World Transport Policy & Practice
Volu m e 1 3 , N u m be r 1
Splin t e r e d
u r ba n ism
loca l pu blic spa ce or
cor por a t e e con om ic
ga in…?
H o u se h o l d ca r
o w n e r sh i p &
‘W a lk in g f o r
T r a n sp o r t ’
SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY –
SEEN TO THE YEAR 2030
Cyclin g for a ct ive
t r a n spor t & r e cr e a t ion in
Au st r a lia – St a t u s r e vie w
& fu t ur e dir e ct ion
PED ESTRI AN I SATI ON OF
COM M ERCI AL RETAI L AREAS
‘Kh a o Roa d’, BAN GKOK
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006
Eco-Logica Ltd.
ISSN 1352-7614
1
World Transport Policy & Practice
Volu m e 1 3 , N u m be r 1
© 2006 Eco-Logica Ltd.
Editor
Professor John Whitelegg
Stockholm Environment Institute at York, Department of
Biology, University of York, P.O. Box 373, York, YO10 5YW,
U.K
Editorial Board
Eric Britton
Managing Director, EcoPlan International, The Centre for
Technology & Systems Studies, 8/10 rue Joseph Bara, F75006 Paris, FRANCE
Mikel Murga
Leber Planificacion e Ingenieria, S.A., Apartado 79, 48930Las Arenas, Bizkaia, SPAIN
Paul Tranter
School of Physical Environmental & Mathematical Sciences,
University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force
Academy, Canberra ACT 2600, AUSTRALIA
Publisher
Eco-Logica Ltd., 53 Derwent Road, Lancaster, LA1 3ES, U.K
Telephone: +44 (0)1524 63175
E-mail: j.whitelegg@btinternet.com
http://www.eco-logica.co.uk/WTPPhome.html
Professor John Howe
Independent Transport Consultant, Oxford, U.K
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Co n t e n t s
Editorial
3
John Whit elegg
Abstracts & Keywords
5
What goes up must come down: Household car ownership and ‘Walking for transport’
7
Hazel Baslingt on
Trends, innovative course settings and levers for mobility & transport:
18
Seen to the year 2030
Har t m ut H. Topp
Splintering the public realm: using local public space for corporate economic gain?
31
Fiona Raj e
Effects of pedestrianisation on the commercial and retail areas: study in Kha San Road, Bangkok
38
Sant hosh Kum ar K., William Ross
Cycling for active transport and recreation in Australia: status review and future directions
51
Rissel C, Garrard J
Travel in Inner City versus Urban Fringe of Adelaide: the Role of Neighbourhood Design
64
Solt ani A, Allan A, Som m enhalli S, Prim erano F
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006
2
Edit or ia l
The city of Brisbane in Australia has decided to
build a central area tunnel at a cost of over $3
billion (Australian). The tunnel will end up
costing far more than this and will be followed
by many other high cost highway infrastructure
projects. Brisbane’s approach to transport policy
is not especially unusual but does bring into
sharp relief the contradictions that lie at the
heart of urban transport throughout the world.
Brisbane
is
also
the
location
of
the
self-
proclaimed “largest travel smart project in the
world”, and this project will work diligently to
persuade
people
not
to
use
the
car.
The
combined highway projects and Travel Smart
At an international conference on walking in
th
projects
amount
to
a
$10
billion
plan
to
2006, a
encourage car use and a $30 million plan to
large and eager audience sat patiently waiting
discourage car use. This is silly and looks
for the Minister of Transport of the State of
especially silly when put in the context of the
Victoria to give his opening address. He did not
world-class physical environment of Brisbane
turn up, and his absence sends a very strong
and
message indeed to all those who work very hard
cycling possibilities. Brisbane has 1% of all trips
to make the glaringly obvious point that walking
currently accomplished by bike and about 80-
is transport, walking is important and walking is
85% by car. It is a car dependent city that is
central to everything from tackling obesity and
rushing headlong into higher levels of car
climate change to creating high quality liveable
dependency at a time when peak oil and oil
cities. Ministers of transport tend to turn up at
dependency concerns are ringing alarm bells
conferences devoted to private finance initiatives
around the world. Car dependent and fossil fuel
and highway construction. They will always turn
dependent cities like Brisbane are heading for a
up to share the limelight about transport plans
social and economic crisis because they cannot
related to Commonwealth and Olympic games,
see the wisdom and precautionarity of moving to
but walking is off the radar screen and is easily
lower levels of oil dependency. Brisbane could
replaced by something more important even if it
easily have 10% of all trips by bike, 10-20% on
has been in the minister’s diary for several
foot and 15-20% on public transport but there is
months.
very little sign of the vision and clarity of
Melbourne, Australia on October 24
its
enormously
attractive
walking
and
thought that could produce this outcome.
Australia is at the serious end of most transport,
land use, energy and health and resource use
Sweden on the other hand has declared its
problems. Its high levels of car use, even for
intention to become fossil fuel free by 2020
short
(‘Making
distance
trips,
makes
it
especially
Sweden
an
OIL
FREE
Society’,
vulnerable to the peak oil problem and the
Commission on Oil Independence, 21st June
refusal of its politicians to take sustainable
2006) This policy links well with its “Vision Zero”
transport
to
road safety policy which was introduced in 1997
progress. Highway projects loom very large in
and commits the country to achieving zero
the in-tray of ministers of transport.
deaths and zero serious injuries in the road
seriously
is
a
major
obstacle
traffic environment. This remarkable double-hit
will ensure that Sweden maintains a high quality
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006
3
of life and an exceptional degree of insulation
rise
from global oil
and price
engineering to restore civilisation, calm, peace
will
and community richness to our cities.
increases.
supply problems
Australian
citizens
find
to
the
challenge
of
system-wide
re-
themselves living in a polar opposite world
characterised by oil supply crises and prices of
This challenge will involve setting maximum
more than $100 per barrel. This is unnecessary
speed limits of 30kph in all cities and banning
and Australia has the experience and the people
through-traffic from residential streets. It will
to deliver a revolution in mobility. It simply lacks
mean
politicians with the vision and clarity of thought
domination and returning streets and cities to
to recognise that reducing car dependency is a
people.
win-win
interventions of whatever kind that protect
situation
with
hard
monetary
and
reversing
It
almost
will
pursue
disadvantaged, and we no longer tolerate noisy,
for roads, bridges and tunnels and reduced
intrusive traffic near our homes and in our
greenhouse gases.
communities. It can be done and it will be done.
At the international walking conference almost
John Whitelegg
400 people gathered to discuss best practice
Editor
and
Melbourne, Australia
multiple
advantages
of
increasing walking and all modes of sustainable
the
car
diabetes, mental health, reduced fiscal demands
the
and
we
of
children,
assess
elderly
that
years
security benefits that range across obesity,
to
the
mean
100
mobility
24th October 2006
transport. The majority of the participants were
Australian and there can be no doubt that if
Making Sweden an OIL FREE Society
these people could be given a few months to
Commission on Oil Independence 21st June 2006
sort out walking, cycling, health and urban
http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/06/70/
design and planning in Australia then all these
96/7f04f437.pdf
problems would be resolved.
Walk21 - Walking Forward in the 21st Century
It is increasingly clear that politicians are out of
http://www.walk21.com
step with the needs and requirements of the age
in which we live and that a major paradigm shift
is needed to deliver urgent action on climate
change, transport-related health problems, cities
drowning in car pollution, children damaged by
noise and deeply traumatised communities. A
radical shift towards walking, cycling, and public
transport and traffic reduction will deliver a huge
part of the solution to all these problems and
will create happier citizens.
This is the major challenge of the 21st century
and we will succeed. The 19th century saw major
world
cities
installing
pure
drinking
water
systems on a huge scale. The 20th century saw
the elimination of the dreaded and dreadful
sulphurous yellow smog that plagued London
and all major UK cites and we must once again
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006
4
Abst r a ct s & Ke yw or ds
W h a t Goe s Up M u st Com e D ow n :
H ou se h old Ca r Ow ne r sh ip a n d 'W a lk in g for Tr a n spor t '
Hazel Baslingt on
This paper reports research investigating the
walking for transport but may facilitate other
cultural determinants of childrens' travel. The
exercise.
'diary sets' kept by 301 children linked travel
extends
with time spent on physical activity over one
boundaries. A bold policy measure advocated
week.
is a 'one car' policy for households.
Parents
completed
a
travel
and
Possession
of
socio-economic
two/more
and
cars
geographical
exercise questionnaire (n=136) and some
were interviewed (n=22). Car use for regular
Ke yw or ds:
journeys
and
associated
with
time
spent
the
number
walking
is
Childrens'
of
in
walking for transport, multi-car ownership,
cars
households. Availability of a car can reduce
travel,
mixed
method
design,
'one car' policy
Tr e n ds, in n ova t ive cou r se se t t in gs, a n d le ve r s for m obilit y a n d t r a n spor t
Se e n fr om t h e Ye a r 2 0 3 0
Hart m ut H. Topp
We need innovative policies to shape the
because
future of mobility and transport. Sustainable
developments, such as wasting fossil energy,
mobility in terms of ecology, economy and
climate
social
through global warming, dead-end street of
justice
is
the
goal,
even
though
laissez-faire
changes
cause
and
undesirable
natural
disasters
sustainability is poorly defined in the field of
automobile
mobility and transport, and, at the same
resulting in high costs, unaffordable public
time,
transport in rural areas, macro-economic
inflationarily
used.
