Bibliographic Essay Leadership Ethics: An Emerging Academic Discipline By Michael Sontag, Paul Jenkins, and Ronald F. White ublic outrage over the recent epidemic of inefective, illegal, and immoral leadership in business, politics, sports, and religion has led to a growing interest in leadership ethics. In response, a whole new academic discipline has taken shape as many colleges and universities now purport to ofer academic training in leadership ethics. Although a growing number of scholars now teach, research, and attend conferences on leadership ethics, questions remain concerning this emerging discipline. What is leadership ethics? Who are the relevant researchers? What are the important books, journals, and scholarly organizations? What content is appropriate for a course, module, or program in leadership ethics? his essay evaluates P materials that might be useful for faculty in advancing their own knowledge of leadership ethics or in teaching leadership ethics to undergraduates and that can serve as a valuable resource for academic libraries serving students and faculty with interests in leadership ethics. usually of little academic value. here are, however, many useful, well-researched, and highly readable popular works produced by top-notch journalists. Separating the wheat from the chaf in leadership ethics is no simple matter. New scholars interested in leadership ethics will encounter an enormous body of largely nonacademic material, much of which is produced by business professionals for other business professionals. hese works most often are personal testimonials based on nonscientiic anecdotal evidence. Although these materials might be inspirational or entertaining, they are The Challenge of Leadership Ethics Michael Sontag (michael_sontag@mail.msj.edu) is an assistant professor of philosophy, Paul Jenkins (paul_jenkins@mail.msj.edu) director of library services, and Ronald F. White (ron_white@mail. msj.edu) professor of philosophy, all at the College of Mount St. Joseph. October 2011 Leadership ethics has developed as a multidisciplinary ield, with courses and research being generated by professors of business, philosophy, religious studies, communications, and more. Consequently, peer-reviewed academic literature on leadership ethics has been developed within a mélange of diferent disciplines: the social sciences (history, psychology, sociology, political science, anthropology, and economics); the biological sciences CHOICE (evolutionary psychology, in particular); philosophy (ethics, in particular business and professional ethics); and religious studies (especially those working within the Judeo-Christian tradition). his has left much interdisciplinary bridgework to be done; although the interdisciplinary nature of leadership ethics has been widely embraced, there is still no clear consensus on which disciplines ought to be included within leadership studies. In 2001, James MacGregor Burns, a pioneer in leadership studies, assembled a distinguished group of scholars to formulate a multidisciplinary “integrative theory of leadership” that could “provide people studying or practicing leadership with a general guide or orientation—a set of principles that are universal, which can then be applied to diferent situations.” Burns hoped that such a project would “legitimize a ield that some skeptics still dismiss as lightweight and ill-deined.” Although these scholars failed to produce the hopedfor general theory, they did produce an important book. he Quest for a General heory of Leadership, edited by George Goethals and Georgia Sorenson, documents the eforts of these twenty-ive scholars and ofers insight into the various obstacles they faced in attempting to develop that general theory. hat quest is ongoing. Given the multidisciplinary nature of the academic study of both leadership and leadership ethics, and the dearth of interdisciplinary bridgework, this bibliographical essay will be broadly based. he cost of breadth is often depth. Many good titles within this ponderous genre have been omitted in the hope of expanding its 1 base. his essay will explore leadership ethics as it is being developed by four academic disciplines: the social sciences, the biological sciences, philosophy, and religion. Following a discussion of these main disciplines, the essay will conclude with a section on contemporary issues and another on related academic resources including textbooks, reference materials, scholarly journals, and Web sites. Ethical Leadership and the Social Sciences Throughout the twentieth century, the scientiic basis for leadership studies and leadership ethics remained elusive, as social scientists defended a variety of reinements to the most venerable of approaches to leadership: the “Great Man heory of Leadership.” he Great Man heory, irst articulated by Plato in he Republic, was (and is) generally rooted in laudatory biographical accounts of “heroic” political, military, and business leaders. Various theories of leadership emerged in the twentieth century as writers debated various tenets of Great Man heory. Key tenets included the notion that leaders are “born, not made,” that leaders are (almost) always men, that leaders are objectively diferent from followers, that followers are passive in the leadership process, that leadership is a matter of performing “heroic” acts, and that leaders are necessarily members of the species homo sapiens. In debating the assumptions of Great Man heory, twentieth-century social scientists arrived at a wide variety of leadership theories. Some of the most important are trait theory; behavioral theory; charismatic theory; transactional and transformational theories; authentic, charismatic, and emotive leadership theories; and contextual theories. Trait and Behavioral Leadership Theories Ralph Stogdill’s 1974 HANDBOOK OF Leadership: A Survey of heory and Research was the most inluential body of work on trait theory, the idea that the possession of essential skills and psychological traits diferentiated leaders from followers. 