(2021) 9:59
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-021-00538-9
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Open Access
Colors and dyes of archaeological textiles
from Tarapacá in the Atacama Desert (South
Central Andes)
Marcela Sepúlveda1* , Cecilia Lemp Urzúa2, José Cárcamo‑Vega3, Edgar Casanova‑Gónzalez4,
Sebastián Gutiérrez5, Miguel Ángel Maynez‑Rojas6, Benjamín Ballester3 and José Luis Ruvalcaba‑Sil6
Abstract
This work concerns the study of colors and dyes identified on archaeological textiles from the Atacama Desert. The
different garments and ornaments come from the excavation of two important pre‑Columbian cemeteries of the
Tarapacá region: Tarapacá‑40 attributed to the Formative period (1100 BC–660 AD) and Pica‑8 to the Late Intermedi‑
ate period (900–1450 AD). For the first time, a multi‑analytical approach with non‑invasive techniques using FORS and
SERS was applied on samples of less than 2 cm of length for physicochemical characterization of the raw materials
and the dyes employed in the textile production of northern Chile. The fibers are from animal origin. Blue, green, and
yellow are identified as indigo, but we cannot discard a mixture with other dyes to vary hue and shade; while carminic
acid and alizarin—to a lesser extent—are found on red, orange, and brown samples. This research provides new ele‑
ments for the discussion about the textile technology developed in this desertic region, its changes, and continuities
along the history. Our results are compared to recent findings on neighboring regions from South‑Central Andes, to
improve the current knowledge and discuss the existence of dyeing textile cultural traditions.
Keywords: Dyes, Textiles, FORS, SERS, South america, Indigo, Alizarin, Carminic acid
Introduction
In South America, Andean textiles are recognized as
a major art of the pre-Columbian societies that inhabited these territories. This tradition is still preserved and
stands out for the variety of techniques and materials
employed, their rich iconography and their wide chromatic palette visible from the first archaeological textiles
testimonies. In the words of John Murra, an important
Andean scholar: “No political, military, social, or religious event was complete without textiles being volunteered or bestowed, burned, exchanged, or sacrificed”
[1]. And even if Murra is referring in this case to the Inca
State, from the 14th to sixteenth centuries, we can easily
*Correspondence: msepulver@uc.cl
1
Escuela de Antropología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile &
UMR 8096 (CNRS‑Paris 1), Francia. Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Chile
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
imagine a similar situation in previous periods. Textile
testimonies are exhibited in famous museums around
the world, acting as evidence of the great achievement
of textile artisans. For their production, they used different types of fibers (animal, vegetal and human hair) spun,
and weave with a variety of structural techniques, using
naturally colored threads or others painted and dyed,
with eventual decorations made of beads, colored minerals, metals, and feathers. The textile craft in the Andes
involved the gradual development of a technological system, which began in the Late Pleistocene [2]. The use of
dyes also evidences a long historic tradition, as recently
proven by the identification of indigo on 5000-year-old
textiles, the oldest record of the use of this type of dye in
the world so far [3].
Today, the techniques, materials and polychromy
recognized on certain objects raise textile production to a prominent position among the handcrafts of
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Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
pre-Columbian Andean communities [1, 4–10]. The
knowledge related to the acquisition of the diverse raw
materials, the weaving and structure of textiles, as well
as the mathematical logic applied to the elaboration of
the textile is widely recognized [11, 12]. The chromatic
attributes have also attracted great interest since it has
been demonstrated that numerous plants and insects
were used and prepared to achieve the wide color palette
observed in textile dyeing [1, 13–22].
Textile manufacture involves several technological procedures related, on one side, with the procurement of
the fibers and the preparation of the yarns, made from
animal (mainly camelids and other mammals in a minor
proportion), plants (cotton, totora and junquillo, among
others) or human hair, which will become part of the textile structure (warp and weft). Such procedures are also
related to the incorporation or application of color on
yarns, to accomplish the design of the textiles. Color was
incorporated through dyeing or painting, using organic
dyestuffs or mineral pigments, collected, and prepared
using other compounds that served as mordants or postmordants, for ensuring a better adherence of the color
on the fibers [9, 10, 19, 20]. A third element are the skills
associated with the weaving or the construction of the
textile [5, 23–25]. Moreover, the incorporation of symbols or figures through color constitute a true semiotic
device. The final form of the textiles, as well as the choice
of colors, the logics that shape the design, figures and
elements elaborated on each textile, contribute to defining diverse styles and manufacturing traditions, often
related to socio-cultural distinctions of status, gender or
role, as well as ethnic or cultural identities, among others
[26–35].
In the Andes, the color in archaeological textiles have
been interpreted in terms of the prestige and power of
certain social entities, but also as an expression of gender identity [1, 29, 36–43]. However, until now the color
materiality is poorly understood, i.e., regarding the materials and immaterial knowledges involved in the making
of textiles. The interpretation of their materiality requires
an interdisciplinary approach and the implementation of
various analytical techniques.
A review of the available published literature shows
that analytical studies applied to historic Andean textiles are still scarce [3, 44–73], more so for colonial and
republican periods [47]. For the pre-Columbian period,
studies usually involve the analysis of a few samples,
commonly reds or blues, with little information about
other colors or shade variations [3, 48–55, 57–67, 70].