Technical
dependency,
urban
sprawl
innovations in transport are often discussed,
losses
but we also need economic innovations,
and health damage ... The list could be
political innovations, social innovations, as
continued.
well
as,
behavioural
changes,
through
congestion,
environmental
because
sustainable mobility can only be achieved by
Ke yw or ds: Technical/economic, social
a broad range of measurements. We need
innovation, behavioural change, sustainable
new policies and innovative course settings,
mobility
Splin t e r in g t h e pu blic r e a lm : u sin g loca l pu blic spa ce for cor por a t e e con om ic ga in ?
Fiona Raj e
This paper provides an example of how
of permission to construct a socially-isolating
conflicts between transport and planning
housing development within one of the city’s
policy and practice can manifest themselves
most deprived neighbourhoods.
in
local
communities.
It
discusses
the
building of a gated community on a deprived
Ke y w or ds
urban peripheral estate in Oxford and the
Gated
dichotomy between policy statements about
transport policy
communities,
splintered
urbanism,
promoting social inclusion and the granting
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
Effe ct s of pe de st r ia n isa t ion on t h e com m e r cia l a n d r e t a il a r e a s:
St u dy in Kha o Sa n Roa d, Ba n gk ok
Sant hosh Kum ar. K, William Ross
Pedestrianisation of retail areas is a strategy
results
commonly implemented in city centres. It
reported an increase of sales volume since
has various impacts on the traffic speed and
pedestrianisation
increases the quality of life for the people
reported
living, working and visiting the area of
liveability
implementation. In addition, it also has an
recommends
impact
authorities
undertake
businesses in the area of implementation.
retail
commercial
The current study focussed on determining
Bangkok to boost the sales volume and
the effect of pedestrianisation on the retail
increase the liveability of the area.
on
the
commercial
and
retail
showed
a
business
and
all
noticeable
of
and
that
the
respondents
increase
area.
that
owners
The
the
in
the
study
implementing
similar
projects
areas
in
throughout
and commercial businesses of Khao San
Road, Bangkok. The results of this study
Ke yw or ds
were in line with earlier studies undertaken
Pedestrianisation,
in various other cities. Qualitative research
Commercial areas, Khao San Road, Bangkok
Retailing,
Liveability,
methods were used in this study and the
Cyclin g for a ct ive t r a n spor t a n d r e cr e a t ion in Au st r a lia : st a t u s r e vie w a n d fu t u r e
dir e ct ion s
Rissel C, Garrard J
Riding a bicycle is a potentially important but
This review has highlighted the relatively low
neglected form of sustainable transport that
level of regular cycling for transport in
can also contribute to achieving adequate
Australia, and the marked gender disparity of
levels of physical activity. Despite the clear
riders. However, cycling is a very popular
health and environmental benefits of cycling,
recreational activity (fourth most popular
there has been no systematic review of
nationally), suggesting that under favourable
strategies to increase or promote cycling in
conditions
Australia, nor any consideration of a health
substitute short car trips for bicycle trips.
promotion research agenda for cycling.
Almost all of the identified cycling promotion
program
some
of
evaluations
these
have
riders
shown
could
some
This paper reviews the available Australian
degree of increase in cycling, suggesting that
published
and
if they were to be implemented on a wider
evaluation
of
grey
literature
or
scale and with adequate resources they
promote cycling (n=17). It identifies the
would lead to increases in population levels
prevalence of cycling in Australia from a
of regular cycling. A number of suggestions
range
of
strategies
sources,
influences
on
available
evidence
to
reporting
increase
synthesises
cycling,
of
reviews
the
main
are made for cycling related research in
the
little
Australia.
effectiveness
of
strategies to increase or promote cycling,
Ke yw or ds:
and identifies research priorities.
Cycling promotion programmes, strategy
evaluation, cycling research
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
Tr a ve l in I n n e r Cit y ve r su s Ur ba n Fr in ge of Ade la ide :
Th e Role of N e igh bou r hood D e sign
Soltani A, Allan A, Somenahalli S, Primerano F
Previous literature has found that suburban
correlated with the choice of non-motorised
development
unbalanced
is
associated
choice
of
travel
with
the
modes,
mode.
The
associated
while
suburban
designs
with
the
choices
micro-scale aspects of the built environment
driver/passenger.
The
multinomial
that influence modal choice, however, have
models suggest that micro-scale urban form
not been well-established. Furthermore, the
factors play an important role, and that
majority of the literature is from North
travel
American or European cities, thereby less
impact modal choice along with a number of
Australian context. Using a sample from
social
Adelaide,
the
employment and family structure. This study,
connection between neighbourhood design
therefore, supports the assertion that land
and modal choice, classifying the sample into
use policies have at least some potential to
two low-density, growing outer-ring suburbs
reduce the choice of private vehicles, thereby
versus two suburbs selected for their higher
reducing car dependency. This study also
density, stability, and inner-ring location.
may serve to assist other practitioners in
Statistical
that
Adelaide in their efforts to address the issue
strong
of induce travel, and to present better
this
research
looked
analyses
neighbourhood
design
at
showed
has
a
association with modal choice. Specifically,
traditional
neighbourhood
designs
time
and
factors
commute
such
as
of
are
distance
income
solutions for sustainability concerns.
are
Ke yw or ds: Travel; land use; multinomial logit model; Adelaide
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
car
logit
also
level,
Must Come Down:
W h a t goe s u p m u st com e dow n :
Household Car Ownership and 'Walking for Transport'
H a ze l Ba slin gt on
This paper reports findings from a PhD
(3,378, 3,775); Schools 2, 8 (247, 298).
project
cultural
Schools 2 and 8 are in 'very deprived'
determinants of childrens' travel (Baslington,
districts, included to obtain a cross-section of
2006). The research was in part replicatory
respondents.
investigating
the
and in part exploratory. Previous research
travel
Diary sets were completed by 301 children
behaviour varied according to level of car
(53% response rate) by equal proportions of
ownership
instance,
both sexes. They contained three colour
(Roberts, Carlin, et al 1997, Davis, 1998,
coded sections: a One Week Travel Diary
Mackett, 2002). Additional analysis on this
(TD) an Out of School, Sports & Exercise
variable investigated nonschool trips, short
Diary
car journeys and time spent walking. The
comprised a one page matrix with ample
'diary sets' kept by 301 children linked travel
space to show trips: 'To/From' school, 'To
with time spent on physical activity over one
See and Go Out with Friends' and 'Other'
week.
journeys.
revealed
that
in
Parents
childrens'
school
household,
for
completed
a
travel
and
(SED),
a
questionnaire.
Children
inserted
The
daily
TDs
travel
exercise questionnaire (n=136) and some
mode/s, destination/s and journey times
were interviewed (n=22).
(minutes). The SED was identical to TDs
except children showed time spent daily on
Sa m ple Com posit ion , Ch ildr e n
physical activity with divisions for 'Sport and
The children were aged 9 to 11 (Years 5/6)
Exercise', 'Active Play/Street Games', 'Ot her
and attended eight primary schools in West
walking' (Walking or cycling not shown as
Yorkshire, in 2003. Six schools are in urban
transport on the TD). 'Ot her cycling', 'Other
areas, one a rural and another, a semi-rural
Ways
district.
housework/gardening.
Ninety
approximately
percent
1.13
of
pupils
kilometres
lived
(three
to
be
Active',
such
Examples
as
were
provided as well as open questions, 'Another
quarters of a mile) from school. An indication
Sport/Exercise…'?
of socio-economic status is provided by the
collected were: age, sex, household car
Indices of Deprivation (ID 2000 was the
ownership and postcode. Diary sets included
index used in the fieldwork), identified from
a yellow instruction sheet and were tied and
school postcodes. This ranks English districts
protected with plastic covers. To increase
between '1' and '8,414' on an ascending
motivation
scale. Rank 1 is bottom and ten percent of
laminated 'Certificate of Appreciation' and a
districts are considered 'very deprived' (rated
decorative sticker.
children
Demographic
were
details
awarded
a
ID 841 or lower). Ward level data from six
indices
are
health
deprivation,
used:
income,
employment,
Sa m ple Com posit ion , Pa r e n t s
education,
Children took home a request letter to
training and access to services. The ID
parents requesting participation. To obtain a
ratings are: Schools 1, 6, 7 (ID 4,518,
sizeable sample a further seven schools (five
4,547); School 3 (5,672); Schools 4, 5
state and two privately run) in a cross-
housing,
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
8
section of districts in another West Yorkshire
'housewives', one a student. Nine were in
town were contacted in Winter 2003/4. The
professional/managerial
parents completed a short Parents' Travel &
were skilled and five semi/unskilled.
occupations,
four
Exercise Questionnaire (PTEQ n=136, 11%
response rate). A sample of children whose
Fin din gs: Ch ildr e n s' Tr a ve l t o Sch ool by
parents completed the PTEQ (all schools,
N u m be r of Ca r s in H ouse h old
n=121) were used to check the accuracy of
Public
transport
(only
18
(7%)
used
a
childrens' responses to the question, " Does
public/school bus, none used trains) was not
your fam ily have a car?
