C LI NI CA L
RE SE AR CH
A RT IC LE
Effects of Mixed Carotenoids on Adipokines and
Abdominal Adiposity in Children: A Pilot Study
J. Atilio Canas,1 Amanda Lochrie,2 Amy Galena McGowan,3 Jobayer Hossain,4
Christopher Schettino,5 and P. Babu Balagopal6
1
Context: Carotenoids have been implicated in the regulation of adipocyte metabolism.
Objective: To compare the effects of mixed-carotenoid supplementation (MCS) versus placebo on
adipokines and the accrual of abdominal adiposity in children with obesity.
Design and Setting: Randomized (1:1), double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention trial to
evaluate the effects of MCS over 6 months in a subspecialty clinic.
Participants: Twenty (6 male and 14 female) children with simple obesity [body mass index (BMI) .
90%], a mean age (6 standard deviation) of 10.5 6 0.4 years, and Tanner stage I to V were enrolled;
17 participants completed the trial.
Intervention: MCS (which contains b-carotene, a-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene,
astaxanthin, and g-tocopherol) or placebo was administered daily.
Main Outcome Measures: Primary outcomes were change in b-carotene, abdominal fat accrual
(according to magnetic resonance imaging), and BMI z-score; secondary outcomes were adipokines
and markers of insulin resistance.
Results: Cross-sectional analysis of b-carotene showed inverse correlation with BMI z-score, waist-toheight ratio, visceral adipose tissue, and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) at baseline. MCS increased b-carotene, total adiponectin, and high-molecular-weight adiponectin compared with
placebo. MCS led to a greater reduction in BMI z-score, waist-to-height ratio, and SAT compared
with placebo. The percentage change in b-carotene directly correlated with the percentage change
in SAT.
Conclusions: The decrease in BMI z-score, waist-to-height ratio, and SAT and the concomitant increase
in the concentration of b-carotene and high-molecular-weight adiponectin by MCS suggest the putative
beneficial role of MCS in children with obesity. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 102: 1983–1990, 2017)
T
he prevalence of abdominal obesity among U.S.
children has increased by almost 70% in the past
20 years (1). This rapid accrual of abdominal adiposity
places children at a particularly high risk for future
metabolic and cardiovascular disease irrespective of body
mass index (BMI) per se (2). Numerous cross-sectional
studies in adults and children report lower serum carotenoid concentrations in individuals with obesity and
ISSN Print 0021-972X ISSN Online 1945-7197
Printed in USA
Copyright © 2017 Endocrine Society
Received 19 January 2017. Accepted 7 March 2017.
First Published Online 13 March 2017
Abbreviations: at-RA, all-trans retinoic acid; BMI, body mass index; CV, coefficient of
variation; HDL-C, high density lipoprotein cholesterol; HMW-ADI, high-molecular-weight
adiponectin; HOMA-2, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance-2; MCS,
mixed carotenoid supplement; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; PPAR, peroxisome
proliferator activated receptor; SAT, subcutaneous adipose tissue; VAT, visceral
adipose tissue; WHtR, waist-to-height ratio.
doi: 10.1210/jc.2017-00185
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, June 2017, 102(6):1983–1990
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1983
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Pediatric Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, Nemours Children’s Specialty Care, Jacksonville,
Florida 32207; 2Division of Psychology Nemours Children’s Specialty Care, Wolfson Children’s Hospital/Baptist
Health, Jacksonville, Florida 32207; 3Behavioral Health, Wolfson Children’s Hospital/Baptist Health, Jacksonville,
Florida 32207; 4Bioinformatics Core Facility, Alfred I DuPont Hospital for Children, Wilmington,
Delaware 19803; 5Department of Radiology, Nemours Children’s Specialty Care, Jacksonville, Florida 32207;
and 6Biomedical Analysis Laboratory, Nemours Children’s Specialty Care, Jacksonville, Florida 32207
1984
Canas et al
Carotenoids and Adiposity in Children With Obesity
Methods
This was a double-blinded randomized study approved by the
Institutional Review Committee at Wolfson Children’s Hospital, Jacksonville, Florida. It was conducted in accordance with
the Declaration of Helsinki. Otherwise healthy children aged 8
to 11 years with a BMI at or above the 90th percentile were
asked to participate. Written parental informed consent and
child assent were obtained for all participants upon enrollment
in the study. Tanner staging based on pubic hair and genitalia
was performed in all participants (15). The study was registered
at ClinicalTrials.gov (registration number: NCT02060279).