2 Stogdill, however, concluded that leaders are not all that diferent from followers. Even traits such as intelligence and initiative were only weakly correlated with successful leadership. Stogdill’s Handbook is now available in an updated third edition as Bernard Bass’s Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: heory, Research, and Managerial Applications. Lack of empirical support for trait theory and confusion over conlicting sets of “essential traits” led leadership theorists to look for a more strictly scientiic approach to the study of leadership. Behavioral theorists sought to make leadership studies more scientiic by focusing on the observable external behaviors of leaders, rather than looking for vague internal psychological traits. Behavioral theory called into question Great Man heory’s “born, not made” assumption, opening the door to the establishment of academic and entrepreneurial programs designed to teach leadership. Two relevant works by celebrated behaviorist B. F. Skinner have been largely overlooked by leadership scholars: Beyond Freedom and Dignity, a behaviorist critique of traditional moral concepts such as rights and freedom; and Walden Two (1948), a novel depicting a ictitious commune founded on behaviorist principles of leadership. In he Human Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor argued that leadership behaviors were closely tied to the leader’s basic beliefs about human nature: speciically, whether the leader believed that people dislike work and must be coerced to work, or that people like work and lourish when given the opportunity to direct themselves. Robert Blake and Jane Srygley Mouton’s he Managerial Grid identiied two dimensions of learned leadership behavior: “consideration behavior” (concern for persons) and “initiation structure” (concern for tasks). In much the same way that trait theorists struggled to identify essential leadership traits, behavioral theorists struggled to identify essential leadership behaviors. Some scholars objected to the implied biological determinism of trait theory; others objected to the social determinism of behavioral theory. A new focus on the ethics of leadership emerged in the form of transactional and transformational theories of leadership. CHOICE Transactional and Transformational Theories James MacGregor Burns brought ethics to the fore in leadership studies by claiming that leaders must choose ethics over efectiveness and altruism over self-interest. In his seminal work, Leadership, Burns diferentiated between transactional leaders (managers) who lead by using rewards and punishments, and transformational leaders who lead by inspiring, cajoling, or convincing followers to become leaders themselves by setting their sights on altruistic goals and purposes. For Burns’s most recent thinking on leadership ethics, see his Transforming Leadership: A New Pursuit of Happiness. Burns and his followers assumed that incompetent, immoral, self-serving leaders are not “real leaders” at all. More recent theorists have described what philosopher Joanne Ciulla calls the “Hitler problem.” If Hitler was not a “real leader,” then what was he? Making sense of efective but immoral leadership, and moral but inefective leadership, is the sort of conceptual work carried out by Joanne Ciulla and other contributors to her collection of essays, Ethics: he Heart of Leadership. Charismatic and Emotive Leadership Theories Bernard Bass and Ronald Riggio develop a notion of altruistic, “authentic” leadership in their 2005 work titled Transformational Leadership. Bass’s Leadership and Performance beyond Expectations rekindled the role of charisma in leadership—a idea long popular with religious scholars that recognized that some leaders have an uncanny ability to inspire followership. Areas of inquiry related to charisma, though, have been largely subsumed by those developing ideas about emotional intelligence. Emotion theory developed as a ield in the 1990s, largely in response to emotion-related indings in the neurosciences. Peter Salovey October 2011 and John Mayer deserve credit for coining the term “emotional intelligence,” and for developing the irst systematic framework for thinking about it, in their 1990 essay “Emotional Intelligence,” which appeared in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality. New York Times science writer Daniel Goleman, though, brought the idea to the general public with Emotional Intelligence. Goleman, along with Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee, wrote Primal Leadership: Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence as a popular account of the role of emotional intelligence in leadership practice. Research Companion to Emotion in Organizations, edited by Neal Ashkanasy and Cary Cooper, and Afect and Emotion, edited by Ronald Humphrey, are two ine collections of scholarly