Count all t ypes of
used by the majority of pupils to travel
car or van" . A Cronbach Alpha coefficient, ά
to/from school therefore the findings for
= .97, revealed a high level of concurrence.
walking and car travel are reported. Data
from TDs were analysed by comparing those
Twenty two parents were interviewed (20
who walked to school (4/5 days) with non-
female, 2 male). Nineteen had interviews at
walkers.
home and three in private offices. The
differences
duration ranged from 30/35 minutes (n=6),
ownership (to school χ 28.151 p<0.001 df
40/45 (n=13), 50/60 (n=3) Although self-
3, from school χ2 28.156 p<0.001 df 3). As
selected, the sample represented a cross-
car ownership increases, walking to school
section by age, family size (including six
decreases. Table 1 shows the results of the
single parents), socio-economic status, travel
cross tabulation. National Travel Survey data
mode behaviour. Of the 22: four were from
showed that the decline across car ownership
'0 car' households; seven '1 car'; ten '2 car'
categories in walking trips to school is the
and one had '6 cars'. A breakdown by ID is:
same nationally: 82% of trips by 5-10 year
one parent (ID 6,163); three (5,017); five
olds from 'no car' households are walk
(4547, 4,518); four (3,378); one (2,069);
journeys, 54% of 'one car' and 37% of those
two (1,841, 1,070); five (ID <1,000), one
from
unknown. Eight interviewees had part-time,
2004/5)
ten
full-time
employment,
three
There
in
were
the
highly
significant
proportions
by
car
2
'two/more
cars'
households
(NTS,
were
Table 1: Children, Walk to School, 4/5 Days by Cars in Household
W a lk t o Sch ool
N o Ca r
On e Ca r
Tw o Ca r
Yes
Tot a l
Tot a l
M
4 / 5 D a ys
No
Th r e e / M or e
7
58
62
40
167
(23%)
(48%)
(63%)
(77%)
( 55% )
24
62
36
12
134
(77%)
(52%)
(37%)
(23%)
( 45% )
31
120
98
52
301
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
Percent ages rounded t o nearest 1%
The corresponding cross tabulation for 'Car
used to investigate if 'travel distance' to
to School 4/5 Days' also revealed significant
school was a confounding variable. There
2
proportional differences (to school, car, χ
were no significant differences in the travel
31.363 p<0.001 df 3, from school car, χ2
distances according to the number of cars in
13.390 p<0.004 df 3). Postcode data were
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
9
households (Kruskal Wallis Test, chi-square
8.111 p<0.05 df 3). The pattern remained
.564 p<.905 df 3).
consistent for car journeys. As car ownership
increased, the numbers travelling by car also
Tr a ve l t o Fr ie n ds, Ot h e r Pla ce s a n d
Sh or t Ca r Jou r n e ys
increased
(car
to
χ2
'Friends',
17.335,
p<0.001 df 3, car to 'Other', χ
2
19.390
Less than 1% of children used trains for trips
p<0.001 df 1). A 'short car journey' is a trip
to see 'Friends' (some children did not make
lasting 'five minutes or less' (Goodwin 1995).
these journeys, 18% did visit friends, friends
The purpose of this analysis was to count the
may have visited them) or journeys to
number of children, not the total per child.
'Other' places. Nineteen (6%) used public
Overall,
buses to 'Friends' and 42 (13%) for 'Other'
journeys and 160 (59%) of these made at
journeys. Regarding walking journeys to see
least one short trip. Two thirds of children
'Friends' and travel to 'Other' places, the
from households with two/more cars made at
proportional differences by number of cars in
least one short car journey during the week
household are significant (walk to 'Friends',
(χ2 20.037, p<0.001, df 3).
272
of
301
children
made
car
χ2 11.556, p<0.009 df 3, walk to 'Other', χ2
Table 2: Childrens' Short Car Journeys in Week by Cars in Household
Sh or t Ca r
N o Ca r
On e Ca r
Tw o Ca r
Th r e e /
Tot a l
M or e
Ch ildr e n
Jou r n e y
No
Yes
20
50
27
15
112
(71.5%)
(48.0%)
(29.0%)
(32.5%)
( 41% )
8 (28.5%)
54
67
31
160
(52.0%)
(71.0%)
(67.5%)
( 59% )
28
104
94
46
272
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
Tot a l Ch ildr e n
Percent ages rounded t o nearest 0.5%
Ch ildr e n s' Tr a ve l, D iffe r e n ce s in Socio-
households.
The
proportional
different
(there
also
differences
strongly
towards
e con om ic St a t u s?
A
comparison
of
socio-economic
children
from
circumstances
greater number of ‘no car' or 'one car'
are
cars
and
public
differences
in
attitudes
buses
in
this
suggests it is the fact of car ownership rather
subsample (Baslingtobn, 2006)) in Table 3
than
were highly significant with a correlation
socio-economic
differences
per
se,
which accounts for travel mode to school.
coefficient
Schools 2 and 8 are in economically deprived
association between 'walk to school 4/5 days'
districts, (IDs 247 and 298 respectively). In
and 'number of cars in household' (Schools
total, 49 of the 100 pupils who completed
2, 8 walk to, χ2 17.44 p<0.001 df 3,
TDs live in two or three car households.
Cramér’s V = .421 p<.001, (Schools 2, 8
However,
walk from, χ2 11.808 p<0.008 df 3, Cramér's
census data
showed that this
proportional split is not representative of
other
households
in
the
two
V
revealing
=
a
.344
'very
strong'
p<.008).
school
catchment areas. As expected, there are a
World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
10
Table 3: Children from Economically Deprived Districts:
Walk to School, 4/5 Days by Cars in Household
W a lk t o Sch ool
N o Ca r
On e Ca r
Tw o Ca r
Th r e e
4 / 5 D a ys
Tot a l
/ M or e
No
4
17
14
23
58
(27%)
(47%)
(61%)
(89%)
( 58% )
11
19
9
3
42
(73%)
(53%)
(39%)
(11%)
( 42% )
15
36 ( 100% )
Yes
Tot a l
( 100% )
23
26
100
( 100% )
( 100% )
( 100% )
Percent ages rounded t o nearest 1%
Similar proportions of children in these
to level of car ownership, not area of
districts walk to see 'Friends' but there
residence or socio-economic status.
are
highly
significant
differences
for
journeys to 'other' places (χ2 22.001
p<0.001
df
3,
p<.001,
n=84).
Cramér's
Of
V
the
=
.512
'no
car'
M in u t e s Spe n t W a lk in g
The minutes spent walking during the
week of diary set completion included all
walking shown on TDs or SED. The mean
time spent walking was 127 minutes (2.11
hrs) and median, 97 minutes (1.61 hrs),
6% did not show any walking. Table 4
provides descriptive statistics for minutes
spent on 'All Exercise' and 'Walking' by
number of cars in household (n=294). As
car ownership increased, time spent
walking decreased. The differences in
physical activity only apply to walking, no
other exercise subcategories.
households: 8 (61%) walk, 'one car' 22
(73%), 'two car’ 4 (22%) and three/more
4 (17%) of households walk. A plotting
exercise
was
undertaken
around
the
district of School 2 (48 of 52 postcodes
were known) using an ordnance survey
map.
Street
addresses
were
marked
according to car ownership. Altogether,
17 of the 21 ‘no car’ or ‘one car’
households lived in the same street or
adjoining roads as those from two/more.
Hence, the travel mode differences relate
Table 4: Children, Minutes Spent on 'All Exercise' and 'Walking'
One Week by Number of Cars in Household
D e scr ipt ive
St a t ist ics
N o Ca r
On e Ca r
Tw o Ca r
Th r e e / M or e
(minutes)
'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk '
'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk '
'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk '
'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk '
Mean
561
181
573
129
570
119
559
98
Median
488
175
459
111
440
79
440
61
Interquart/Range
524
141
529
127
417
155
700
101
S.D.
329
86
453
102
446
109
409
130
Sa m ple Size
n= 3 0
n= 1 1 7
n= 9 6
World Transport Policy &
Practice_______________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
n= 5 1
11
The distribution for time spent walking for
ranks for children, time spent walking in the
the sample of children who reside in 'no car'
four car ownership categories (chi-square
households
(Kolmogorov-
.22.672 p<.001 df 3). Figure 1 compares
Smirnov test .461 p<.984) therefore more
the mean time spent walking by children
likely
according
to
was
normal
be
representative
of
the
to
car
ownership
categories.
population.
The distributions for children
There were 9 extreme scores across sub
from
two,
car
samples (>375 minutes: 5 children from 'no
households were not normally distributed
car/one car' households, 4 children from
therefore may not be representative.
'two/more').
A
one,
Kruskal
Wallis
and
three/more
Test
indicated
highly
significant differences between the m ean
200
Mean Time Spent Walking (Minutes)
180
181
160
140
129
120
119
100
98
80
No Cars
One car
Two cars
Three/more
Number of Cars in Household
Figure 1: Children, Mean Time Spent Walking (Minutes) in One Week by Number of Cars in
Households
Pa r e n t s Tr a ve l t o Sch ool, W or k a n d
from 'two/more cars' households walked (χ2
Ot h e r Pla ce s
29.936, p<0.001, df 2). The pattern of
Similar percentages of parents in all car
results for the unem ploy ed sub sample of
ownership categories escorted their child
parents was consistent with others and NTS
to/from school: 75% of parents in 'no car',
data
84% of 'one car' and 84% from 'two/more'
nationally. Only 30% of school escort trips
car households (only 3 parents in the PTEQ
by the 'economically inactive' in 'two/more'
sample
were
households,
from
and
are
shows
this
finding
is
reflected
‘three/more
car
car households are walk journeys compared
included
with
with 53% of 'one car' and 83% of trips in
‘two/more’). Nevertheless, the mode used
'no car' households (NTS, 2004/5).
varied according to 'car availability.' As the
number of cars in a household increased,
Of 107 parents in employment: 57% travel
fewer parents walked to escort children: 15
by car, 16% walk, 11% bus, 4% train, 1%
(94%) 'No car' households walked, 17
share car, 11% 'other' (use two modes
(55%) of 'one car' and 11 (20%) of parents
car/walk,
bus/walk).