Further colors like yellow, green, white, or brown are
less studied [49, 50, 53, 56, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70]. Only a
few of them have widened the analyses of the dyes and
focused on the mordants [50, 51, 54, 67, 68, 70]. Some
Page 2 of 21
investigations have approached the painted textiles,
a rarely addressed subject [71, 72]. From an analytical
perspective, they applied chromatographic or spectrometric techniques including gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC–MS), high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detectors (HPLC–DAD)
and/or mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS), direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS), which
albeit sensitive are destructive methods [3, 48–50, 53,
54, 56–60, 62–64, 66, 70]. Analysis by surface-enhanced
Raman spectroscopy (SERS) was applied in just five
publications to analyze archaeological textiles from
Peru and northern Chile [55, 61, 65, 69, 73]. Finally, the
available literature shows a particular emphasis on the
analysis of polychrome textiles from the Paracas and
Nazca cultures (700 BC–800AD), on South—Central
Perú [51–53, 59–61, 66, 67, 70]. For northern Chile,
only three studies have been published addressing the
physicochemical analysis of textile dyes: one related to
textiles from San Pedro de Atacama, almost 500 km to
the south of our study region, and the others for Arica,
270 km to the north [63, 69, 73]. Other results were just
announced at a conference and are still unpublished
[55]. In general, those studies and others have demonstrated the use of indigo from plants of the genera
Indigofera spp., between others, for the blue shades, carminic acid obtained from cochineal (Dactylopius coccus
coccus), purpurin and alizarin from plants of the Rubiaceae family (Galium spp. or Rebulnium spp.) for the
reds and other plants mixed in complex recipes with
several dyes and mordants to obtain other colors and
tones [13–22, 55, 67, 74, 75].
The identification of the fibers and the colorant raw
materials used for dyeing constitutes one of the ways
for achieving a better understanding of textile technology and production [10, 51, 66–68, 70]. Although several
analyses are available, more knowledge of the technological processes involved can be reached through the
combination of multiple analytical techniques. HPLC
and other chromatographic techniques are preferred for
the identification of textile dyes [74, 76–78], but every
textile garment or ornament is unique; hence we must
prioritize the use of non-destructive or micro-analytical
techniques. In sum, we present the analysis of dyed fibers
from different textiles from the Atacama Desert in northern Chile, specifically from the Tarapacá region (Fig. 1).
Each sample was first observed by optical microscopy.
The fibers were identified by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Then colorimetry was used for
preliminary identification of colors. Finally, dye identifications were performed by fiber-optics reflectance
spectroscopy (FORS) and surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy (SERS).
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
Fig. 1 Map of localization of Tarapacá‑40 and Pica‑8 in the northern Chile
Page 3 of 21
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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Materials and methods
Archaeological samples
The analyzed textiles belong to two important cemeteries from the Tarapacá region, ascribed to two different
periods of the pre-Columbian chronological sequence of
the Atacama Desert in northern Chile: Tarapacá-40 and
Pica-8 (Fig. 1).
Tarapacá-40 is located in the desert, about 60 km
from the Pacific coast; the site corresponds to an extensive cemetery, placed at the north slope of the Tarapacá
ravine (Fig. 1). Excavations began in the 1960s and continued until the 2000s [79–83], and now its collections
are deposited in different institutions (museums and
universities) throughout the country [84]. 14C-AMS dating of different burial contexts from the site allowed
proposing it was occupied during the Formative period
(ca. 1.110–1.100 B.C.- 410–550 A.D.) [26, 83]. The cemetery’s configuration is associated with the occupation of
its contemporary village Caserones-1, composed of more
than 350 structures [81, 82, 85, 86]. This period is characterized by the consolidation of the villages with more
sedentary dwellers and a food-producing economy [87].
Previous textiles studies from Tarapacá-40 have focused
on the collections available on museums from northern
Chile [26, 41, 79]. In the present study, a total of 163 textiles from this cemetery were considered: five samples
were taken from five textiles, including two blankets, two
headdresses, and a bracelet (Fig. 2a–e; Table 1).
Pica-8 is a vast cemetery located in the Pica oasis, at the
south from Tarapacá valley and 90 km from the Pacific
coast (Fig. 1). The site was excavated in the 1960s [88–
91], and as in the case of Tarapacá-40, the collections are
also dispersed in several institutions [84]. Dating studies
placed the occupation in the Late Intermediate Period
(ca. 769–969 to 1301–1414 A.D. [92]. Pica-8 belongs to
the Pica-Tarapacá cultural complex, a set of communities settled in the driest area of the Atacama Desert,
which for living exploited several resources from other
ecological regions and at the same time articulated the
exchange of resources with other neighboring cultural
traditions. Deep social differences and inequalities, with
a higher economic specialization, are characteristics of
this considered society of the Late Intermediate period
[91]. Textile analyses from this same cemetery were also
previously published [28, 93]. During our project, a group
of 258 textiles were considered, and a total of 17 samples were collected from eight textiles (Fig. 2f–m). The
textile pieces correspond to seven tunics and a loincloth
(Table 1).
Sampling was performed at the Collection Deposit of
the Anthropology Department of Universidad de Chile
after a process of dry cleaning and repackaging in new
boxes to replace previous and original plastic bags from
Page 4 of 21
the excavation. The study included a material-technical
analysis and an assessment of their state of conservation,
which in turn contributed to the identification of functional and typological characteristics. The first description of textiles fibers, techniques and colors was carried
out. Colors were preliminarily reported using the Munsell Table. Quantitative colorimetric measurements
were also performed with a CR-10 colorimeter (Konica
Minolta) to complete the Munsell description. Samples consist of a textile fiber fragment of less than 2 cm
of length. At the laboratory, optical microscopy analyses
were performed using a B-600TiFL microscope (Optika)
to acquire morphological information of the yarns and
fibers of the archaeological textiles, the state of conservation, the color and possible salt adhered coming from
the sand and the original archaeological context (Fig. 3).
Infrared reflectance spectra of the archaeological textiles
were preliminarily acquired using a Bruker Alpha FTIR
spectrometer equipped with an external attenuated total
reflection module (ATR-FTIR) to confirm the origin of
the fiber before FORS and SERS analysis.
Fiber‑optics reflectance spectroscopy
A portable FieldSpect-4 (ASD Inc., Colorado, USA)
available at LANCIC Laboratory in Mexico was used
to acquire visible, NIR and shortwave near-infrared
(SWNIR) reflectance and absorbance (log[1/R]) spectra. This technique is not available in Chile until now.
A non-contact probe was used, which is placed at 8 cm
from the sample. A D65 illuminant provides illumination
over the whole spectral range. The analysis area is about
3 mm in diameter and spectra were obtained with a 0.2 s
integration time. In absorbance mode, data is processed
with the Kubelka–Munk theory [94, 95]. Calibration was
performed using a certified reflectance standard (AS02035-000CSTM-SRM-990–362, ASD Inc).