essays exploring the role of emotion in leadership practice. Emotional Dimensions of Educational Administration and Leadership, edited by Eugenie Samier and Michèle Schmidt, will be of value to those with a particular interest in the role of the emotions in leadership within academic contexts. More appropriate for those interested in primary or secondary education is Megan Crawford’s Getting to the Heart of Leadership. Criticisms of the notion of emotional intelligence can be found in Emotional Intelligence: Science and Myth, by Gerald Matthews, Moshe Zeidner, and Richard Roberts. hese authors also edited he Science of Emotional Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns, which ofers an overview of recent scholarly eforts at reining the notion of emotional intelligence. he recent, and still current, focus on emotional intelligence has allowed psychologists, neuroscientists, and philosophers to bring their methods and perspectives to bear on leadership theory and its ethical implications. Contingency Theory and Complexity Theory As early as 1967, contingency theorist Fred Fiedler challenged the idea that there exists a single set of leadership traits or behaviors that distinguish leaders from followers. In A heory of Leadership Efectiveness, Fiedler argues that “proper” October 2011 leadership ought to be thought of as highly variable and relative to organizational environments. his more “chaotic” perspective on leadership has been developed under the heading of “complex leadership theory.” Margaret Wheatley’s Leadership and the New Science: Discovering Order in a Chaotic World, now in its second edition (originally published in 1992 with the subtitle “Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe”) is an early example. ISCE Publishing has produced a threevolume set of essays in their “Exploring Organizational Complexity Series.” For an excellent introduction to complex leadership theory, see volume 1, Complex Systems Leadership heory: New Perspectives from Complexity Science on Social and Organizational Efectiveness, edited by James Hazy, Jefrey Goldstein, and Benyamin Lichtenstein. Volume 3, Complexity Science and Social Entrepreneurship: Adding Social Value through Systems hinking, edited by Jefrey Goldstein, James Hazy, and Joyce Silberstang, develops an approach to leadership as a “social entrepreneurship” that leads to the emergence of more eicient social organizations. Moral Psychology and the Ethics of Leadership Social scientists have also explored the mental mechanisms underlying ethical decision making by both leaders and followers. Stanley Milgram demonstrated the ease with which followers can be inluenced by authority igures to inlict harm on others in Obedience to Authority, published in 1974. Arthur Miller documents Milgram’s sometimescontroversial research in he Obedience Experiments: A Case Study of Controversy in Social Science. Several excellent collections ofer solid overviews: Moral Psychology: Historical and Contemporary Readings, edited by homas Nadelhofer, Eddy Nahmias, and Shaun Nichols; he Moral Psychology Handbook, edited by John Doris, the Moral Psychology Research Group, et al.; and the three-volume Moral Psychology, edited by Walter Sinnot-Armstrong. Two recent works by prominent social psychologists have added to our scientiic CHOICE understanding of how leaders can enhance their own decision making and that of their followers. In Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness, Richard haler and Cass Sunstein suggest that our everyday evolutionarily based mental mechanisms lead us to suboptimal outcomes, but that good leaders efectively redesign the “choice architecture” that shapes the decision making of their followers. In he Ethical Executive, Robert Hoyk and Paul Hersey identify forty-ive psychological “traps,” such as obedience to authority, that cause unethical behavior in both leaders and followers. Leadership and the Biological Sciences In the 1960s, ethologists began to challenge the anthropocentric assumptions of the Great Man leadership theory. Konrad Lorentz’s On Aggression argued that human social behaviors cannot be properly understood without reference to the social behaviors of nonhuman animals. Jane Goodall’s In the Shadow of Man documented the importance of coalitions in chimpanzee leadership and social behavior. Franz DeWaal portrays these behaviors in a positive light in Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes, and in Good Natured: he Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson portray chimpanzee social behavior in a less positive light in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence. In Darwin, Dominance and Democracy, Albert Somit and Steven Peterson develop evolutionary explanations for our natural tendencies toward authoritarian governance. Peter Corning highlights our evolved sense of fairness (equality, equity, reciprocity) as the foundation for good governance in he Fair Society: he Science of Human Nature and the Pursuit of Social Justice. Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja ofer a ine introduction to the evolutionary psychology of leadership in Naturally Selected: he Evolutionary Science of Leadership. For a highly readable, state-of-the-art discussion of the philosophical problems raised by evolutionary ethics, see Scott James’s An Introduction to Evolutionary Ethics. 