There
were
highly
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
12
significant differences in the proportions of
18 car owners, 14 named regular physical
car travellers according to number of cars in
activities
2
household (χ
30.718, p<0.001, df 2).
made
transportation.
easier
because
of
car
Another resided in a rural
Again, NTS data shows this finding is
area and had no alternative transport.
reflected nationally: 87% of t rips to work
Activities mentioned were: gym, sports
by
'two/more'
journeys,
5%
car
households
are
car
centre, swimming, tennis, football, cricket,
are
walk,
are
bus
dog walking. Typical responses were:
2%
journeys. For 'one car' households: 68% of
Q.
" Are t here any ways a car
trips are car, 11% walk, 8% bus. For 'no
helps you t o be act ive and
car': 15% of trips are car, 26 walk and 32%
get exercise?
bus, 27% 'other' (NTS, 2004/5).
Few
parents
walked
or
A.
used
public
Well, t o get
t o t he pool
she'll norm ally go wit h her dad at t he
transport for regular journeys to 'Other'
weekend"
places therefore the findings reported are
(Interview No.19: 'One car' household).
for
car
journeys
(7%
used
full/part
journey;
12%
walked
trains
for
full/part
A
question
on
the
interview
schedule
journey; 19% used buses full/part journey).
enquired about the opposite effect, if cars
Of 102 parents who made trips to 'Other'
prevent ed exercise. Five of 18 car owners
places by car, 6% were made by 'no car'
responded with a “no” t hey did not think so.
households, 34% by 'one car' and 60% by
Nine parents thought it did:
parents in households with two/more cars
Q.
" Are t her e any ways t hat
(car to 'Other', χ 22.029, p<0.001, df 2).
you t hink t he car st ops you from being
The analysis of 'minutes spent walking' by
act ive and get t ing exercise at all?
2
car ownership level was repeated on the
A.
Yes, because I always have
parents' sample. Unfortunately the data for
t o walk t o school ot herwise and back. By
this was incomplete. Walking for school
being t her e it j ust st ops you being act iv e"
escort trips was not requested, resulting in
(Interview No. 20: Two car household for
reduced totals for the 38 parents who
ten years)
walked. The 'time spent walking' and 'all
exercise' was higher for 'no car' households
The remaining four mentioned having less
but the differences in proportions were not
exercise when responding to a previous
statistically significant.
question/s
about
the
advantages/disadvantages of having two
Ca r Usa ge for Ex e r cise
Ninety-six parents (71%) travelled by car
to play sport/get exercise including walking.
Of these 4% use a car daily, 55% weekly,
cars, or else not having any car:
Q.
" Are
t here
any
ot her
disadvant ages t o having t wo cars?
A. I t hink you get lazy really; it 's a
12% twice monthly and the remainder less
bit of a luxury having t wo cars really.
frequently. Of the 96, 60 had two/more
(Interview No.13: Two car household for
cars, 32 'one car' and 4 'no car'. There were
four years)
highly significant differences in 'car usage
2
for exercise' by car ownership level (χ
37.134, p<0.001, df 2). The interviews
Q.
" Do you t hink t here are any
advant ages t o not having a car?
A.
Yes t he exercise. I
t hink
enabled further investigation and parents
you get lazy, som e people j um p in t he car
were asked about all family members. Of
t o go down t he road for a newspaper.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
13
(Interview No.21: One car, single parent
households with two/more cars suggests a
household)
habit forming relationship signified by the
Several interviewees remarked on their
gradient which cuts across car ownership
decreased usage of public transport since
categories in cross tabulations. Those of
becoming a two car household:
more recent second car ownership were
Q.
" Do your children norm ally
conscious of behavioural change in relation
to amount of walking and diminished use of
t ravel wit h you when you go on t he bus?
Yeah. I t would be a bit of an
public transport. Goodwin (1995) concludes
advent ure now, going on a bus, wouldn't it ?
that car dependence is a process not a
(looks at child). Because we used t o go
state. Justifications for escorting children by
everywhere on buses"
car are based on social, psychological and
(Interview No.3: 'two car' household for
economic
three years)
danger' or busy roads, time pressure, peer
A.
variables:
safety:
'stranger
pressure, convenience, the weather, cost,
The 22 parents were asked if they liked
all of which are tangible reasons. These
walking and about acceptable distances. For
explain peoples' needs, but not the greater
some
context,
usage of cars in multi-car households. Do
separating walking for transport (to local
these parents feel more threatened by
shops or school) with recreational walking,
'stranger danger’? Do they have less time
for pleasure or exercise. The desire to walk
than others? Fear of strangers or busy
or the distance did not depend on car
roads is reason for parental accompaniment
ownership levels. Two of the four 'no car'
of children but does not explain car use for
interviewees walked only when necessary:
this
this
depended
on
the
purpose,
except
if
the
parent
Q.
" Do you like Walking?
themselves feels threatened. Time pressure
A.
I don't like it – I do it , but I
because of employment is an important
factor, but nationally, the numbers involved
wouldn't say I lik e it "
(Interview
No.12:
'no
car'
household,
interviewee's emphasis)
are surprising. A picture of 'trip chaining'
and school escort is provided by the DfT:
57% of women and 53% of men return
Discussion: Number of Cars in Household,
straight home in the morning (DfT, 2005).
Travel Mode and Habit Forming Behaviour
Of the 43% who 'trip chain' only 18% of
A
link
female escorters, (17% of male) continue
between the amount of car usage and the
on to employment. Shift work or part-time
'number of cars in households' (it is also
employment
associated
cars,
interestingly, the unemployed in two/more
future
car households use the same mode as the
pervasive
public
finding
with
buses
aspirations
is the
attitudes
and
learning
strong
towards
childrens’
to
drive
own
car
employed.
may
be
explanatory,
Housewives
have
but
time
(Baslington 2006)). It is the independent
pressures; they may be full-time carers
variable on regular journeys as well as
with toddlers or elderly relatives. However,
childrens' short car journeys. Although the
this also applies to housewives from 'no car'
PTEQ sample was self-selected, the findings
or 'one car' households' but unemployment
mirrored
school
appears to provide the incentive for these
escorters as well as a sample of employees
to walk. Distance travelled did not have a
from
bearing,
a
the
national
general
sample
of
population.
The
90%
lived
approximately
1.13
pervasiveness of car usage by mothers in
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
14
kilometres (three quarters of a mile) from
two cars – why not get full use from them?
school – close enough to walk.
The nature of the PTEQ sample prevents
some generalisations, parents in London
An issue of cause and effect arises: does
use public transport more. As parents, the
the availability of an extra car/s increase
interviewees differ from the population of
car dependency or do those who lack
single
fervour for walking, ensure ample supply of
parental and non-parental populations using
cars
random samples of both sexes and couples
to
avoid
it?
The
findings
from
interviews suggest car availability increases
adults.
Further
investigation
on
without children is planned.
dependency, but some cases of the latter
are likely to exist. The interview sample
contained
two
parents
from
'no
car'
Tr a n spor t a n d Re cr e a t ion a l W a lk in g
Children from 'no car' households spent
households who did not like it and they
more
probably
car
access to cars. It is not known if the
owning community. A difference is the
distributions for 'time spent walking' by
latter can afford a car to avoid walking!
children in car owning sub samples are
This does not mean that those from 'no car'
representative. However, other researchers
households are fitter. A high proportion of
of childrens' travel have found dichotomous
car owners used them for transport to
differences between 'car owning' and 'non-
sports centres and elsewhere for exercise.
car owning' households. These are most
This is the likeliest explanation for the
noticeable in the statistics when the number
similarities in childrens' and parents' total
of cars is '0-1', compared with '2-4' car
physical activity levels across all categories
households.
of car ownership. Availability of a car can
people in 'non-car' owning households walk
reduce
50% more on average, quoting NTS data.
have
walking
counterparts
for
in
transport
the
but
may
time
walking
because
of
limited
Davis (1998) concluded that
Recent findings from the NTS show the gap
facilitate other exercise.
has widened: " Those people living in a
Interestingly,
some
households
in
household wit h a car walk less t han t wo
economically deprived districts have access
t hirds as far
to several cars. One explanation is qualit y
wit hout a car ” ( DfT, 2005, Table 2.12). The
of car, owning older or smaller vehicles. Of
NTS travel diary excludes walking off the
those in the lowest income group, 46%
public
have cars over ten years old (DfT, 2003).
walking is unlikely to be shown. However,
The cost of new and secondhand cars has
Table 2.12 DfT (2005) is compiled from
decreased and although petrol prices have
responses to an interview question which
risen, the running costs of vehicles have
asks about any walks of 20 minutes or
risen less than the cost of living since 1980
more,
(Hibbs, 2000). Access to a 'company car' is
therefore comparisons are useful. Weinstein
possible for skilled, semi and unskilled
and Schimek (2005) stress the need for
manual workers such as builders and taxi
improved
drivers.
An older sibling/s may run a car
travel. The American equivalent of the NTS
increasing the availability. An economic
fails to capture all walk trips. Their analysis
factor may have a bearing on car usage.
by
Two/more
transport
walking
ownership
level
car
families
financial commitment.
have
a
greater
If they are running
as t hose in
highway
on
or
therefore
off
data
number
a household
the
public
collection
of
cars
is
recreational
of
highway
pedestrian
highlighted
related
whereas
to
that
car
recreational
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
15
walking is not. A finding of Ross (2000) was
between groups of parents (mainly female)
that residents of economically deprived
and
neighbourhoods are more likely to walk
household. It is known that for one type of
than those in less disadvantaged places.
journey, school escort, the travel distances
Van Lenthe, Brug and Mackenbach (2005)
were very similar for most, therefore the
also found that those who resided in the
fact of car ownership had independent
most economically deprived areas of a city
effects to the social situation. Other findings
in the Netherlands were more likely to walk
for non-school journeys and short car trips
for transport reasons but less likely to walk
strongly suggest that the number of cars in
or participate in sport in their leisure time.
a
Possession
individual's degree of car dependency.
of
a
car
appeared
to
be
children
household
by
is
number
a
of
determinant
cars
on
in
an
associated with an increased risk of almost
never walking or cycling to shops or work.