For analysis purposes, the visible and NIR regions are
presented together in a zone named visible-near infrared
(VNIR). VNIR ranges from 300 to 1000 nm and SWNIR
ranges from 1000 to 2500 nm. Inflection points in all
spectra were determined using the first derivative of the
spectrum, generated using the Origin Software (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, USA).
SERS analysis
A washing protocol was developed to avoid particles
adhered to the surface of the fiber from interfering with
the dye-substrate interaction during SERS analysis.
Textile samples of approximately 5 mm were placed in
vials containing 0.01% v/v solutions of Triton™ X-100, a
mild non-ionic detergent, and then stirred in a vortex.
After washing, the samples were repeatedly rinsed with
water under vortex stirring to remove the detergent. The
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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Fig. 2 Textiles analyzed in the present studies from Tarapacá‑40 (2a to 2e) and Pica‑8 (2f to 2 m)
Page 5 of 21
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Page 6 of 21
Table 1 Description of textiles and synthesis of colorimetry, FT‑IR, FORS and Raman analysis including archaeological context
information for each textile studied
Details of textiles analysed
Site and period
Description
Color
FT‑IR
FORS
Raman
Sample 1: M1‑ A05842
Tarapacá‑40
Context: SM’‑ T22
Formative period
(Fig. 2a)
Blanket
Red orange
Munsell
10R 5/10
L* a* b*
31.8 22.9 22
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Anthraqui‑
none
insect
No Result
Sample 2: M2‑ A04024
Tarapacá‑40
Context: SM‑T22
Formative
Period
(Fig. 2b)
Headdress
Red orange
Munsell
10YR 5/8
L* a* b*
35 31.6 23.3
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Anthraqui‑
none
insect
No Result
Sample 3: M4‑ A05823
Tarapacá‑40
Context: SM’‑T52
Formative period
(Fig. 2c)
Headdress
Red orange
Munsell
10R 5/12
L* a* b*
31.5 27.5 23
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Anthraqui‑
none,
posible
cochineal
Anthraquinone
Sample 4: M5‑ A05909
Tarapacá‑40
Context: SM’‑T75
Formative period
(Fig. 2d)
Bracelet
Brown
Munsell
7.5R 4/8
L* a* b*
21.3 24 11.1
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Anthraqui‑
none,
posible
cochineal
Carminic acid
Sample 5: M19‑ A05859
Tarapacá‑40
Context: SL‑T8(δ)
Formative period
(Fig. 2e)
Blanket
Red
Proteina‑
Munsell
ceous
7.5R/4.8
fiber
L* a* b*
22.2 20.4 11.8
Posible
alizarin
Anthraquinone
Sample 6: M6‑ A05769
Pica‑8
Context: Sector A,
Tumb 15
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2f )
Tunic
Green
Munsell
5GY 5/2
L* a* b*
39.4 − 0.1
10.8
–
Indigoide
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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Page 7 of 21
Table 1 (continued)
Details of textiles analysed
Site and period
Description
Color
FT‑IR
FORS
Raman
Sample 7: M8‑ A05765
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2g)
Tunic
Blue
Munsell
2.5B 4/2
L* a* b*
Not mesured
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigoide
Sample 8: M9‑ 05,765
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2g)
Tunic
Green
Munsell
10Y 4/4
L* a* b*
31.3 2.7 16.4
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigoide
Sample 9: M10‑ A05765
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2g)
Tunic
Green
Munsell
5GY 2.5/1
L* a* b*
33.4 6.9 14.7
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigoide
Sample 10: M11‑ A05751
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2h)
Loincloth
Red Orange
Proteina‑
unsell
ceous
2.5 YR 4/8
fiber
L* a* b*
33.7 21.2 18.9
–
Carminic acid
Sample 11: M12‑ A05751
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2h)
Loincloth
Green
Munsell
7.7GY 3/2
L* a* b*
30.6 3.2 9.6
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigo
Sample 12: M13‑ A05751
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
Figure 2h)
Loincloth
Green
Munsell
2,5GY 6/2
L* a* b*
45.0 1.0 19.1
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Indigoide
Indigoide
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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Page 8 of 21
Table 1 (continued)
Details of textiles analysed
Site and period
Description
Color
Sample 13: M14‑ A05749
Pica‑8
Context: Sector D,
Tumb 1
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2i)
Tunic
Sample 14: M17‑ A03844
Pica‑8
Context: SF, T1
Late Intermediate
period}
(Fig. 2j)
Sample 15: M18‑ A03844
FT‑IR
FORS
Raman
Red
Proteina‑
Munsell
ceous
10R 4/6
fiber
L* a* b*
24.5 24.4 11.1
Alizarin
Alizarin
Tunic
Red
Proteina‑
Munsell
ceous
10R 4/6
fiber
L* a* b*
23.3 16.1 11.0
–
Carminic acid
Pica‑8
Context: SF, T1
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2j)
Tunic
Blue
Munsell
7.5GY 3/2
L* a* b*
18.9 ‑1.3 2.2
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigo
ample 16: M22‑ A05743
Pica‑8
Context: SI, T2
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2k)
Tunic
Brown
Munsell:
5YR 3/2
L* a* b*
24.4 4.1 6.2
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
No Result
Sample 17: M23‑ A05743
Pica‑8
Context: SI, T2
Late Intermediate
Period
(Fig. 2k)
Tunic
Green
Munsell
2.5GY 3/2
L* a* b*
22.2 0.7 4.2
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Sample 18: M27‑ A05768
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
Figure 2l)
Tunic
Green
Munsell:
10GY 4/2
Colorimetría
L* a* b*
‑
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Indigo
Indigoide
Indigoide
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Page 9 of 21
Table 1 (continued)
Details of textiles analysed
Site and period
Description
Color
FT‑IR
FORS
Raman
Sample 19: M28‑ A05768
Pica‑8
Context unknown
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2l)
Tunic
Yellow
Munsell:
10R 3/2
Colorimetría
L* a* b*
‑
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Indigo
Sample 20: M29‑ A05685
Pica‑8
Context: SD, T56
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2m)
Tunic
Brown
Munsell:
10R 4/8,
Colorimetría
L* a* b*
‑
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
Alizarin
Anthraquinone
Sample 21: M30‑ A05685
Pica‑8
Context: SD, T56
ate Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2m)
Tunic
Yellow
Munsell: 10R
4/8
Colorimetría
L* a* b*
‑
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
Alizarin
Sample 22: M31‑ A05685
Pica‑8
Context: SD, T56
Late Intermediate
period
(Fig. 2m)
Tunic
Brown
Munsell:
5YR 2.5/1
Colorimetría
L* a* b*
–
Proteina‑
ceous
fiber
–
No Result
effectiveness of the washing procedure was verified by
optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy
(data not shown).