3 Leadership and Philosophy he empirical methods of the social, biological, and behavioral sciences generate knowledge regarding the descriptive dimensions of leadership studies. he ethical, prescriptive, and normative dimension of leadership studies makes philosophy an essential partner in making sense of good leadership. One of the jurisdictional puzzles raised by leadership ethics is its relationship with other normative disciplines such as applied ethics, professional ethics, and business ethics. Nevertheless, philosophical perspectives on leadership have largely clustered around traditional philosophical perspectives on ethics: virtue-based theories (Aristotle and Plato), deontological theories (Immanuel Kant and John Rawls), and teleological theories (John Stuart Mill and Machiavelli). Virtue-based Leadership Theories Virtue theory is the oldest of the philosophical perspectives on ethics, having been outlined in Plato’s Republic and developed into a full-blown account of the human good in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. Robert Solomon develops a virtuebased approach to leadership in Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business. Focusing primarily on business contexts, Solomon criticizes the usual metaphors of business as a battle, a game, or a jungle, and rather recommends an emphasis on virtues such as honesty, fairness, trust, and toughness as the real keys to efective business and leadership practice. Solomon’s A Better Way to hink about Business: How Personal Integrity Leads to Corporate Success ofers a brief and very readable account of his virtue-based approach. Tom Morris’s less scholarly but extremely popular If Aristotle Ran General Motors recommends truth, beauty, goodness, and unity as the foundations for human excellence and as important organizing principles in the workplace. Another popular work, Gene Klann’s Building 4 Character: Strengthening the Heart of Good Leadership, presents virtues such as courage, caring, optimism, and self-control as essential leadership virtues. While not scholarly, these works from Morris and Klann are well suited for business professionals and other general readers. Sherwin Klein’s Ethical Business Leadership represents a more scholarly approach. Klein argues that an Aristotelian, virtue-based approach provides a middle ground between the ruthlessly practical realism of some approaches to leadership and the rootless, impractical idealism of other approaches to leadership ethics. Some works make partial use of a virtueoriented approach, or provide some distinctive angle on a virtue-based approach. In Questions of Character: Illuminating the Heart of Leadership through Literature, Joseph Badaracco Jr. encourages the use of iction as a means of relecting on positive leadership values. In Just a Job?: Communication, Ethics, and Professional Life, George Cheney et al. examine the details of our everyday discourse related to work, ethics, and life. An Aristotelian framework is recommended as a healthier alternative to our habitual ways of speaking and thinking. Speciically American virtues become the focus for some authors. In American Virtues: homas Jeferson on the Character of a Free People, Jean Yarbrough provides an account of the virtues Jeferson believed to be essential for efective self-government. Crispin Sartwell’s Extreme Virtue: Truth and Leadership in Five Great American Lives explores the virtues of ive more controversial Americans, from Malcolm X to Barry Goldwater. Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman develop an empirically grounded framework of virtues in their Character Strengths and Virtues. While virtues are traditionally considered to be traits possessed by individuals, some authors tend toward attributing virtues to organizations themselves. Two ine scholarly collections that share this tendency are Leading with Values: Positivity, Virtue, and High Performance, edited by Edward Hess and Kim Cameron, and he Virtuous Organization: Insights from Some of the World’s Leading Management hinkers, edited by Charles Manz et al. More appropriate for general readers is William O’Brien’s CHOICE Character at Work: Building Prosperity through the Practice of Virtue. Deontological Leadership Theories Deontological theories are associated with rights and duties, moral absolutes, or rules that admit no exceptions. For example, it is always wrong to lie. In Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant developed the most notable of the deontological ethical theories. In his monumental A heory of Justice, John Rawls developed a deontological (and Kantian) account of a minimum set of moral standards necessary for a just society. Deontological thinking about leadership is most commonly associated with business ethics, a discipline that requires constant attention to the rights and duties of a long list of stakeholders, including stockholders, employees, consumers, inanciers, suppliers, and local communities. In Capitalism and Freedom, Milton Friedman argued that corporate leaders are duty bound to serve the inancial and moral interests of their stockholders, not their own or those of other stakeholders. R. Edward Freemen’s Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach and Robert Phillips’s Stakeholder heory and Organizational Ethics develop Kantian perspectives that insist on the recognition of all stakeholders, not just stockholders. For a useful collection of classic and recent essays on stakeholder management and leadership, see Stakeholder heory: Essential Readings in