Twenty children (6 male and 14 female), mean age
(6 standard deviation) of 10.5 6 0.4 years, were recruited.
Patients were randomly assigned to consume an MCS supplement (CarotenAll; Jarrow Formulas, Los Angeles, CA) or
placebo throughout the study. The supplement contained 2000
IU of b-carotene and 500 mg of a-carotene; 10 mg of lutein;
2 mg of zeaxanthin and 10 mg of lycopene; 500 mg of astaxanthin; and 10 mg of g-tocopherol per capsule; both the
supplement and placebo capsules were dispensed in identical
light-protected containers. The participants were instructed to
take one capsule with meals twice daily. They were then asked to
participate, along with a parent or caregiver, in a 3-hour-per-day,
10-day, intense family-based afterschool lifestyle intervention
program at a local YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association)
site. The program was facilitated by a clinical dietician, psychologist, and life coach and focused on improved nutrition
(5 servings of fruit and vegetable daily), exercise (60 minutes of
outdoor activity per day), and cognitive-behavior modification
aimed at weight reduction. The families were contacted monthly
by phone to encourage them to continue healthy lifestyle practices, address and record any side effects, and ensure consumption
of the supplement as prescribed. At the 6-month visit they were
also encouraged to enroll in our weight management clinic.
Participants were recruited from the Nemours Endocrinology
and Metabolism Clinic in Jacksonville, Florida, and through approved advertising sent to neighboring pediatric clinics.
Participants with a history of chronic illness or receiving
long-term medications, those with cognitive or neuromuscular
impairment, those with any organic cause of obesity, or those
who had metal implants that would preclude them from safely
undergoing MRI were excluded from the study. To avoid
illness-related acute changes in the markers of interest, participants were studied only if they had no history of recent illness
or bone fracture within 2 weeks of their blood draw. They
were instructed not to consume any medications, including
vitamins, herbal remedies, or anti-inflammatory drugs, within
15 days of the anticipated blood draw. The intention-to-treat
principle was applied to 20 participants, who were randomly
assigned by using a randomization scheme generated at http://
www.randomization.com.
The study protocol is summarized in Fig. 1. History and
physical examinations were performed, including sitting blood
pressure, which was averaged from three measurements
obtained with an automated sphygmomanometer. Waist circumference was measured to the nearest millimeter with a
flexible steel tape while the participants were standing, after
gently exhaling, at the minimal circumference measurable on
the horizontal plane between the lowest portion of the rib cage
and iliac crest and averaged from three measurements. A digital
scale and Harpenden stadiometer were used to measure body
mass and height for BMI (kg/m2), with a z-score generated
according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reference criteria (16). All participants fasted 8 hours
before the blood collection at baseline, 3 weeks, and 6 months.
Blood samples were processed under orange lights immediately
after collection, and aliquots of serum and plasma were frozen
in opaque tubes at 280°C until analysis.
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features of the metabolic syndrome, after controlling for
other potential confounders (3, 4). Carotenoids are lipophilic, C-40–based isoprenoid compounds that contain up to 15 conjugated double bonds. They are
synthesized in plants, fungi, and other photosynthetic
organisms. Their primary dietary sources for humans are
fruits and vegetables. Of the more than 600 carotenoids
identified in nature, about 20 are absorbed in the intestine and only six are ubiquitous in human serum:
b-carotene, a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin (5). Recent evidence suggests that the
provitamin A (retinol) carotenoids, such as b-carotene,
a-carotene, and b-cryptoxanthin, and their retinoid
conversion products, retinaldehyde and all-trans-retinoic
acid (at-RA), may be beneficial in the control of adipocyte
differentiation, hypertrophy, thermogenesis, and dysregulated adipokine secretion, with important clinical
implications for the management of obesity and obesityrelated metabolic disturbances (6–8).
Adipocytes store carotenoids along with triacylglycerols
in lipid droplets, but they may also be compartmentalized
to the cell membrane and mitochondria (9, 10). In humans,
carotenoid levels in abdominal depots show a strong association with both oral intake and plasma concentrations
(11, 12). Total carotenoid concentrations are higher in
abdominal adipose tissue than adipose tissue from the
buttocks and thighs, and the physiologic relevance, especially related to obesity, remains unknown. Carotenoids and
their retinoid conversion products are potent inhibitors of
adipocyte volume (hypertrophy) and increased cell number
(hyperplasia) in in vitro murine models (13, 14). The
physiologic lipogenic/adipogenic effects of carotenoids on
abdominal adipose tissue in childhood remain undefined.
