-x /TiO2 -based structure is still crucial
in order to achieve desirable semiconducting properties, which are optimal for the applications
mentioned above. Therefore, these challenges will be on the agenda of our further studies related to
the development of TiO2-x /TiO2 -structure-based materials and the application of these structures for
practical purposes.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization: S.R., A.J. and A.R.; Methodology: R.K., A.T., V.R., S.R., A.M. and
A.R.; Software: A.T. and R.K., formal analysis: A.T., R.K., V.R. and U.B., Writing:—original draft preparation:
S.R. and A.R., Writing—review and editing: A.T., R.K. and A.R., Visualization: S.R., Supervision A.R. and U.B.;
Project administration: A.T. and A.R.; Funding acquisition: A.T. and A.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was partially supported by Ukrainian-Lithuanian Research project “Application of
hybrid nanostructures which are based on TiO2 or ZnO and modified by biomolecules, in optoelectronic sensors”
Lithuanian Research Council project No P-LU-18-53.
Acknowledgments: This research was partially supported by Ukrainian-Lithuanian Research project “Application
of hybrid nanostructures which are based on TiO2 or ZnO and modified by biomolecules, in optoelectronic
sensors” Lithuanian Research Council project No P-LU-18-53. Authors are thankful to Valentina Plausinatiene for
possibility to use XRD equipment, Skirmantas Keršulis for support during experiments of the closed-cycle helium
cryostat equipment and their valuable consultations.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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