Ethical Leadership and Management, edited by Abe Zakhem, Daniel Palmer, and Mary Lyn Stoll. he Blackwell Guide to Business Ethics, edited by Norman Bowie, and the excellent Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, edited by George Brenkert and Tom Beauchamp, are valuable references on the ethics of leadership within business contexts. A noteworthy collection on the problem of conlict of interest, from the standpoint of professional ethics, is Conlict of Interest in the Professions, edited by Michael Davis and Andrew Stark. Honest Work: A Business Ethics Reader, edited by Joanne Ciulla, Clancy Martin, and Robert Solomon, October 2011 comprises 103 articles and eighty cases that focus on the sorts of moral decisions that students will be likely to encounter in their working lives. Teleological Leadership Theories Teleological ethical theories focus attention on the consequences of actions, especially in terms of their consequences for happiness. Egoist theories maintain that the moral good is nothing but the happiness of the decision maker. Classic sources for the egoist tradition include Adam Smith’s he Wealth of Nations, Jeremy Bentham’s Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, and Ayn Rand’s he Virtue of Selishness: A New Concept of Egoism. Altruistic theories, such as utilitarianism, encourage consideration of the happiness of all. John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism is regarded as the classic statement, but the utilitarian perspective of Niccolo Machiavelli, presented in he Prince, has had the greater impact on leadership ethics. Machiavelli and other “political realists” claim that traditional virtues and moral rules are out of place in discussions of leadership: in leadership, an “ends justify the means” mind-set is the only way to ensure the best consequences for all. Antony Jay gleans leadership lessons from Machiavelli in Management and Machiavelli: Discovering a New Science of Management in the Timeless Principles of Statecraft. Michael Ledeen analyzes particular contemporary leaders and develops a Machiavellian perspective on contemporary leadership in Machiavelli on Modern Leadership. Many leadership scholars have investigated the “dirty hands problem” or the Machiavellian observation that leaders must sometimes “enter into evil” to advance the greater good. John Parrish ofers an excellent historical overview of thinking about the dirty hands problem in Paradoxes of Political Ethics. Stephen De Wijze attempts to reconcile Machiavellian thinking with more traditionally idealistic virtue and rights-based moral thinking in Political Morality: he Virtue of Dirty Hands. Robert Kaplan’s Warrior Politics: Why Leadership October 2011 Demands a Pagan Ethos and Ben-Ami Scharfstein’s Amoral Politics: he Persistent Truth of Machiavellism ofer arguments against idealistic moral thinking about leadership and encourage focus on a gutsier realpolitik. Michael Jinkins and Deborah Bradshaw Jinkins bring a Machiavellian perspective to the nonproit world in he Character of Leadership. Finally, there are many critics of traditional moral theories. For a concise discussion of three problem areas, see James Sterba’s hree Challenges to Ethics: Environmentalism, Feminism, and Multiculturalism. Leadership and Religious Studies Scholars working from religious perspectives have long explored leadership in the forms of biographies of great religious leaders or “great man”-style accounts of the traits shared by these great leaders. Chris Lowney, for example, examines the leadership practices of early Jesuits in his very readable Heroic Leadership: Best Practices from a 450-Year-Old Company hat Changed the World. Walter Earl Fluker’s Ethical Leadership: he Quest for Character, Civility, and Community combines a virtue-based and a historical approach to leadership ethics through an exploration of great leaders in the Black Church tradition. Alexandre Havard’s excellent Virtuous Leadership: An Agenda for Personal Excellence explores a classic virtue-based approach to leadership ethics within an explicitly Christian perspective. In recent decades, servant leadership has become the most inluential religious perspective on leadership. he servant leader is not motivated by a desire for power or money; rather, the servant leader is motivated by a desire to serve others. Servant leaders focus on enabling others to grow and on caring for the physical, inancial, and human resources of the organizations they lead. Servant leadership is an inspiring and very popular line of thought regarding leadership ethics. At the same time, servant leadership does not lend itself particularly well to scholarly treatment. he better works are those which draw from historical, philosophical, social CHOICE scientiic, or religious perspectives. Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness comprises the essays in which Robert Greenleaf introduced the notion of servant leadership in the 1970s. he widespread impact of Greenleaf ’s work makes it essential reading in leadership studies. Greenleaf ’s ideas are grounded in a Christian perspective that is only occasionally made explicit in his essays. Some of those following up on Greenleaf ’s ideas bring the Christian perspective very much to the fore: books such as Ken Blanchard and Phil Hodges’s Lead like Jesus: Lessons from the Greatest Leadership Role Model of All Time or Bill Robinson’s Incarnate Leadership: 5 Leadership Lessons from the Life of Jesus could be inspirational for business professionals but ofer little to scholars. Efrain Agosto’s Servant Leadership: Jesus and Paul, however, raises itself to the level of rigorous scholarly work through its careful examination of scripture and detailed analyses of the leadership practices of Jesus and Paul through the lens of servant leadership principles. Many books in the servant leadership literature either minimize, or eliminate entirely, any grounding in a Christian perspective. James Sipe and Don Frick’s Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership and James Autry’s he Servant Leader: How to Build a Creative Team, Develop Great Morale, and Improve Bottom-Line Performance are inspirational works for business professionals that minimize any religious foundations. Fons Trompenaars and Ed Voerman’s Servant-Leadership across Cultures explores cross-cultural perspectives on servant leadership principles and is suitable for both scholars and business professionals. Other works in servant leadership distinguish themselves through their focus on particular disciplines. Examples include Rocky Wallace’s he Servant Leader and High School Change and Mary Elizabeth O’Brien’s Servant Leadership in Nursing: Spirituality and Practice in Contemporary Health Care. Few books on leadership ethics are rooted in non-Christian religious perspectives. William heodore De Bary’s Nobility and Civility: Asian Ideals of Leadership and the Common Good, though, explores the inluence of religious thought on leadership 5 ideals in China, India, and Japan. Jewish perspectives on leadership are presented in Hal Lewis’s From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership and Erica Brown’s Inspired Jewish Leadership: Practical Approaches to Building Strong Communities. An Islamic approach to leadership can be found in Leadership: An Islamic Perspective by Raik Issa Beekun and Jamal Badawi. An excellent collection of essays exploring the relationships among philosophical, religious, and scientiic approaches to ethics is Evolution and Ethics: Human Morality in Biological and Religious Perspective, edited by Philip Clayton and Jefrey Schloss. Contemporary Issues in Leadership Ethics Since the end of the twentieth century, several new lines of research have emerged within the study of leadership ethics: leadership failure, followership, genderbased leadership, and global leadership. he formal study of leadership ethics was handicapped by the fact that early scholars assumed that all leaders are both efective and ethical by deinition, and that inefective and/or unethical leaders are not real leaders. While most of the scholarly works on leadership ethics emphasize traits and behaviors associated with efective, ethical leadership, a growing body of literature explores the traits and behaviors associated with inefective and unethical leadership. In Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It Happens, Why It Matters, Barbara Kellerman explores two types of leadership failure: failure to achieve organizational goals and failure to achieve organizational goals ethically. Understanding Ethical Failures in Leadership by Terry Price argues that ethical failures are usually a matter of well-intentioned leaders acting on the basis of false information or misaligned values. In Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership, Craig Johnson acknowledges that leaders often ind themselves working in moral gray areas but encourages leaders to adopt fundamental moral principles such as seeking to beneit rather than 6 damage others. Morgan McCall and Michael Lombardo explain how leadership failures result from the neglect of particular leadership skills in Of the Track: Why and How Successful Executives Get Derailed. Other writers approach leadership failure from a historical or journalistic perspective. In King of the Mountain: he Nature of Political Leadership, Arnold Ludwig explores the lives and careers of 1,941 twentiethcentury political leaders and details the patterns (or lack thereof ) in the traits and behaviors of those leaders. Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja go a step further in Naturally Selected: he Evolutionary Science of Leadership. hey argue that most leadership failure is caused by a “mismatch” between biological instincts and the leadership demands of contemporary life. Many popular books explore speciic historical examples of bad and/or immoral leadership. For example, Robert Bryce’s Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron and Bethany McLean’s he Smartest Guys in the Room: he Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron chronicle the most spectacular of the early-twenty-irst-century corporate collapses. Similarly, Enron: he Smartest Guys in the Room is an extraordinary video that recaps the brazen and unethical behavior of Enron executives and traders that resulted in the 2001 bankruptcy of the company. Another video, Frontline: Bigger than Enron, produced by PBS for Frontline in 2004, takes the accounting industry to task for its complicity and moral lapses in its work with Enron, Sunbeam, and other companies. Taken together, these two videos highlight some of the most notorious failures of leadership ethics in recent history. he Courageous Follower ofers advice and details the complex dynamics involved in leader-follower relationships. he Art of Followership: How Great Followers Create Great Leaders and Organizations, edited