The primary objective of this study was to determine
the effects of a 6-month intervention of mixed carotenoid
supplementation (MCS) versus placebo on b-carotene
levels in children with obesity who were primed for weight
loss through a 10-day, family-based after-school lifestyle
intervention program involving cognitive-behavioral
therapy, diet, and exercise. Measures of adiposity, including BMI z-scores, waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and
abdominal fat accrual (using quantitative magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]), along with changes in the concentration of other carotenoids and of adipokines (such
as leptin and adiponectin) and markers of insulin sensitivity, were considered secondary outcomes.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, June 2017, 102(6):1983–1990
doi: 10.1210/jc.2017-00185
Serum carotenoids were measured by reverse-phase highpressure liquid chromatography with photodiode array
detection (Genox Corporation, Baltimore, MD); the mean intraassay coefficients of variation (CVs) were 6.5% for a- and
b-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin; 5.7% for b-cryptoxanthin;
6.4% for lycopene; and 10.0% for retinol. Total adiponectin,
leptin, and insulin were measured by radioimmunoassay (Linco
Research, St. Charles, MO); the intra-assay CVs were 7.1%,
8.0% and 11.6%, respectively. High-molecular-weight adiponectin (HMW-ADI) was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; the intra-assay CV was 4.7% (Millipore,
Billerica, MA). Glucose was measured by the hexokinase
method (GM-7 Analyzer; Analox Instruments, Stourbridge,
UK); the CV was 1.4%. Triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) were measured by an autoanalyzer
(Roche-Hitachi, Basel, Switzerland). Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance-2 (HOMA-2) was calculated by
using the HOMA calculator, version 2.23 (http://www.dtu.ox.
ac.uk/HOMACalculator/).
The percentage change in visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and
subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) were determined by crosssectional multislice MRI (1.5 T; GE Healthcare, Milwaukee,
WI) at baseline and 6 months. Patients were imaged after administration of 1 mg glucagon intramuscularly to slow bowel
motion. Briefly, a two-dimensional respiratory gated Dixon
imaging sequence was used to produce fat-only images, similar
to the method used in a previously described study (17). A series
of five transverse images were acquired from the lumbar region,
beginning at the inferior border of the fifth lumbar vertebra and
proceeding toward the head; slice thickness was 10 mm, with a
2-mm gap between images to prevent crosstalk. Total fat, SAT,
and VAT were segmented by using a semiautomated threshold
and region-drawing methods that subtracted all nonfat tissues,
based on the method of Ross et al. (18). To calculate volumes for
SAT and VAT, the images were loaded into a three-dimensional
processing software (AW workstation, GE Healthcare), and the
segmented fat was measured by using the volume measurement
tool of the software. The intraclass correlation coefficients for
repeat analyses in a previous study were r = 0.98 for both SAT
and VAT (19).
Statistical analysis
The intention-to-treat principle was applied to all participants in the primary analysis. Quantitative variables are presented by using either mean 6 standard error of the mean or, in
1985
the case of substantially skewed distribution, median and
25%–75% interquartile range. Categorical variables are presented by using frequencies and percentages. The Pearson
correlation coefficient analysis was performed to determine the
relationship between baseline carotenoid concentrations and
visceral anthropometric parameters. A two-sample t test was
used to compare the mean percentage changes in b-carotene,
total adiponectin, and HMW-ADI at 6 months between two
groups. In addition, generalized linear models adjusting for
baseline levels, Tanner stage, and BMI z-scores were used to
compare treatment effects of carotenoids, adipokines, and
HOMA-2 estimated marginal means (6 standard error of the
mean) between groups with Bonferroni adjustments. A multiple
regression analysis was performed to evaluate the independent
contribution of age; sex; BMI z-score; and percentage change in
b-carotene, triglycerides, HDL-C, VAT, and SAT to the percentage
change in HMW-ADI at 6 months. All tests were two tailed, and
the level of significance was set at P , 0.05. SPSS software, version
22 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL), was used for analyses.
Results
The clinical and biochemical characteristics of the study
participants by treatment groups are presented in Table 1.