Gold nanoparticle substrates for microSERS measurements were prepared by chemical reduction with sodium
citrate using the method described previously [96, 97]. In
particular, 0.1 mL of HAuCl4 solution (4%, w/v) is added
to 40 mL of triple-distilled water, then 1 mL of trisodium
citrate solution (1%, w/v) is added dropwise with stirring.
The resulting mixture is boiled for 5 min.
SERS spectra of samples were recorded with a Raman
Renishaw InVia Reflex apparatus, equipped with the
532, 633, and 785 nm laser lines, a Leica microscope,
and an electrically cooled CCD detector. The instrument was calibrated using the 520 cm−1 line of a Si wafer
and a 50 × objective. Its resolution was set to 4 cm−1
and 1–10 scans of 10–50 s each were averaged. Spectra
were recorded in the 200–1800 cm−1 region. The laser
power was set between 10 and 100 mW. Spectral scanning conditions were chosen to avoid sample degradation
and photodecomposition and the 785 nm laser line was
used. Data were collected and plotted using the programs
WIRE 3.4, GRAMS 9.0, and OriginLab Pro 2016.
Results of colors characterization
All analyses performed on fiber samples present similar
characteristics and correspond to animal keratin (data
not shown). FTIR results confirmed that all the fibers are
of proteinaceous origin [98, 99], likely animals from the
Camelidae subfamily (Lama spp. or Vicugna spp.) as previously interpreted by macroscopic identification [28, 41].
The colorimetric analysis revealed the use of a wide range
of colors and hue variations: red, red–orange, yellow,
brown, green, and blue, combined with naturally colored
fibers (Table 1), highlighting the great polychromy of textiles from the Tarapacá region.
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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FORS analysis of the fibers suggested the presence
of anthraquinones of both vegetal and animal origin
for the red fibers, as well as indigo on the green ones.
The FORS spectral features of alizarin and cochineal,
among other red dyes, have been previously reported
[100–103]. Alizarin and other similar red dyes from
vegetable origin show apparent absorption maxima at
505–510 and 540 nm, while for cochineal those are red
shifted towards 520–525 and 555–560 nm, leading to
differentiating both anthraquinones (Fig. 4a, b). In our
case, those apparent absorbance maxima are barely
present on the spectra of the red samples, probably due
to the combination of two factors: the degradation of
the dye over time and the small sample size. The noncontact FORS probe used has an analysis area of 3 mm
in diameter and the fibers studied are only about 1 mm
thick, hence, part of the signal acquired originated on
the sample support, instead of the fiber itself. However, the first derivative of the reflectance has proven
to be more sensitive for the identification of madder
and cochineal-based dyes [100], due to the presence of
inflection points at 496–503 nm and 533–545 nm for
cochineal, while for alizarin they are at 486–490 nm
and 520–524 nm. Although we are only referring to
alizarin, it is worth pointing out that purpurin is often
found in the same vegetable sources and the FORS
spectra of both dyes are similar [103]. Therefore, by
this analytical technique we would only be able to distinguish plant-based anthraquinone dyestuffs from the
anthraquinones with animal origin.
Page 10 of 21
With the information from the reflectance and the first
derivative spectra, it can be suggested that cochineal was
used to dye the Samples 1 and 2, while a plant from the
genus Galium spp. or Relbunium spp. is the source of the
plant-based dye present on Sample 4 (Fig. 4a, b, respectively; Table 1). However, other animal-based anthraquinone dyes, such as kermes or Armenian cochineal,
cannot be discriminated from the American cochineal by
FORS alone [102, 103] and the assumption that the animal-based anthraquinone dye found on the analyzed fibers is in fact cochineal is supported by historical context,
since this is the only red anthraquinone of animal origin
found on previous studies on the Andean area for preColumbian collections [15, 17, 18, 21] and that was still
used during colonial times [105, 106].
In the case of the green samples (Samples 12 and 18),
FORS results suggest the presence of indigo (Fig. 4c),
from the apparent absorption maxima at 648 nm and the
inflection point at 717 nm, in agreement with the spectra
of indigo references and the results of FORS analysis of
Mexican codices [107] and polychrome ceilings [108].
SERS has proven to be a powerful technique for
the analysis of colorants in textiles [61, 65, 109–113].
Most of these works used silver nanoparticles, while
gold nanoparticles are equally useful [114, 115]. In
our analyses, the best results were obtained using
gold nanoparticles and a 785 nm excitation laser. The
optical microscopy images of the fibers, covered with
nanoparticles and later dried, showed that the textile samples have an adherence to the nanoparticles
Fig. 3 Details of fibers samples analyzed: a Sample 4; b Sample 5; c Sample 7; d Sample 8; e Sample 10; f Sample 13; g Sample 19; h Sample 20
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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as previously described [112]. In our case, using fibers
already washed with Triton™ X-100, we observed areas
with agglomerates of the nanoparticles, while others
showed a thin and uniform layer of AuNPs. The latter
led to better-defined spectra, with a high signal-tonoise ratio, while photodegradation was avoided.
Alizarin, carminic acid and indigo were identified on the
samples (Table 1). In the case of alizarin, Cañamares and
collaborators carried out a complete theoretical analysis
and SERS experiments [116], while the results reported
by Chen and co-authors were registered after the extraction of the dye from the textile by acid hydrolysis [110]. In
our case, the spectra were acquired directly from the dye
adhered to the fiber.