by Ronald Riggio, Ira Chalef, and Jean Lipman-Bluman, is a ine collection of scholarly writings. Two other recommended monographs on this topic are Barbara Kellerman’s Followership: How Followers Are Creating Change and Changing Leaders and Edwin Hollander’s Inclusive Leadership: he Essential Leader-Follower Relationship. Given the enduring inluence of the Great Man heory, there is still very little on what one might call a “Great Woman” theory of leadership. Patricia Parker’s Race, Gender, and Leadership ofers insights on leadership missing from a literature with strong “Great Man” tendencies. Two excellent scholarly collections related to this issue are Reader in Gender, Work, and Organization, edited by Robin Ely et al., and Women and Leadership: Transforming Visions and Diverse Voices, edited by Jean Lau Chin et al. here is a growing interest among academics in global leadership and the issues associated with moral relativism. A scholarly look at leadership across cultures is available in Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: he GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, edited by Robert House et al. A global vision for business leadership ethics is developed in Jacob Dahl Rendtorf’s Responsibility, Ethics and Legitimacy of Corporations and in Timothy Fort’s Prophets, Proits, and Peace: he Positive Role of Business in Promoting Religious Tolerance. For a studentfriendly discussion of business ethics and multiculturalism see David Cooper’s Ethics for Professionals in a Multicultural World. Global dimensions are also presented in One World: he Ethics of Globalization, in which Peter Singer develops a challenging vision of global leadership in relation to issues such as the environment, world hunger, and genocide. William Cohan’s House of Cards: A Tale of Hubris and Wretched Excess on Wall Street calls out Bear Stearns’ CEO Jimmy Cayne for playing at a bridge tournament while his company’s hedge funds were collapsing. And inally, a wide range of infamous moral lapses is documented in Handbook of Frauds, Scams, and Swindles: Failures of Ethics in Leadership, edited by Serge Matulich and David Currie. Other Useful Academic Resources Although there is an enormous body of literature on leadership, few books ofer ideas about “followership.” Ira Chalef’s Although books that convey state-ofthe-art research still play a key role in the development of leadership ethics as CHOICE October 2011 an academic discipline, other resources are also important to the development of new academic courses, course modules, and programs in leadership ethics. hese resources include textbooks, reference material, scholarly journals, and Web sites. Ginnett, and Gordon Curphy, is among the more enduring textbooks in leadership studies, and also does a good job integrating leadership ethics. Reference Material Textbooks For professors who will be teaching leadership ethics for the irst time, textbook selection can be a daunting task. he following recommendations are broad, “student-friendly” textbooks that accurately represent the state of the art of leadership ethics. Joanne Ciulla’s he Ethics of Leadership is an excellent collection of classical and contemporary essays based on the three main ethical theories. It is supplemented with both “cases” and “questions” to facilitate student discussion. While Ciulla’s collection emphasizes the moral theories, Terry Price’s Leadership Ethics: An Introduction is an explication of his own interpretation of philosophers and theories. Part I is titled “Leader-Centric Approaches,” and Part II “Group-Centric Approaches”; Price endorses the latter. Many instructors will prefer collections of essays to the more standard textbook format. An earlier collection, Ethics: he Heart of Leadership, edited by Joanne Ciulla, is still a relevant and useful collection of writings from contemporary leadership scholars. Leadership: Essential Selections on Power, Authority, and Inluence, edited by Barbara Kellerman, ofers readings from great thinkers such as Plato, Lao Tzu, Abraham Lincoln, and Gandhi. he thirteen essays in Moral Leadership: he heory and Practice of Power, Judgment, and Policy, edited by Deborah Rhode, provide a solid but highly critical overview of the current state of leadership ethics. Managerial Ethics: Managing the Psychology of Morality, edited by Marshall Schminke, focuses on what the social sciences can tell about ethical and unethical behavior. he Quest for Moral Leaders: Essays on Leadership Ethics, edited by Joanne Ciulla, Terry Price, and Susan Murphy, ofers perspectives on leadership ethics from scholars in a wide variety of disciplines. In its sixth edition, Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience, by Richard Hughes, Robert October 2011 Academic librarians likewise face a daunting task when it comes to providing reference materials to support new modules, courses, and programs in leadership ethics. he most useful reference materials are produced by scholars coming from diferent disciplines. SAGE Publications ofers four excellent reference collections in its “SAGE Reference Series on Leadership.” he four-volume Encyclopedia of Leadership, edited by George Goethals, Georgia Sorenson, and James MacGregor Burns, provides an overview of leadership studies appropriate for both students and faculty. hree other two-volume sets in the same series are available as well: Leadership in Nonproit Organizations: A Reference Handbook, edited by Kathryn