Ninety-six percent of the participants attended eight or
more sessions of the family-based after-school program,
and 85% completed the placebo-controlled MCS
intervention study. Adherence, based on returned pill
counts, was 72% for the placebo group and 80% for the
MCS group (P = 0.522).
The MCS group had higher BMI z-scores (P = 0.036),
WHtR (P = 0.021), and SAT (P = 0.03) than did the placebo group, but the groups did not differ in adipocytokines
or individual carotenoid concentrations (data not shown).
MCS induced a 20.19 6 0.13 change in BMI z-score
(P = 0.024), a 3% 6 2% change in waist circumference
(P = 0.021), and a 0.03 6 0.03 decrease in WHtR (P = 0.039)
at 6 months compared with placebo [Fig. 2(a) and 2(b)].
At baseline, b-carotene was inversely related to BMI
z-score (P = 0.003), WHtR (P = 0.017), VAT (P = 0.023),
and SAT (P = 0.045), but none of the other carotenoids,
such as a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein,
and zeaxanthin, showed any such relationships. Generalized linear models adjusting for baseline values, Tanner
stage, and BMI z-scores for treatment effects revealed
significant increases in a-carotene, b-carotene, lutein, and
zeaxanthin and significant reductions in vitamin A (retinol)
at 6 months in the MCS group compared with the placebo
group (Table 2). HOMA-2 remained stable in the MCS
group but trended higher by 1.28 6 0.7 in the placebo
group (P = 0.084) for between-subject treatment effect
over time [Table 3 and Fig. 2(c)]. At 6 months compared
with baseline, MCS had increased b-carotene by 96% 6
23% (P , 0.001), total adiponectin by 23% 6 8%
(P = 0.092), and HMW-ADI by 79% 6 19% (P = 0.001)
versus placebo [Fig. 2(d)].
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Figure 1. Protocol study flow. PE, physical examination; LSIP,
lifestyle intervention program.
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Canas et al
Table 1.
Carotenoids and Adiposity in Children With Obesity
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, June 2017, 102(6):1983–1990
Baseline Clinical and Biochemical Characteristics of Study Participants by Treatment Group
Characteristic
Placebo (n = 10)
P Value
125 6 4.9
3:7
7:3
32.1 6 1.5
2.42 6 0.08
0.68 6 0.02
302 6 39
2550 6 255
10.9 6 0.01
82 6 2.5
23.0 6 3.1
2.66 6 0.36
89 (69–163)
8.68 6 1.49
4.39 6 0.97
40.5 6 5.7
7.32 6 2.6
126 6 4.7
3:7
6:4
27.1 6 1.6
1.99 6 0.15
0.63 6 0.03
310 6 50
1625 6 280
13.8 6 0.03
80 6 1.8
20.3 6 4.2
2.59 6 0.47
75 (48–105)
7.74 6 1.04
4.38 6 0.98
28.9 6 5.7
4.93 6 1.4
NS
NS
NS
0.036
0.021
NS
NS
0.03
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
All values mean 6 standard error of the mean except where noted.
Abbreviation: NS, not significant.
a
Median (interquartile range, 25%–75%).
Mean percentage change in SAT, adjusted for Tanner
stage and BMI z-score, increased by 4.2% 6 1.8% in the
placebo group but decreased by 4.0% 6 4.1% in the MCS
group (P = 0.023) (Fig. 3). There was also an attenuation of
VAT accrual in the MCS group (0.7% 6 13%) as opposed
to an increase in the placebo group (13.5% 6 19%) at
6 months; however, because of the large intrasubject variation, this was not statistically significant (Fig. 3). At
6 months, the percentage change in SAT was highly correlated to the percentage change in b-carotene (P = 0.004) but
not to the percentage change in VAT (P = 0.549). In contrast,
MCS induced an 18% drop in retinol at 6 months as opposed to an 8% increase in the placebo group (P = 0.03).
There were no significant treatment effects in triglycerides or HDL-C in the study participants. In the MCS
group, participants reached an average b-carotene level
of 20.9 6 1.9 mg/dL as compared with 12.0 6 1.6 mg/dL
in the placebo group (P = 0.007). b-Carotene showed a
modest positive correlation with total adiponectin at
baseline when adjusted for sex (P = 0.077). With use of age;
sex; BMI z-score; and percentage change in b-carotene,
triglycerides, HDL-C, VAT, and SAT in stepwise multiple
linear regression analysis, we determined that the percentage change in b-carotene, triglycerides, and SAT at
6 months explained 67.8% of the variance in HMW-ADI
at 6 months (P = 0.002) without violating colinearity.