The SERS measurement obtained for Sample 13 (Fig. 5a)
shows a complex spectrum of the dye-mordant-fiber
(DMF) molecular system where groups of bands are consistent with signals reported for alizarin [117, 118]. The
SERS spectra provide additional information regarding
shifts in wavenumbers, changes on their relative intensities are fundamentally the presence of new bands that cannot be observed when analyzing isolated molecules. These
spectral features may be related to a certain arrangement
and orientation of the dyes due to the interaction between
NPs/fibers or NPs/dyed fibers. According to SERS selection rules, the intensity increases or decreases when the
αzz component of the polarizability of the analyzed vibrational mode is parallel or perpendicular to the excitation
beam, respectively. Band shifts are related to the electronic
redistribution in the vicinity of the atoms involved in the
interaction. This concept supports the chemical or charge
transfer contribution to the mechanism of enhancement of
the Raman signals [119].
The spectral changes discussed above are present in the
spectrum of Fig. 5a (see spectra (a) in Additional file 1:
Appendix A). The weak band around 1647 cm−1 can be
attributed to the coupled υCO/υCC vibrational modes.
The coupled vibrational mode ipδCH3/ipδCOH/υCC is
observed at 1475 cm−1 as a shoulder and with medium
intensity, although it has been described before as a highintensity mode [116, 117]. This difference may be because
this molecular moiety is vibrating inclined in relation to the
surface.
A commonly reported high-intensity characteristic band is present at 1258 cm−1 [120, 121]. It is associated with coupled υ(CO)/υ(CC)/δ(CCC) modes and
is included among a group of high-intensity bands in
the 1460—1200 cm−1 interval. The signal at 1078 cm−1,
attributed to a CC stretching in proteins, is not reported
Page 11 of 21
for alizarin [116–118]. Owing to our experience in the
vibrational analysis of proteins and according to the literature [122–125], this band may be related to the protein
structure of the animal fiber. Vibrations of the peptide
backbone in proteins are usually associated with three
main regions of the Raman spectrum [126]. We expect
to find the vibrations of the backbone skeletal stretch
region at 870–1150 cm−1, which arose from the Cα-C,
Cα-Cβ, and Cα-N stretching coordinates. The extended
amide III region, expected at 1230–1340 cm−1, is mainly
involved in the in-phase combination of the N–H inplane deformation with the Cα-N stretch, with mixing
among the N–H and the Cα-H deformations. Finally, the
C = O stretch gives rise to the amide I region in the range
of ~ 1630–1700 cm−1 [126]. In our case, some amino acid
bands were also observed in the spectrum of the DMF
complex, as is the case for the proline bands at 956 or
858 cm−1. A complete vibrational assignment is given in
Table 2.
The SERS vibrational analysis of carminic acid was performed based on our own SERS data and those reported
for the pure dye, isolated from cultural heritage samples
or as part of a more complex molecular system [116,
118, 127]. As in the case of alizarin, Cañamares et al. carried out a complete theoretical and experimental analysis using analytical grade carminic acid [116], while the
results published by Pozzi et al. account for the effect of
sample pretreatment with vapours of hydrofluoric acid,
before the SERS analysis [111].
Cochineal was identified in Sample 4 and its SERS spectra (Fig. 5b) show bands of both carminic acid and protein [116, 118, 127] (see spectra (b) in Additional file 1:
Appendix A). The intense band at 1582 cm−1 is attributed
to υCC of an aromatic ring, while Cañamares et al. found
this band to be of medium intensity and assigned it to a
coupled υ(CC)/δ(COH)/δ(CH) mode. As discussed for
alizarin, the differences in the intensity may be related
to the orientation of this vibrational mode, parallel to
the excitation beam. It is also described that this signal is
accompanied by the bands at 1472 and 1322 cm−1, associated with modes ipδCH3/ipδCOH/υCC and δCOH/
δCC, respectively. The band at 1322 cm−1 is particularly
interesting since it has been reported as a strong band
by Garrido et al. [128], while Cañamares and collaborators reported it as a medium intensity band [116]. In
both cases is broadband that encloses a group of bands
in the 1380–1300 cm−1 interval. Moreover, this band
could be influenced by the amide III vibration described
for proteins [123, 124]. Bands near 1397, 1076, 956 and
(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 4 FORS spectrum: a Sample 1: anthraquinone, b Sample 13: anthraquinone, and c Sample18: indigo
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
Page 12 of 21
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
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Page 13 of 21
Fig. 5 SERS spectrum: a Samples 13: alizarin, b Sample 4: carminic acid, and c Sample 11: indigo
858 cm−1 suggest the presence of the proteinic structure
of the animal fiber, as reported before by our group in the
study of isolated proteins or as part of a complex matrix
[122–124]. Other bands that can be attributed to the dye
are located at 505 and 456 cm−1. A complete vibrational
assignment is given in Table 2.
In some cases, we were not able to differentiate alizarin from carminic acid, because a band group can be
present in the spectral region 1200—1600 associated to
anthraquinone structure present in both molecules [116].
This overlapping of the spectrum can be associated with
changes in pH and the similarity of both dyes’ structures.
For the vibrational analysis of indigo, found in Sample 11 (Fig. 5c), we used our SERS data and the results
obtained from other researchers [61, 104, 129–131] (see
spectra (c) in Additional file 1: Appendix A). A strong
band is observed at 1573 cm−1 (ring stretching mode),
with a shoulder at 1591 cm−1 related with νCC, νCO
and in-plane NH deformations (δNH) modes (Fig. 6c).
The bands at 1345 and 896 cm−1 can be assigned to coupled vibrations involving the stretching and bending
vibrations of the six-member ring. C-H deformations are
responsible for the bands at 1463 and 1257 cm−1, and the
five- and six-member ring vibrations produce bands at
762 and 644 cm−1. A complete vibrational assignment is
given in Table 2.