D e t e r r in g M u lt i- Ca r Ow n e r sh ip
Bostock (2001) found that 'no access to a
The definition of a problem has implications
car' is an indicator of low socio-economic
for tackling it. A contention of the author is
status and also of having to walk to places
that transport and social policies need to
because of necessity, not pleasure.
address both the individual and the social
determinants of car dependency to be
D e fin in g 'Ca r D e pe n de ncy' Con ce pt u a l
effective.
Measures
such
as
'travel
D iffe r e n ce s
awareness' campaigns do not address the
There are conceptual differences in the
effects of a 'social' dependency on cars -
usage of the expression, 'car dependency'
they deal with individuals who are car
by academics. It is applied to describe
dependent and could make some changes
differences between individuals regarding
in behaviour. This is only part of the
reliance on car transportation. A proposition
problem.
of
impacts on all households including ‘no car’
Goodwin
(1997)
differ" (p.454)
and
he
is
that
notes
" People
the
A
social
dependency
on
cars
wide
households. The effects of 'social exclusion'
variation of 'car dependence' in adults.
on the latter are discussed by Solomon
People as individuals increase their use of
(2003).
cars, relying on them more and more.
Goodwin also discusses the term in relation
Tolley (2003) discusses the contradiction in
to social changes such as land use and
government policy: car ownership should
provision of services which m ake people
increase and usage decrease. He stresses
dependent on cars as a society. Brindle
that owning a car is not the problem, but
(2003) discusses 'car dependency' with
'car dependence' is. Walking is unlikely to
reference to the social situation. He argues
rise
that the car is a means to an end. If there
promised by government for a National
is an addiction,
word
Walking Strategy materialise. With greater
'dependency'), it is not to cars, but to
economic prosperity, car ownership levels
mobility. It is " t he m obilit y dem ands of our
are likely to increase and the rise is an
lifest yle and consum pt ion pat t erns wit hin
" underlying
t he cont ext
(p.190). A worrying trend is indicated by
(implied by
the
of t he physical, social and
econom ic environm ent
t hat
we liv e in"
even
if
the
force
facilities
for
and
reduced
support
walking"
the statistics for 'second car' ownership in
(p.65). The author identified differences in
Britain.
travel
1980: from 15% to 29% of all households.
mode
behaviour
and
attitude
This has
almost
doubled
since
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
16
The percentage of 'one car' households
government or employers (p.300). While
remains the same, 45%. Those with 'no car'
advocating
have dropped from 41% to 26% (DfT,
innovative campaigns, Meaton and Kingham
2005). Another concern is that children
(1998)
transported
acceptance that radical action is required.
by
car
experience
a
high
for
stress
a
complete
how
there
package
needs
of
to
be
proportion of short car trips, for instance,
the 'school run' and may associate car use
Con clu sion s
with this. Some of the author's statistical
The variable 'car availability' is normally
findings
used as an economic indicator, synonymous
for
'one
car'
households
are
inconsistent and a likely explanation is
with
higher
'single parent' families. In these there is a
particular neighbourhoods. Possession of
ratio of one car to each adult. In two
two or more cars extends socio-economic
parent, one car households, car usage is
and geographical boundaries therefore the
higher than in 'no car' households but lower
effects
than multi-car households.
restricted
of
income
multi-car
to
the
and
residency
ownership
affluent.
are
Bold
in
not
policy
measures are necessary to prevent the
Baird (1998) quotes Michael Palin, " perhaps
trend
we will end up wit h a policy like Chinese
ownership.
birt h
cont rol,
one
car
per
towards
second
become 'one car', or 'no car' households
M.R.Tight and Dr. P. Firmin, Institute for
should be introduced. Road tax on a second
Transport
car could be set at a higher rate and that
England, for their guidance and support.
on
income
Without the help of staff and pupils in the
generated should be hypothecated to pay
participating schools in West Yorkshire, the
for these. But the efficacy of a 'one car'
research could not have gone ahead.
policy
is
higher
extremely
still.
to
remain
Ack n ow le dge m e n t s
I am grateful to my PhD supervisors, Dr.
third,
families
car
or
a
for
third
household"
(p.168). A system of inducements and
disincentives
and
The
doubtful
if
Studies,
University
of
Leeds,
not
incorporated with an integrated package of
measures. Dobbs (2005) highlights that
Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce :
sustainable transport systems may have
Institute
serious gender implications. Hence, a 'one
University Road, University of Leeds, Leeds.
car' policy should be marketed as 'car
England. LS2 9JT
share' within families so that women are
Email: baslington@sagainternet.co.uk
for
Transport
Studies,
36-40,
not the losers. Dealing with transport to
work
issues
(which
is
one
reason
24,
Rogerson
Square,
households obtain a second car) is of vital
Yorkshire, England
importance.
HD6 1TJ
Kingham,
Dickinson
et
al
Brighouse,
West
(2001) point out that while some employers
provide a car and allowances for petrol,
people will not be persuaded to leave cars
at
home.
Cullinane
(1992)
describes
company cars as " an unnecessary addit ion
t o t he park of cars" advocating that owners
are fully charged without subsidy from
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
17
Trends, innovative course settings, and
levers for mobility and transport
Seen from t he Year 2030
H a r t m u t H . Topp
We need innovative policies to shape the
transport are tightly interconnected with
future
space
of
mobility
and
transport.
and
time,
settlement,
Sustainable mobility in terms of ecology,
communication,
economy and social justice is the goal, even
economy, life styles etc. Due to these
though sustainability is poorly defined in
complex interdependencies there are no
the field of mobility and transport, and, at
simple recipes or easy successes on how to
the same time, inflationarily used. Technical
reach
innovations
in
transport
sustainable
mobility.
I
energy,
choose
a
often
retrospective view from 2030 to present my
discussed, but we also need economic
scenario because I think it is more inspiring
innovations,
than
political
innovations,
as
are
environment,
innovations,
well
as
social
behavioural
a
prospective
scenario,
plus
it
underlines the visionary character of a long-
changes, because sustainable mobility can
term
only be achieved by a broad range of
completeness for my scenario, it rather
measures.
and
contains important influences of mobility
innovative course settings, because laissez-
and transport in cities and regions like
faire cause undesirable developments, such
stones in a mosaic. And, of course, I also
as wasting fossil energy, climate change
could draw different scenarios. For my
and
global
scenario I have chosen ten topics; they
warming, dead-end street of automobile
reach from energy and prices for mobility
dependency, urban sprawl resulting in high
over city development and life styles to
costs, unaffordable public transport in rural
different transport issues.
areas,
We
natural
need
new
disasters
macro-economic
congestion,
policies
through
losses
environmental
and
scenario.
I
do
not
claim
total
through
health
damage ... The list could be continued.
1 . A fr a m e for e n e r gy 2 0 3 0
I invite you to leap forward with me into the
year 2030. The Kyoto Protocol is now
Undesirable developments, like these, are
accepted world-wide; the Rio Declaration
avoidable; that is what I would like to show
from 1992, as well as, the Agenda 21 are
with a scenario for mobility and transport in
considered as the beginning of a new epoch
the year 2030. Scenarios are images of
of global co-operation. The CO2-problem
possible futures following a comprehensive
and high prices for crude oil, since the
path - in the favourable, optimistic case
beginning of this century, lead to a massive
with the right innovations and right political
promotion of renewable energies. Now, in
course settings at the right time. Such an
2030,
optimistic scenario requires future-oriented
dominating.
renewable
forms
of
energy
are
and societally accepted innovations not only
in the field of transport, for mobility and
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
18
However, it should not be forgotten how
are now paid by the road users through an
long it took for the transition from fossil to
ecological tax. Since 2012, the transport
renewable energy, and which economic and
sector as a whole is involved in CO2-
technological efforts were needed. Iceland,
emission trading. Since 2006 , former tax
with
benefits
its
huge
resources
energy,
played
a
process.
With
high
of
special
geothermic
role
spare
in
capacity
for
commuters
have
been
this
abolished step by step. At the turn of the
of
century, the public bodies could no longer
abundant electricity from geothermic power
afford to maintain and adjust the 'free of
plants it established the first hydrogen-
cost' usable roads. In Germany, already in
based economy of the world in 2012,
the 1990s maintenance dropped to 54 % of
including power-cell driven cars and trucks.
the actual requirement on national roads,
Today (in 2030) motor vehicles are clean.
and to 63 % on motorways.
In most countries half of the fleet is still
based on traditional combustion engines,
'Make the road user pay instead of the tax
while new vehicles use hydrogen produced
payer' was the solution: In Germany, it
with
started
renewable
energy.