Agard; Gender and Women’s Leadership: A Reference Handbook, edited by Karen O’Connor; and Political and Civic Leadership: A Reference Handbook, edited by Richard Couto. Also available is the singlevolume he SAGE Handbook of Educational Leadership: Advances in heory, Research, and Practice, edited by Fenwick English et al. Leadership at the Crossroads, a threevolume work edited by Joanne Ciulla et al., covers a lot of ground (the volumes in the set are titled Leadership and Psychology, Leadership and Politics, and Leadership and the Humanities). he ive-volume he Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, edited by Robert Kolb, is a ine resource that includes more than 800 entries and a useful Reader’s Guide. Leadership: he Key Concepts, edited by Antonio Marturano and Jonathan Gosling, provides an outstanding collection of short essays that explain the most important concepts in leadership and leadership ethics. Scholarly Journals Although no one journal dominates leadership ethics, articles appear regularly in many journals in leadership studies, and CHOICE business and applied ethics. he Journal of Leadership Studies connects scholarship with practice in business, nonproit, educational, health care, and government settings. Articles published in he Leadership Quarterly should appeal to both scholars and practicing professionals. Leader to Leader publishes articles for professionals in the private, public, and social sectors. Teaching Ethics: he Journal for the Society for Ethics across the Curriculum has wide appeal and focuses on pedagogical methodology. he Journal of Academic Ethics, on the other hand, is largely focused on ethical issues in postsecondary education. he Journal of Character and Leadership Integration ofers empirical and conceptual articles that explore the nexus of leadership and character. Finally, Leadership Excellence magazine is a monthly that ofers short articles, usually authored by professionals. Business ethics journals are another useful resource for articles on leadership ethics. he Journal of Business Ethics covers a wide range of topics in business ethics and welcomes both conceptual and empirical approaches. Business Ethics Quarterly, sponsored by the Society for Business Ethics, publishes articles by scholars and by business professionals. Business and Professional Ethics Journal often features articles written by business professionals that highlight ethical issues common to a variety of professions. Business and Society Review, a quarterly, focuses on issues such as corporate citizenship and the public good. Web Sites A Google search for “ethical leadership” generates more than 138,000 hits, while a search for “leadership ethics” elicits a mere 61,000 hits. In either case, many of these results are for sites are operated by companies peddling products or announcing their availability as consultants. However, a handful of Web sites do provide resources useful for students and even for faculty. he Institute for Ethical Leadership ofers a list of foundational essays on the topic, with full text for some essays. he Ethics and Policy Integration Centre presents a useful glossary and describes a vision for responsible business enterprise. he Center 7 for Ethical Leadership, from the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Afairs, he University of Texas at Austin, provides fulltext publications from their scholars on their site. he Harry T. Wilks Leadership Institute Web site features a blog, papers published by institute members, and information about the institute’s High School Engagement program. he VIA Institute on Character includes interpretive reports and summaries of research underlying its framework of core character strengths. he Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, at Santa Clara University, ofers access to a large number of relevant articles, blogs, and podcasts. Closing Thoughts Most scholars agree that leadership ethics is still in the early stages of academic development, and most of the research remains largely balkanized. Most research, old and new, is still not widely shared across disciplines, and there is still much “bridgework” to be done. Moreover, the ield remains dominated by social psychologists, philosophers, and religious scholars who are associated with business programs. Advancement of leadership ethics as an academic discipline will require a much broader research base. It is hoped that this essay will inspire greater academic interest in leadership ethics, especially in underrepresented areas of research including anthropology, evolutionary psychology, moral psychology, political science, economics, and communications. As the base of leadership ethics expands, academic libraries will continue to play a vital role in ensuring access to high-quality research at a reasonable cost. Works Cited Afect and Emotion: New Directions in Management: heory and Research, ed. by Ronald H. Humphrey. Information Age, 2008. Agosto, Efrain. Servant Leadership: Jesus and Paul. Chalice Press, 2005. Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Complexity Science and Social Entrepreneurship: Adding Social Value through Systems hinking, ed. by Jefrey A. Goldstein, James K. Hazy, and Joyce Silberstang. ISCE Publishing, 2009. he Art of Followership: How Great Followers Create Great Leaders and Organizations, ed. by Ronald E. Riggio, Ira Chalef, and Jean Lipman-Bluman. 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