The SERS spectra of sample 19 suggested the presence
of indigo (Table 1). Despite being usually associated with
blue or green hues, some indigo derivatives give yellow tones. This is the case of leucoindigo, whose Raman
and SERS spectra have already been reported by Fiedler
et al. [132] and Celis et al. [69], respectively. Both studies show the characteristic band of indigo, centered at
1573 cm−1, along with other vibrational signals common
to indigo and leucoindigo. Although leucoindigo is easily oxidised when exposed to air, Celis and co-authors
suggest the formation of a metal complex as a possible
explanation of its stability in the dyed threads [69]. In the
case of Maya mural painting, Vandenabeele et al. [133]
reported the presence of indigo in blue, green and yellow fragments. This was later addressed by Domenech
et al. in 2013 [134], whose main findings pointed to the
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
Page 14 of 21
presence of dehydroindigo, another yellow derivative of
indigo. Recently, the same group revisited the subject and
discussed evidence that supports their previous results
[135].
Table 2 SERS bands (cm−1) in the range 350–1800 cm−1 of
alizarin, carminic acid and indigo identified in Samples 13, 4 and
11, respectively and the most probable bands assignment
Discussion
All colors identified in our study suffered numerous
alterations during the years, which undoubtedly modified their original hue and shade. The variation in shade,
saturation, and shine in the same and/or different yarn
can also be related to the degradation of the dye, since all
the analyzed textiles belong to burial contexts (Table 1),
where they were used as mortuary clothing and/or
deposited as burial offerings. Several variations on the
shade (Sample 22) and color saturation for a single yarn
(Sample 10) can be attributed to changes that took place
after the chemical interaction of the dye with the body
fluids, during the decomposition of the buried individual.
However, we cannot rule out the occurrence of different
initial preparations for dyeing, associated with the use of
varied aqueous media and/or the inclusion of mordants
looking for better fixation of the color on the fibers [10,
54, 66–68, 70]. Thus, the observed differences can be the
consequence of technological factors inherent to the dyeing process (fermentation time, length of the exposure
of the yarn to the mordants, temperature and humidity
during the process, among others), which yield numerous
alternatives and combinations amid them, as well as provoked by external agents and factors following the use of
the textiles as burial offerings.
We were able to demonstrate the usefulness and expeditiousness of the simultaneous application of different
analytical techniques to the study of Andean textiles.
FORS was just recently applied to textiles from this
region [65] but has proven very suitable for preliminary
characterization of the dyes if the proper references are
available. In our case, the analysis was hampered by the
fact that they were performed on small fragments of the
dyed fibers, after sampling. When possible, it is always
advisable to carry out the FORS measurements directly
on the textile, using the non-contact probe. In this way,
one may take advantage of both the portability and nondestructive character of the technique and acquire multiple spectra from different areas of the same textile,
looking for more precise identification of the dyes present. On the contrary, SERS is a potent tool for the characterization of textile dyes on small fragments of fibers
and with relatively short analysis times, for a big number of samples. At this stage, we decided not to pursue
the identification of mordants, in part, due to a cleaning
and fumigation protocol applied to the textiles in 2015,
which could interfere with the results. Also as indicated by Wallert and Boytner, soil and body remain can
1647vw
Sample 13 Sample 4 Sample 11 Assignment
υCO/ υCC
1591sh
1582vs
1519w
1553
1475sh
1472w
1573s
1463w
1397w
υCC/δCH
1331vw
1258vs
δCOH/δCC; Amide III
1295w
ring6 str., def
1257m
υCO/ υCC/ δCCC; ρCHiph, asym/υCN/
υCCring6/υCCring5
1249w
1224m
1163vw
δCH
1215w
1171w
1149w
1132m
956vw
1128w
1076w
δCH/δCCC; δCH
υCC/δCH
υCC/υCN; δCH
1081mw
δNCH Pro
υCC/δCOH; υCC prot
1042w
υCN Pro
1003
Breathing ring Phe
963m
ρCC/δCCC; skeletal Pro
923w
933w
858vw
872w
896vw
804s
831
762vw
641s
620 mw
υC‑COO−
ρCH3/δCCC; υCC ring Pro
υCC skel
731vs
662m
υ(CC)/δ(CCC)
υCC
1322s
1078vw
ipδCH3/ipδCOH/υCC; δCH
υCC/δCOH/ δCH
1345m
1232w
υCC ring
υCC ring
1455vs
1370vw
υCC/ υCO/ ipδNH
υCC ring
ρ(CH3)/δCCC
644vw
614vw
γCO/ γCH/γCOH/τ(CCCC); NCC def
SkelVibration
567m
560w
Skel Vibration
505w
501w
Skel Vibration
456 s
378mw
Skel Vibration
389w
Skel Vibration
Band description: w weak, vw very weak, m medium, mw medium weak, s
strong, vs very strong. str.. stretching, def., deformation, ip in plane, op out plane,
breath. breathing, skel. Skeletal, ring6 six-member rings, ring5 five-member rings,
prot. protein, sh shoulder, Pro proline, Phe phenylalanine
Vibrational modes description: ν stretching, δ in the plane bending, γ out plane
bending, ρ rocking, τ torsion
contaminate textile, and results obtained by elemental
analysis for example can be ambiguous [54].
In general terms, FORS and SERS allowed the identification of red, orange, yellow, blue, and green dyes. For
a set of samples, the identification of alizarin using both
techniques were very precise, while for others, although
the FORS signals are very weak, it was possible to identify the presence of alizarin or carminic acid (Table 1:
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
Samples 3 and 20). For this second group of samples, the
dyes identification by SERS is troublesome, due to the
complexity of the spectra acquired. Some of the SERS
bands observed can be assigned to alizarin or carminic
acid, indistinctly, as opposed to FORS. However, the
observed bands are characteristic of anthraquinones, the
common molecular structure of both alizarin and carminic acid (Table 1: Sample 4).
Our colorimetric, FORS and SERS results show that
the different colors and their shade variations can be
achieved from natural extracts, both from animal and
vegetal origin. For the reds and its varied shades, including a few orange and brown fibers, we detected the use of
anthraquinones from animal origin, carminic acid, from
an extract of the cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus
coccus), as well as alizarin, commonly found on the roots
of a plant from the family of Rubiaceae, Galium spp. or
Relbunium spp., depending on the taxonomic classification, used [14, 18, 21, 66]. In the blue, green and one yellow (Sample 19) samples, we found indigo or indigo-like
molecules, known as indigoids, obtained from indigoproducing plants [13, 16, 18, 21, 66]. However, we cannot
discard that other dyes were mixed with indigo to modify
hue and shade as observed in Paracas textiles [53, 66].