Discussion
The current placebo-controlled intervention study has
several findings. These include reduction in BMI z-scores
and WHtR; attenuation of VAT accrual; and increase in
the circulating concentrations of HMW-ADI, ratio of
HMW-ADI to total adiponectin, and carotenoids compared with 6 months of MCS intervention. Similar
changes were not seen in the placebo group. We also observed a unique positive association between b-carotene
and total adiponectin at baseline and negative association
between b-carotene and measures of abdominal adiposity,
such as waist circumference, WHtR, and MRI-quantified
SAT and VAT after adjustment for sex in children with
obesity. In addition, following supplementation the percentage change in b-carotene correlated significantly only
with the percentage change in SAT and not with the
percentage change in VAT.
Accumulating evidence in animal models link adipose
tissue b-carotene and its conversion products retinaldehyde and at-RA but not vitamin A (retinol) as
modulators of the retinoic acid receptor, the retinoid X
receptor, and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in the control of thermogenic signaling
and the fat storage capacity of both mature white and
brown adipocytes (6, 20). These ligand-activated nuclear
transcription factors are required to maintain the expression of genes that confer the hypertrophic characteristics of mature adipocytes (21), and they play a role in
mediating high-fat diet–induced insulin resistance (22).
b-Carotene reduces PPARg activity in mature adipocytes in
vitro, resulting in fat mobilization and fat browning of
mature white adipocytes (21). Interestingly, mature mouse
adipocytes in culture rely mainly on b-carotene by the
action of retinaldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes (RALDHs/
ALDH1A) for the synthesis of retinaldehyde and at-RA
and its nuclear receptor signaling, as supplementation with
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Age, mo
Sex (male:female), n
Tanner stage ratio (I–II:III–V), n
BMI (kg/m2)
BMI z-score
WHtR
VAT per MRI, g
SAT per MRI, g
b-carotene, mg/dL
Glucose, mg/dL
Insulin, mIU/mL
HOMA-2
Triglycerides, mg/dLa
Total adiponectin, mg/dL
HMW -ADI, mg/dL
Leptin, mg/L
Leptin/adiponectin ratio
MCS (n = 10)
doi: 10.1210/jc.2017-00185
retinol leads only to the production of retinyl esters and
cannot substitute for b-carotene to induce at-RA production (23).
In a previous study, we showed that supplementation
with an encapsulated fruit and vegetable juice concentrate,
1987
predominantly consisting of a mixture of carotenoids and
phytonutrients, increased serum b-carotene but not retinol
and reduced adiposity, with improvements in insulin resistance in overweight boys (7). The 96% increase in
b-carotene as compared with the 18% decrease in retinol in
the current study is remarkable because b-carotene is
considered a major provitamin A carotenoid. The unique
inverse relationship between measures of abdominal adiposity and b-carotene and the enhancement of b-carotene
along with an attenuation of SAT accrual are important
findings and may indicate a putative role for b-carotene in
the regulation of adipose tissue biology in children with
obesity. A previous longitudinal adult study in 2672
women over a 12-year period also showed a strong inverse association between waist circumference and serum
b-carotene, similar to our study (24). In another study the
concentration of b-carotene in subcutaneous adipocytes
from obese and nonobese participants with diabetes was
about 50% lower than in the controls (25). The metabolic
implications of these results remain less clear.
High-fat diets induce the expression of the retinaldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme ALDH1A1, responsible for increased retinoic acid receptor ligands
(retinaldehyde and at-RA) and reduced adiponectin expression selectively in white adipose tissue (26). Adiponectin is an adipose-specific but atypical adipokine, with
well-established insulin-sensitizing, anti-inflammatory,
and antiatherogenic effects (27, 28). It is paradoxically
downregulated in obesity, insulin resistance, and type 2
diabetes, suggesting that its deficiency may be permissive
to accelerate these processes. Hypertrophied adipocytes
from obese participants produce less adiponectin, leading
to a decrease in fatty acid oxidation in liver, cardiac, and
skeletal muscle and subsequently inducing a decrease in
insulin sensitivity (29). In a previous report among 1042
Chinese participants who were assessed for features of
metabolic syndrome, at-RA was positively associated
with adiponectin and inversely associated with components of metabolic syndrome, including central obesity,
hypertriglyceridemia, reduced HDL-C, and hyperglycemia (30). Adiponectin exists in a wide variety of multimer
complexes—from low-molecular-weight trimers, to
middle-molecular-weight hexamers, to high-molecularweight multimers (31). The high-molecular-weight form
is physiologically the most active form (32) and may
have better predictive power for insulin resistance and
metabolic syndrome (29). Similar to our study, in 437
Japanese adult participants, both men and women, who
attended a health examination, serum b-carotene was
positively associated with serum HMW-ADI concentrations in both sexes, even after adjustment for possible confounding factors, including inflammatory
markers (33). Exposure to b-carotene from days 4 to 8 of
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Figure 2. Mean treatment effects between MCS and placebo
groups. (a) BMI z-score. (b) WHtR. (c) HOMA-IR. (d) Percentage
change in HMW-ADI. BL, baseline.