The
prices
for
in
2005
with
road
pricing
on
energy increased drastically, which lead to
motorways for heavy trucks; and road
better efficiency in industry and transport
pricing for all vehicles on all roads outside
by more than a factor of 4.
the cities was introduced in 2012. The GPSbased
The
national
was
finally
successful, and proved to be extendable to
the
all vehicles and all roads. It could also be
century) from the gross national product to
exported to several countries. This system
the ecological national product. This total
is
accounting of the national economy, which
construction and uses telematic services,
considers
and
which have been standard equipment in
environmental burdens as cost factors, has
vehicles since 2010. Spatially and timely
created a new economic framework for
staggered road pricing was able to flatten
transport and energy.
peak volumes and to balance demand and
(starting
at
consumption
balances
technology
were
changed
economic
on-board
the
of
turn
of
nature
self-sufficient,
requiring
no
roadside
supply. The former notorious traffic jams
2 . Ph ysica l m obilit y is e x pe n sive
are now exceptions. Road pricing in cities
Mobility, especially auto-mobility in 2030, is
(such as that in place in some Norwegian
expensive. The demand for crude oil had
cities, Singapore, London or Stockholm)
increased
was not introduced in
Germany
cities,
decade of the century and, since 2015,
because
politicians
were
deliveries recurrently could not cover it.
concerned that road pricing would make the
Some years later, the transition of the
city more expensive and thus less attractive
transport sector from carbon to hydrogen
compared
gained ground, but even in 2030 it is not
argued that parking fees could have a
yet completed; in most countries we still
similar effect as road pricing.
dramatically
during
the
first
planners
to
the
and
periphery.
They
also
have an expensive double network of filling
stations. Parts of the former uncovered
The increases of mobility prices were often
external
by
protested against, but with their long-term
environmental damage, health risks and
impact and calculability they also lead to a
macro-economic losses through congestion
new balance between mobility requirements
costs
of
transport
caused
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
19
and traffic behaviour. Social hardship was
areas)
compensated
towards
by
a
transport
allowance
had
dissolved
what
we
spatial
call
structures
'Zwischenstadt';
similar to the former residence allowance
suburbia and urban sprawl with low density,
for people living on public welfare.
car-orientation
dependency.
and,
finally,
Concentrated,
car-
radial
traffic
3 . I n n e r cit y de ve lopm e n t
flows, directed towards the city centre were
For a long time Green land development
becoming
was very common, rarely questioned and
peripheral flows and criss-cross flows over
promoted
longer
thorugh
commuters.
benefits
Auto-mobility
telecommunication
demand
tax
for
(together
bigger
with
residences,
for
increasingly
distances
superimposed
throughout
the
by
region
and
(figure 1). The density of the city decreased
the
-
cheap
a
process,
which
was
additionally
accelerated by demographic changes.
building plots and a family home in green
Figure 1:
Spatial structure of travel patterns (own figure)
Parallel to green land development at the
density
beginning of the century, new, dense and
parallel to suburbia and the 'Zwischenstadt'.
and
mixed-use
areas
survived
mixed-use city quarters were established on
empty land abandoned by military, industry
Inner city development (instead of green
or railways. These inner city developments
land development) with 'more mobility and
were very successful and they initiated a
less traffic' (Topp, 2003) became the most
new trend 'back into the city' (Brühl et al,
important strategy of spatial development.
2005) and the renaissance of the inner city.
In inner city areas, a household can easily
Attractive cities, which kept an eye on the
live with one car and (if so desired) even
quality of their public spaces, advertised
without a car. Here, public transport plus
urban culture and urbanity with success.
car-sharing is a realistic alternative. Car-
They especially attracted the group of the
dependency in suburbia on the other side
'new' old people wanting to live in an urban
absorbs more from a household's budget
cultural
than
ambience.
Suburbia
is
not
is
usually
noticed.
That
can
attractive for the older generation because
compensate for higher building costs in the
shops, services, leisure time facilities and
inner city over a long period. In suburbia
medical care are not easily accessible, and
people loose not only flexibility and mobility
the car is needed for almost every journey.
but also economic liberties. This gained
The traditional European inner city with its
more and more importance during the
years because of more expensive transport
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
20
and (at the same time) of smaller, freely
Saarbrücken, the capital of the German
disposable parts of household incomes due
Federal State of Saarland with 180,000
to more financial provision for sickness and
inhabitants. Here, the transport-oriented
old
urban
functionalism of the 1960s had perfected
structures, at least in transport aspects with
the motorway and, at the same time,
less
age.
Robust
and
car-dependency,
stable
more
deprived the city from its specific character
attractive whilst car-dependent living in
and it’s most important potential. There
suburbia became less so. The planning of
were a lot of similar examples all over the
the 'compact city' and of 'decentralised
world. In the early century, a transport
concentration'
infrastructure cutting wounds like this into
in
became
the
region
became
effective, whereas today (in the year 2030)
the
we have problem areas of urban renewal in
Saarbrücken, €160 million was invested in a
suburbia and the 'Zwischenstadt'.
tunnel and, in 2012 the city centre was
city
was
no
longer
tolerated.
In
back on the river banks. It was not only a
An
indispensable
aspect
of
inner
city
revamp of the city centre, but also provided
development is the quality of public spaces.
the turn around of a declining city, which
Urban design, architecture, green areas and
today is better off and able to compete with
water in the city; quality of life for jobs,
prosperous neighbours such as Trier, Metz
leisure activities and residents; and urban
and Luxemburg. An early example similar
culture became the deciding factors within
to Saarbrücken is Düsseldorf on the Rhine
the growing competition between cities. A
River,
lack of these qualities, very often, was
completed in the early 1990s.
where
a
similar
project
was
caused by brutal transport infrastructure. A
good
example
Figure 2a:
is
our
project
in
Saarbrücken 2006: motorway along the river
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
21
Figure 2b:
Saarbrücken 2012: city centre on the river banks
activities, which, at the turn of the century
4 . I n dividu a l life st yle s
Living
in
the
city,
living
in
the
already made up for about half of the
'Zwischenstadt' (edge-city), and living in
kilometres covered by passenger transport.
suburbia all represent different life styles.
Public means of transportation, as collective
We experienced a multitude of diverse life
means with large vehicles, do not fit too
styles,
through
well into such a development. They have
individuality, flexibility and spontaneity. The
held their importance in inner cities; but in
integration of people in time and space
other parts of the cities and in the regions
systems has dissolved; working hours are
they have become more individual and
more flexible, operating and working hours
more
are
fail-safe
locomotion (foot, by bicycle and by car)
automation. Service hours are significantly
have gained further meaning. The bicycle,
expanded; in many cases to around the
in a stylish high-tech form now is a symbol
clock (car-sharing is an example). Tele-
for independence, individuality, and healthy
working is widespread in 2030: around
living.
which
de-coupled
are
coined
through
widely
flexible.
The
individual
forms
of
30 % of the employed work at home,
mostly three days per week, plus 20 %
5 . D e m ogr a ph ic ch a n ge a n d m obilit y
work
call
World-wide the population is still growing.
been
In Europe, however, the population has
in
centres.
dispersed
Commuter
tele-offices
traffic
has
or
noticeably reduced; the traffic peaks have
been
shrinking
since
about
2015
become less accentuated. Traffic problems
societies are rapidly ageing. In Germany,
(in 2030) are mainly caused by leisure
for instance, the birth rate had sunk to 1.3
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
and
22
children per woman at the beginning of the
Regional differences are more interesting
century; later it stabilised to about 1.4
than the generalised figures for a whole
(Statistisches Bundesamt, 2003), whereas
countr. Due to regional migration within a
2.1 would be needed to maintain the
country and different chances of regions to
population constant. A table comparing
attract
median age and birth rate in the European
differences
Union in 2003 shows Germany with the
shrinking regions grew. The spatial planning
oldest population and one of lowest birth
objective of equal living conditions was no
rates, while Ireland had the youngest and
longer
most reproductive one. Iceland would stay
prosperous,
stagnating
in this chart almost exactly where Ireland
regions
by
is. In Germany, even though immigration
problems in peripheral rural areas.
migrants
from
between
achievable.
side
outside,
the
prosperous
In
side
2030,
we
and
with
and
have
shrinking
the
biggest
was made easier, it could not make up for
the low birth rate.
6 . Pu blic t r a n spor t
Public
transport
was
affected
through
The other component of the demographic
demographic changes in several aspects.
change
of
First, with fewer students, the biggest
societies and that happened all over Europe
group of public transport users collapsed; in
due to higher life spans. In this respect,
rural areas the backbone of public transport
Iceland is no exception. In Germany, the
was affected. Second, less people working
number of older people over 60 grew by
resulted in less commuter rides - which
41 % since 2003, while the figures for the
were, at the beginning of the century, a
population under 20 dropped by 19 %.
strong column of public transport. Thirdly,
was
the
continuous
ageing
the older generation of 2030 (having grown
Figure 3:
Median age and birth rate in the
European Union 2003
up with the car) drive longer and more than
the generation before. Decreasing body
strength speaks more for
the car. Decreasing speed
of
reactions
is
compensated by defensive
driving
and
driver's
Walking
automatic
assistances.
disabilities
are
less restricting in a car
than in public transport;
the
desire
determined
to
as
live
long
selfas
possible, has postponed a
move away from the car.
According to the saying,
'You are only getting old,
when you can't drive your
car anymore.'
Definit ion ‘m edian age‘:
50 % of a populat ion ar e
younger and 50 % are older
t han m edian age
The
car
industry
has
quickly focused on the fast
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
23
growing group of older customers with 'age-
patterns
adjusted' cars (comfortable getting in and
influences,
out)
transport, could hardly be controlled by
and
with
all
possible
drivers’
in
time
as
and
space.
adversaries
of
These
public
assistances. Barrier-free public transport in
planning
the sense of 'universal design' without any
resulted in a far-reaching restructuring of
impediments concerning access and usage
transport
has been taken for granted for a long time.
efficiency. In about 2012, when car driving
Age-adjusted
public
became significantly more expensive new
transport means (beyond the elimination of
financial opportunities for public transport
physical
were opened. According to the principle
and
barrier-free
barriers)
comfort,
direct
or
political
measures.
authorities
towards
They
higher
connections and simple handling before
'transport
short travel times and transfers. 'Captive
transport received transfer payments from
riders' (young people under 17 or 18, or
the general road pricing of all vehicles on all
older people without a car) have become
roads outside the cities. This was the
fewer; occasional customers, those who are
precondition
free to opt for modal choice, regular choice
transport.
finances
for
a
transport'
new,
quality
public
public
riders and older customers have higher
demands for transport supply, information,
7 . M obilit y a ssocia t ion w it h ca r - sh a r in g
liability, service, security, and cleanliness.