Finally, the results reached for textiles from the Tarapacá region associated with the Formative period allowed
detecting the use of carminic acid and alizarin, dyestuffs
that will continue to be used during Later Intermediate
period (Table 1). In chronological terms, it is interesting
to confirm that the same dye technology was preserved
for almost 2400 years. It is also interesting to observe
that the same colorants can be used for different types
of textile garments and ornaments. When comparing
our results with previous molecular identification of red
dyes in neighboring regions, we found that in the north
in southern Peru purpurin from a plant from Relbunium
species and carminic acid from cochineal were reported
for the Late Intermediate period (1000–1450 A.D.) [54].
The use of cochineal (carminic acid) was also recently
reported in Formative textiles from Arica locality to the
north of Tarapacá region studied, but without more precision to archaeological context [73]; while only purpurin was identified at San Pedro de Atacama to the eastern
south, for the Middle (600–1000 A.D.) and Late Intermediate periods (1000–1450 A.D.) [63]. In the case of the
Tarapacá region, only alizarin and carminic acid have
been continuously used for a long time. If this can be
confirmed we could identify some specific and different
knowledge concerning the dye manufacturing process
and dyeing cultural tradition, as each region demonstrates the use of different dye molecules (carminic acid,
alizarin and purpurin) probably from different plant
origins.
Page 15 of 21
The local origin of dyeing plants
Niemeyer and Agüero [63] suggested that the Relbunium
spp. found in the San Pedro de Atacama textiles came
from northweast Argentina, based on the strong trade
relationship between the localities in the area. Nevertheless, the authors did not consider the possibility that
the raw materials may also have its origin on the Pacific
coast, where specimens of R. corymbosum have been registered, locally identified as G. corybosum [21, 136–138],
as well as other Galium species, principally G. corymbosum and G. aparine (distributed along the whole coastline of northern Chile), G. diffusoramosum (Taltal) and G.
hypocarpium (Paposo) [137–145].
In relation to indigo, for its part, the main sources in
South America are plants from the genus Indigofera
(Fabaceae), Eupatorium (Asteraceae) and Yangua (Bignoniaceae), of which only the first two are found near our
study area [21]. Although Indigofera species are typically
found in Perú and Northwestern of Argentina [21, 146],
there are also records of I. suffruticosa specimens in the
Azapa Valley, near Arica, as well as in the Chaca area on
the Vitor ravine, to the north of Tarapacá region [147,
148]. Specimens of I. truxillensis have also been found in
regions north of Arica, and Tarapacá [140, 149]. Meanwhile, the only native Eupatorium species in the Atacama
Desert are E. glechonophyla (also known as Ageratina
glechonophyll) and E. salvia. The first is distributed in
the coast (0–200 m.a.s.l.) from Antofagasta to the south,
almost 400 km of distance from Tarapacá locality [137],
mainly in Paposo locality [136]. E. salvia is also found
along the coast further to the south, with a northernmost
limit in the Coquimbo region, more than 1000 km to the
south of our region study [137].
Considering this phytogeographical distribution of
dye plants in the Atacama Desert, Niemeyer and Agüero’s proposal should be re-evaluated. Because it is a fact
that pre-Colombian communities in the Atacama coast
were in close contact with this inland oasis, as well as
with other groups that inhabited the inland valleys territories since remote times [150–155]. The traditional
Andean model has placed in a prominent position the
trade with foreign regions and the products and technologies from abroad, from territories beyond the
Andes mountain to the east, while to the coastal gatherer-hunters have been assigned a passive role in the
regional economies. In that sense, given the abundance
of plants of Galium species along the northern Chile
coastline, this could have been also a possible source
of direct supply or by an exchange of dyestuffs, for the
textile production. This possible hypothetical link with
the coast becomes even more plausible when we consider that several vegetable sources of indigo are also
found on the littoral, including E. glechonophyla and A.
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
glechonophylla. Also, we cannot forget that brominated
indigo can be extracted from an extremely popular
marine mollusc from the coast of the Atacama Desert,
the Concholepas concholepas [21], a potential animal
source of dye supply that has not yet been considered
in archaeological studies of the region. Further efforts
for the elaboration of local references are absolutely
needed.
Archaeological studies on textile dyes in the Atacama Desert have also scarcely considered the available
ethnohistorical and ethnographic information, looking rather for substances and species popular in other
neighbouring regions. This trend generates a hiatus in
local information, since not all Andean or South American communities opted for the same technical solutions when it came to coloring their fabrics.
As an example, for the San Pedro de Atacama area,
the naturalist Rodolfo Philippi pointed out in 1854 that
“for the blue, you can use añil [or indigo], for the red
grana, for the yellow and indigenous plant, called fique,
which I have not seen. Grana is a kind of cochineal that
is brought from the Otra Banda provinces [Northwestern Argentina], mainly from Santiago del Estero” [156].
In an ethnographic study from the mid-twenty century,
Grete Mostny and co-workers recorded that the people
from Peine village used alum as a mordant for dyeing
textiles, and the color came from different local plants,
such as monte verde, chilca and mocaraca for the green,
tícara for the brown, algarrobo for mustard hues and
sacha-uva for purples [157]. Munizaga and Gunckel, in
a similar contemporary study, carried out at the Socaire
village, also acknowledged the use of tícara (Krameria
iluca), romasa (Rumex patientia) and monte verde for
dyeing yellow textiles [158]. Finally, Villagrán and Castro, on a research with an extensive geographic scale,
identified the use of molle (Schinus molle), algarrobo
(Prosopis alba), monte verde (Krameria lappacea),
pingopingo (Ephedra andina), kopa (Artemisia kopa),
Siput´olas or pulikas (Parastrephia species, including
P. lepidophylla, P. quadrangularis and P. teretiuscula)
and male tíkara (Ambrosia artemisoides) for dyeing
purposes, each one of them with a particular color and
shade, depending on their preparation and combination [159]. We need to broaden our knowledge about
the use of local plants to produce dyes, to later generate useful references for chemical analysis as it has been
done in different regions of the Central Andes [17–21,
160].