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Canas et al
Carotenoids and Adiposity in Children With Obesity
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, June 2017, 102(6):1983–1990
Table 2. Pairwise Comparisons for Mean Treatment Effects of Carotenoid Concentrations Over Time Between
MCS and Placebo Groups
MCS (n = 8)
Carotenoid
0.041
0.127
0.070
0.185
0.094
0.040
0.351
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
3 wk
0.013
0.024
0.015
0.049
0.012
0.005
0.039
0.137
0.221
0.062
0.262
0.423
0.122
0.274
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6 mo
0.019
0.025
0.011
0.025
0.052
0.009
0.016
0.111
0.224
0.093
0.239
0.280
0.099
0.281
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0 mo
0.015
0.024
0.029
0.045
0.055
0.016
0.023
0.030
0.116
0.057
0.194
0.083
0.032
0.365
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.012
0.019
0.014
0.046
0.011
0.005
0.036
3 wk
0.037
0.127
0.048
0.186
0.078
0.030
0.346
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.018
0.024
0.010
0.024
0.049
0.008
0.015
6 mo
0.020
0.107
0.061
0.227
0.089
0.034
0.373
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Mean
Difference
P Valuea
0.014 1.018 6 0.144 ,0.001b
0.023 0.288 6 0.049 ,0.001b
0.027 0.129 6 0.118
0.297b
0.035 0.101 6 0.072
0.185
0.051 0.242 6 0.052
0.001
0.015 0.070 6 0.010 ,0.001
0.022 -0.076 6 0.015 ,0.001
All values presented as estimated marginal means 6 standard error of the mean (mg/mL) adjusted for baseline levels, Tanner stage, and BMI z-score.
a
Bonferroni adjusted P value for treatment effects between MCS vs placebo.
b
Log-transformed values.
differentiation also induces adiponectin expression in
3T3-L1 adipocytes (34).
Several studies have reported that improving insulin
resistance and reducing insulin levels with insulinsensitizing agents, such as PPARg agonists, and/or increased physical activity markedly increased adiponectin
concentrations, even after adjustment for changes in body
weight (35, 36). Little is known, however, about the
association between dietary plant-derived micronutrients
and plasma adiponectin concentrations in humans (37).
Esposito et al. found in a randomized controlled trial
that a Mediterranean-style diet and increased physical
activity, aimed at reducing body weight, significantly
decreased BMI and concomitantly increased plasma
adiponectin concentrations in postmenopausal obese
women (38). Ben-Amara et al. described a positive
association between concentrations of b-carotene
and adiponectin in plasma, independently of sex, age,
smoking status, BMI, and waist circumference (39).
Yoshida et al. reported that 12-week administration of
astaxanthin, a xanthophyll carotenoid pigment found in
marine animals, at doses of 12 to 18 mg/dL, significantly
increased serum adiponectin levels by 26% in adults with
mild hyperlipidemia (40). The combination of carotenoids
in our preparation had a much lower dose of astaxanthin,
with similar adiponectin effects, suggesting synergy in
MCS supplementation. Interestingly, the percentage
change in b-carotene, triglycerides, and SAT at 6 months
explained almost 68% of the variance in HMW-ADI at
6 months in our study. Overall, the substantial increase in
the concentration of HMW-ADI and carotenoids with the
MCS, the stabilization of HOMA-IR, and the unique
relationship between HMW-ADI and b-carotene in our
study suggest the potential ability of carotenoids, predominantly b-carotene, to beneficially temper the metabolic derangements related to obesity in children.