Since the beginning of this century public
In 2030, the public transport customer is
transport and car-sharing co-operate under
the
the common roof of the so-called mobility
'king'.
Passenger
rights
include
a
'mobility guarantee' in case of late arrivals
association.
and missed connections; customer-oriented
integration
service and information leads to better
transport, car-sharing, dial-a-bus and taxi
understanding
of
inconvenience.
(physically and spatially), as well as in
Understanding
improves
the
terms
any
transport
of
This
of
means
walking,
information
the
total
biking,
public
and
organisation.
climate as well as customers' satisfaction
Public transport authorities evolved into
and loyalty. High functional and aesthetic
comprehensive mobility providers offering
design of stops, helpful staff members,
integrated mobility or 'seamless travelling'.
electronic tickets or mobile phone tickets
The
instead of ticket machines, enough seats,
competitive alternative to the private car.
good vehicle climate and design are 2030
Car-sharing became the 'public car' and the
customers' basic claims.
forth column in the mobility association
mobility
association
created
a
additional to walking, biking and public
How was public transport able to manage
transport.
the split between a difficult market and the
needed quality jump? At the start of this
Car-sharing started at the end of the last
century,
several
century as an ecological niche product.
countries of the European Union was on the
public
transport
in
Soon, it became strongly professionalised
border line: in addition to the demographic
developing into a country-wide, high-tech
changes it had to face liberalisation and
service
competition, cuts into financial budgets
GPS-navigation, travel data compiled by
according to European harmonisation and
on-board computers, automatic phone and
freedom of competition, tight finances of
internet-based booking systems etc. Instant
public bodies, the retreat of the state from
access without reservation, open end and
with
chip-cards,
satellite-based
public provision and more disperse traffic
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
24
one way use are taken for granted since
sharing car without searching for a parking
2015.
space and not having to pick it up on my
A pioneer in the co-operation between
way back.
public transport and car-sharing was the
When auto-mobility (around 2012) became
Transport Authority of Zürich, where in
significantly more expensive, car-sharing
1995 the brand 'züri mobil' was coined. The
reached the steep slope of the common s-
next milestone of integrated mobility was
shaped logistic curve of market penetration
set by the 'mobility packages' in the cities
and, finally, today's position in the mobility
of Freiburg and Hannover. This was a
market with 2 million car-sharing customers
comprehensive
and 65,000 cars in Germany (Topp, 2005).
information
service
directed
at
providing
satisfying
customer's mobility demands in a fast,
Figure 4: Market penetration of car-sharing
convenient, reliable, and cheap manner
in Germany (own figure)
with
the
most
appropriate
mode
of
transport. By 2007, car-sharing spaces in
Germany were legally established within the
public realm and similar to taxi stands. The
public transport stations thus evolved into
mobility stations, which are now common
all over the cities.
In Switzerland (as early as in 2005), carsharing had 60,000 customers and almost
2,000 cars. In Germany, similar numbers
were only reached by 2010 within the
mobility association (That means 650,000
considering the different populations) (see
Figure 4). More and more people considered
car
ownership
to
be
expensive
and
inefficient. Indeed, so it is. At the beginning
of this century, a private car on average
was only driven one hour per day. It was
parked
uselessly
somewhere
at
the
roadside or in a garage for at least 23
hours.
On
the
other
hand,
integrated
mobility offers the appropriate transport
mode for different purposes: for every
occasion, at any time, the right car at the
right location. This is a both a convenient
and fun system which saves a lot of money
due to the fact that buying, maintenance
and servicing of the car is taken care of by
others.
8 . I n t e r m oda l t r a n spor t syst e m
At the beginning of the 21st century, the
most
important
and more individual if I can return 'my' car-
in
transport
planning was the physical connection of the
different transport modes, as well as their
informational
and
networking.
organisational
Information
technologies
merged with transport technologies pushing
forward transport innovations. Physical and
virtual mobility grew together. In 2030, the
system
limits
of
the
former
separated
transport modes are abandoned: cars and
bikes have become more public through
car-sharing
collective
individual
Mobility chains are getting more flexible
challenge
and
public
bike-sharing
transport
mobility
chains
schemes;
is
part
which
of
are
established through individual information.
The former spatially and modally separated
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
25
transport control and management centres
parking space, parking fees, taxi, public
have merged.
transport, car-sharing, bike-sharing, mobile
phone and internet. The mobility invoice
Since 2012, cars and mobile phones as
comes monthly on the basis of 'best price',
mobile
which takes into account all benefits or
detectors
were
collecting
inter-
modal traffic data as floating car and
additions during peak times.
floating phone data. Taxis and buses with
special sensors are working as floating car
9 . Vir t u a l m obilit y
observers delivering dynamic data (while on
Virtual mobility was the big hope at the
their routes) of traffic volumes and speeds,
beginning of the century. The question was:
lengths of jams, hold-ups and roadside
will information and communication reduce
parking occupancy.
physical
transport?
'never-ending'
story
Derived
of
from
the
information
and
This floating data is coupled with data from
transport (Cerwenka, 1989) the answer
stationary detection by video or ultrasound
could only be 'no'. On the contrary, it had
for traffic light control, public transport
always been the case that new technologies
management, parking guidance and road
build up information and transport as well.
pricing. In this way, actual information is
Of course, tele-working, tele-banking, e-
gained
commerce,
about
traffic
flow,
disturbances,
tele-learning
and
tele-
mode and route choice, and origin and
conferences replace physical transport, but
destination
term
at the same time, the range of actions and
prognoses, based on this, manage on-line
the frequency of contacts of companies and
signal settings, public transport operations,
persons are increasing, finally resulting in
and individual guidance systems for route
new transport over longer distances. The
recommendations
telephone also had not been able to curb
of
journeys.
Short
and
passenger
information.
transport:
'Over
the
phone
more
appointments are made than cancelled'. EThe PTA - the Personal Travel Agent - not
commerce finally lead to a strong increase
any longer car-bound, but now integrated in
in deliveries. Despite sophisticated logistics,
the mobile phone - facilitates individual
the
mobility chains. It informs, books services
hardly be combined.
multiplying
instant
deliveries
could
and bills the user for them. Inter-modal
mobility providers have excellent business.
Nevertheless, in 2030 we have experienced
The car industry has developed into a
that this amplifying process of parallel
mobility
produces
growth of transport and information did not
'hardware' like cars, buses, trains and
continue because transport became more
stations as interfaces, but now sells these
and more expensive and communication
as
cheaper and better. Nowadays, the virtual
a
industry,
'mobility
which
package'
still
including
the
accompanying 'software' and service. At the
visit
start of the century the electronical mobility
background
card was established. Chips integrated in
traditional visit. Virtual city tourism brings
mobile phones, watches or mobility cards in
us not only into present cities, but also into
the form of a 'Be in/Be out' system detect
past and future cities. What is still lacking
the presence of a customer without any co-
with
operation from him or her needed. The
experiencing of other regions and other
system covers road fees, booking of a
people - a reality close tele-presence is still
to
a
cyber
museum
information
excursions
provides
than
is
the
more
did
the
sensual
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
26
in the pipeline. For many purpose oriented
5)
activities, easily accessible, cheap and top
functions very simple: the electronic town
quality communication is a substitute for
and road maps of the 'travel pilot' were
time-consuming
complemented
and
significantly
more
expensive transport.
'virtual'
introduced
by
(Menzel,
the
2004).
respective
It
speed
limits. The information about a speed limit
is
The
was
mechanically
transformed
by
the
globalisation
has
gained
accelerator or by the throttle in a way that
The
globalisation
accelerating beyond the speed limit is either
however (represented by global flows of
not even possible or only by a kick-down
passengers
momentum.
and
'real'
down.
procedure as we know from the speed
Regional economy cycles and continental
freight)
slowed
controller. In 1998 I already drove such a
tourism were backed up. The exotic fun (as
car in Lund, Sweden. You get accustomed
far as it survives in the globalised world) is
to it very quickly and I found it very
expensive. Through 'virtual' mobility finally,
convenient.
around 2010, the already in the 1990's
discussed de-coupling of economic growth
Figure 5:
and
ISA
transport
development
could
be
Intelligent speed adaptation -
achieved.
1 0 . 'Vision Ze r o' for t r a ffic sa fe t y
In 1997 the Swedish Parliament proclaimed
their 'Vision Zero'; a vision that nobody
should be killed or severely injured in road
traffic. The effect of a vision lies on the way
to the goal. Whether a vision is one-to-one
achievable or not is less important. In
Germany, the country of fast cars and fast
driving, and where speeding as the major
cause of heavy accidents was a taboo,
'Vision Zero' for a long time had no chance.
The car of 2030 has, beside the 'Intelligent
It took society until 2010 to no longer
Speed Adaptation', a lot of 'intelligent'
accept more than 5,000 people killed and
driver assistants like headway control, lane
80,000
changing warning or parking assistance ...
severely
injured
in
road traffic
were
The car has increasingly become a rolling
introduced: 130 km/h on motorways, 80 on
computer. Nevertheless, automatic driving
highways and 30 within the cities.
(demonstrated in the 1990's) has not yet
accidents.