Conclusions
The results presented here show that the textiles from
Tarapacá-40 and Pica-8 cemeteries from the Atacama
Desert were dyed with substances that until now were
Page 16 of 21
not found near the localities. Its closest supply is, on the
other hand, at approximately 100 km, both on the Pacific
coast and in the valleys to the north and Northwestern
Argentina to the southeast. However, the local populations of the Pica and Tarapacá valleys lived in close
social and economic ties with those inhabitants settled in
the supply areas of these plants and insects with dyeing
potentials [87, 91]. Thus, the color technology from the
Tarapacá pre-Columbian textiles must have depended
above all on an extensive social network and the association with different and distant communities. Extra local
relations constructed not just for dyes procurement, but
also for the other raw materials needed such as fibers.
The identification of cotton was also confirmed in our
preliminary recognition of the complete textile collection studied. Unfortunately, the advancement of regional
archaeology does not yet make it possible to confirm
how and where textiles were produced and how dyed fibers were obtained. At this moment, we cannot precise if
they obtained only the dyestuffs and completed locally
the process of dyeing fibers, or balls of dyed yarns and
they wove the different textile garments, or finally, they
obtained the complete woven textile pieces by exchange
from other localities.
In addition, archaeological studies dealing with textile
dyes in the Atacama Desert have paid little attention to
the available ethnohistorical and ethnographic information, looking instead for substances and species popular
in neighboring regions. This has led to a lack of information about local dyeing technologies since not all the
Andean or South American communities had probably
chosen the same technical solutions when it comes to
textile dyeing. The brief ethnohistoric and ethnographic
review presented in the discussion section demonstrates
the local availability of a wide variety of plants with dyeing capabilities in the Atacama Desert. However, very few
of them have been studied to identify chemical markers
that can be traced to pre-Columbian objects. Meanwhile,
archaeology continues to look for the most popular dyeing plants used outside the region.
Considering these shortcomings concerning the reference samples, the textiles from the Tarapacá region are
an excellent evidence of deep knowledge regarding dyes
and dyeing techniques, about botanical and insect species available for these purposes, as well as a particular
dexterity for the construction of complex polychrome
textiles, conceived before the fabrication. The number and size of the textiles deposited as offerings, their
shapes, and designs points to the existence of specialists, committed not only to the fabrication of the textiles
but also to the previous stages of acquisition and conditioning of the fibers, in addition to the procurement and
Sepúlveda et al. Herit Sci
(2021) 9:59
elaboration of the materials used to prepare the solutions
or dyestuffs where the fibers were immersed.
So, to conclude, these results need to be complemented
and reviewed regarding the production processes: on the
one side to precise the nature of the fiber raw materials
and their possible provenance (wool, cotton, etc.) and
hence their domestication and exploitation; and on the
other side, the nature and localization of the vegetable
and animal resources from where the dyes were extracted
and produced. This paper constitutes just a first approach
to this topic in the Atacama Desert.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.
org/10.1186/s40494‑021‑00538‑9.
Additional file 1: Appendix A. SERS spectrum: (a) Sample 30: alizarin, (b)
Sample 17: acid carminic, and (c) Sample 12: indigo.
Acknowledgements
Analysis was performed at Laboratorio de Análisis e Investigaciones Arqueo‑
métricas (LAIA) of Universidad de Tarapacá and LANCIC Laboratory of Universi‑
dad Nacional Autónoma de México during 2016. Thanks to Departamento de
Antropología from Universidad de Chile for the access to archaeological textile
collection. We are grateful for the collaboration of Adriana Muñoz and Pilar
Babot which provide us with bibliographic references and Mariana Ugarte
for the map of Figure 1. Finally, authors want to thank the four anonymous
reviewers for their helpful comments on this article.
Authors’ contributions
MS: conceptualization, investigation, in situ analyses, formal analysis, writ‑
ing original draft, editing, funding acquisition, project administration; CL:
investigation, in situ analysis, funding acquisition, project administration;
JC‑V: laboratory analyses, formal analysis, visualization, writing,; EC‑G: formal
analysis, visualization, writing original draft, editing; SG: in situ analyses, labora‑
tory analyses; MAM‑R: in situ analyses, laboratory analyses; BB: investigation,
formal analysis, writing original draft; JLRS: investigation, supervision, editing
original draft, funding acquisition, project administration; All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This work was financed by FONDART 420982 (Chile), FONDECYT 1190263
(Chile), Proyecto REDES CONICYT 150136 (Chile), and partially supported
by CONACYT Mexico Grants LN279740, LN293904, LN299076, LN314846,
CB239609, PAPIIT UNAM Grant IN112018 (Mexico).
Availability of data and materials
Data is available by contacting the corresponding author. After reviewers’
comments supplementary data (Supplementary Material‑Appendix A) is
included in this final version.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Author details
1
Escuela de Antropología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile &
UMR 8096 (CNRS‑Paris 1), Francia. Av. Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Chile.
2
Laboratorio de Arqueología, Escuela de Arqueología, Universidad Austral
de Chile, Sede Puerto Montt, Los Pinos S/N, Puerto Montt, Chile. 3 Universi‑
dad de Tarapacá, POBox 6D, Arica, Chile. 4 CONACyT – Laboratorio Nacional
de Ciencias para la Investigación y Conservación del Patrimonio Cultural,
Instituto de Física, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito de la
Page 17 of 21
Investigación s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
5
Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapacá, Cardenal Caro
348, Arica, Chile. 6 Instituto de Física, Laboratorio Nacional de Ciencias Para La
Investigación Y Conservación del Patrimonio Cultural, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Circuito de la Investigación s/n, Ciudad Universitaria,
Coyoacán, 04510 Mexico City, Mexico.
Received: 11 February 2021 Accepted: 13 May 2021
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