The lack of a control group, the relatively small sample
size of our cohort, and the unequal BMI z-score distribution among the groups at baseline are important
limitations of this study. The strengths of this study, on
the other hand, include the randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled nature of the intervention; the measurement of various serum carotenoids along with total
and HMW-ADI; and the serial quantitative imaging
(MRI) to accurately assess changes in visceral adiposity
accrual. Of note, adherence, as assessed by returned pill
counts, did not differ significantly between groups.
Furthermore, no serious adverse events were reported
Table 3. Pairwise Comparisons for Mean Treatment Effects for HOMA-2 and Adipokine Concentrations
Between MCS and Placebo Groups
MCS (n = 8)
Variable
HOMA-2
Total adiponectin, mg/dL
HMW-ADI
HMW/total adiponectin
ratio
Leptin, mg/L
Leptin/adiponectin ratio
Placebo (n = 9)
6 mo
Mean
Difference P Valuea
0 mo
3 wk
6 mo
0 mo
3 wk
2.60 6 0.4
8.79 6 0.9
4.65 6 0.8
0.49 6 0.09
2.26 6 0.5
7.38 6 0.9
4.20 6 0.9
0.53 6 0.09
2.34 6 0.8
10.36 6 0.9
7.53 6 1.1
0.67 6 0.08
2.77 6 0.4
6.26 6 0.8
3.35 6 0.7
0.46 6 0.08
3.86 6 0.5
6.44 6 0.9
3.04 6 0.8
0.41 6 0.09
3.40 6 0.7 21.28 6 0.7
6.50 6 0.8 2.73 6 0.9
2.86 6 1.1 1.63 6 0.7
0.37 6 0.07 0.18 6 0.06
0.084
0.611
0.037
0.005
36.6 6 5.5
6.2 6 2.1
27.0 6 7.2
5.9 6 2.4
34.6 6 6.8
5.3 6 2.0
34.8 6 5.2
7.2 6 2.0
33.7 6 6.7
6.4 6 2.2
30.3 6 6.4 23.13 6 5.7
5.8 6 1.9 0.467 6 0.6
0.590
0.476
All values presented as mean 6 standard error of the mean and adjusted for baseline values, Tanner stage, and BMI z-score.
a
Bonferroni adjusted P value for between-subject treatment effects.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/102/6/1983/3067657 by guest on 13 June 2020
a-Carotene
b-Carotene
b-Cryptoxanthin
Lycopene
Lutein
Zeaxanthin
Retinol
0 mo
Placebo (n = 9)
doi: 10.1210/jc.2017-00185
https://academic.oup.com/jcem
1989
Diabetes, Nemours Children’s Specialty Care, 807 Children’s
Way, Jacksonville, Florida 32207. E-mail: jose.canas@
nemours.org.
Clinical trial registry: NCT02060279 (registered 16
April 2013).
This study was funded by The Players Center for Child
Health at Wolfson Children’s Hospital.
Disclosure Summary: The authors have nothing to disclose.
Figure 3. Mean percentage change in SAT and VAT by MRI after
6 months of mixed carotenoid (MC) versus placebo adjusted for
Tanner stage and BMI z-score.
throughout the study, although one child reported carotenodermia during the study, which resolved with reassurance. Obviously, future studies in larger populations
and accounting further for various confounders are
needed to validate the results of our study. The complex
nature of the supplement preclude us from assigning
causality of b-carotene per se as being responsible for the
beneficial changes in adiposity and increase in total and
HMW-ADI. However, the unique relationship between
b-carotene and abdominal adiposity found in the current
study is remarkable. Future studies with individual carotenoids, such as b-carotene alone, to target specific
therapeutic serum levels are needed to validate the
findings from the current study.
Conclusion
The data from the current study on the increase in serum
b-carotene, HMW-ADI, and the concomitant decrease in
the accrual of abdominal SAT in response to mixed carotenoid supplementation in children with obesity suggest a
putative beneficial role of b-carotene in the prevention and/
or management of obesity and related comorbidities.
Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Shawn Sweeten and Karl Mann for laboratory
analysis and Tina M. Ewen, MA, Robbin Seago, MA, Amy
Milkes, MA, Alex Taylor, MA, Lindsay Fuzzell, MA, for research
assistance. We are also deeply grateful to our study participants
and their families for their interest, enthusiasm, and dedication in
these studies.
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to:
J. Atilio Canas, MD, Pediatric Endocrinology, Metabolism and
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