New
speed
limits
been introduced. The car industry, as well
A further developed jurisdiction ensured
as the road operators, is still afraid of the
that the operators of the privatised roads
product liability.
have to guarantee a defined standard of
compliance with the rules by enforcement,
1 1 . Ré su m é
otherwise they share responsibility in case
My scenario 2030 for mobility and transport
of
was
in regions and cities contains elements
significantly improved. The speed problem
which are controllable by planning and
was further resolved when, in 2015, the
politics to very different extents. There are
'Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)' (figure
trends
an
accident.
Traffic
safety
(figure
6)
like
the
world-wide
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
27
increasing
demand
for
energy,
more
As mega-trends these developments are
expensive mobility, flexibilisation of time
hardly steerable by planning and politics,
and space structures, demographic changes
but we have to face them in order to be
with the ageing of societies, merging of
prepared and to adjust to them.
information technologies into transport etc.
Figure 6:
Trends, course settings, and levers for mobility and transport
( M e ga ) t r e n ds
increasing demand
for fossil energy
Cou r se se t t in gs
support of
ecological tax
flexible public
renewable
emission
transport
mobility is getting
more expensive
suburbanisation,
forms of energy
true costs in
transport
urban sprawl and
'back to the city'
more individual
including 'external'
costs
user financing
life styles
more flexible time
and space
Con cr e t e m e a su r e s a s le ve r s
of road
trading
in transport
cancelling
benefits
of commuters'
road pricing for
all motor
infrastructure
vehicles
transit-oriented
compensating
settlement
structures
for social
ageing of
structures
hardship
populations
inner city instead of
urban quality
merging of physical
green land
and virtual mobility
development
total telematisation
of the transport
barrier-free
from car-sharing
to the 'public car'
car-sharing spaces
licensed
multi-modal
mobility stations
merging of traffic
management
agencies
automatic traffic
data processing
speed
management
reforming the
cities
parking
financing
noise protection
management
system
...
and
in rural areas
of public transport
barrier-free
'universal design'
integrating modes
in
& traffic calming promoting
service
offensive
of public
pedestrian
and bicycle traffic
...
transport
the mobility
association
'Vision Zero'
for traffic safety
e-ticketing
instead
of ticket
machines
new mobility culture road toll pays
and traffic
behaviour
for public
transport
...
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
28
Political planning and innovative course settings
Personennahverkehrs im Mobilitätsverbund mit
(figure
Car-Sharing. Der Nahverkehr 23, Nr. 9
6)
for
future
developments
(like
renewable energies, true costs of transport,
transit-oriented settlement structures, inner city
Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce :
development instead of green land development,
Imove, Institut für Mobilität & Verkehr
integrating transport modes within the mobility
Institute for Mobility & Transport
association all need comprehensive packages of
Kaiserslautern University of Technology
measures, and we have to carefully consider
Germany
their possible undesired side effects. So for
hartmut.topp@imove-kl.de
instance, the basic claim for true costs in
transport is closely connected with the price for
mobility, and therefore it has to be introduced
gradually step-by-step, so that it does not
overburden economy and society.
Beside trends and course settings there are,
finally, many concrete measures which serve as
levers (figure 6) in planning and politics, as for
instance, an ecological tax reform, emission
trading in transport, road pricing for all motor
vehicles, a service offensive of public transport,
promoting walking and biking, from car-sharing
to the 'public car', multi-modal mobility stations,
merging
of
traffic
management
agencies,
intelligent speed adaptation and more. We have
a lot to do to achieve more sustainable mobility.
Re fe r e n ce s
Brühl, Hasso et
al
(2005):
Wohnen
in der
Innenstadt - eine Renaissance? Difu-Beiträge zur
Stadtforschung Nr. 41, Berlin
Cerwenka, Peter
(1989):
Verkehr
-
eine
unendliche Geschichte? Straße und Autobahn
(40) Nr. 9
Menzel, Christoph (2004): Basic Conditions for
the
Implementation
of
Speed
Adaptation
Technologies in Germany. Grüne Reihe Nr. 64,
imove Kaiserslautern
Statistisches Bundesamt (2003): Bevölkerung
Deutschlands bis 2050.
koordinierte
Ergebnisse
der 10.
Bevölkerungsvorausberechnung.
Wiesbaden
Topp, Hartmut H.
(2003):
weniger
bei
Verkehr
Mehr
Innen-
vor
Mobilität,
Außen-
entwicklung. Raumforschung und Raumordnung
61, Nr. 4
Topp, Hartmut H. (2005): Die Potenziale von
Car-Sharing - Mehr Chancen des Öffentlichen
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
29
2001:33).
MacLeod
(2004:28)
provides
an
Splin t e r in g t h e pu blic r e a lm :
overview of some of the features of the concept:
Usin g loca l pu blic spa ce for
cor por a t e e con om ic ga in ?
deriving their analysis from a truly impressive
Blending several theoretical perspectives and
range of cities stretching across the global
‘north’ and ‘south’, Graham and Marvin position
Fion a Ra j e
the
emergence
communities,
of
features
US-style
like
privatised
gated
Business
I n t r odu ct ion
Improvement Districts, self-enclosed shopping
This paper reflects on empirical evidence from
malls, and edge city developments within a
recently-completed research on transport and
broader context of political economic transition.
social inclusion which revealed an apparent gap
In particular, and importantly, they locate such
between stated local authority policy and actual
trends within the shifting contours of state
planning practice in the urban environment.
power and the practices of and limits to urban
The wider research looked at the ways in which
and regional planning.
people in two case study areas in Oxfordshire in
the UK experience the transport system and how
The concept of fragmentation of the public realm
this affects their ability to access key services,
is relevant to discussions of transport and social
activities and facilities. The findings described
inclusion since any “splintering” which may
here concentrate on one of the main issues
occur would be counter to the objectives of
revealed in the urban case in Barton, an urban
lessening social exclusion. To this end, in this
peripheral estate of Oxford. The paper looks at
paper we examine one of the features of
how local authority planning decisions may
Graham
conflict with their own Council’s stated policies
environment
and how the manifestation of this conflict can
community, a residential area with restricted
contribute to social exclusion in neighbourhoods
access:
and
Marvin’s
in
greater
splintered
depth:
the
urban
gated
which are already vulnerable to the effects of
social inequalities.
Through
the
establishment
of
designated
perimeters (usually in the form of walls or
Ba ck gr ou n d
The
fences) as well as controlled entrances, gated
concept
of
“splintering
urbanism”
was
developed by the UK urban planning scholars
Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin who were
responding to “what we feel is an urgent need:
to
develop
a
more
international,
robust,
critical,
cross-cutting,
dynamic
and
transdisciplinary approach to understanding the
changing relations between contemporary cities,
infrastructure
networks
and
authors argued that “a parallel set of processes
under
way
within
which
by non-residents. For some scholars, they are
deemed to be precipitating a private world that
shares little with its neighbours or the larger
political system leading to a fragmentation that
“undermines the very concept of civit as
–
organised community life” (Blakely and Snyder,
1999). (MacLeod, 2003:5)
technological
mobilities” (Graham and Marvin, 2001:33). The
are
communities are intended to prevent intrusion
infrastructure
networks are being ‘unbundled’ in ways that
help sustain the fragmentation of the social and
material fabric of cities” (Graham and Marvin,
A h ist or y of r e side n t ia l se pa r a t ion in Ox for d
While not as prevalent in European societies as
in many other regions of the world, the gated
community is showing a rising presence in the
UK.
There
are
now
over
1,000
gated
communities in England with most being found
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
30
in the wealthier south east and London in
of the former local pub, The Fox, adjacent to
particular (Atkinson and Flint, 2003).
local authority-owned flats and is being sold as:
The physical separation of one residential area
A modern gated development…the development
from another has an infamous precedent in
is within close proximity to the Headington
Oxford. In the 1930s, rapid growth of the motor
Roundabout and has easy access to the A40 and
industry brought an influx of immigrants from
links to the M40. Buses to Oxford Central and
other parts of the UK to Oxford. There was a
London
resultant pressure on the city’s limited housing
(http://www.barratthomes.co.uk/searchres.cfm
resources:
accessed 281004).
The
council
notorious
estate
at
1934
when
Cutteslowe
became
away.
The apartments are being marketed without
reference to the Barton estate upon which they
are built, their location being advertised as
the council’s tenants from using its roads: it was
“Headington,
alleged that the tenants were former Oxford
salubrious
slum-dwellers, although most of the houses
marketing
were inhabited by newcomers to the city. The
development’s main attribute appears to be that
council was not able to compel the demolition of
it is located near to the main inter-urban road
the
network for ease of access to the Oxford-London
1959.
(Crossley,
of
walk
adjoining private estate built walls to prevent
until
developers
short
an
walls
in
a
1979
@
Oxford”
adjacent
–
the
more
socially
neighbourhood.
information
indicates
The
that
the
w w w .br it ish -
corridor. The Barton estate has seen other
h ist or y.a c.u k / r e por t .a sp?com pid= 2 2 8 0 5
private
accessed 270505)
boundaries but the establishment of a gated
developments
community
being
represents
built
another
within
its
factor
One of the newest gated communities is being
contributing to the further fracturing of the local
built in Barton (see Plate 1). The gated Barratt
community fabric.
Homes development “Jazz” is located on the site
Plate 1: Gated development adjacent to local authority housing, North Way, Barton
Source: Fiona Raj é
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
31
Th e
ga t e d
com m u n it y
in
the
w ide r
literature
African
gated
communities
further
extend
contemporary segregatory tendencies in the city
com m u n it y
The
that
city
of
the
post-apartheid
describes
gated
or
South
and that policy responses are required which
walled
curtail the creation of such havens of social
communities as “security villages” (Jürgens and
withdrawal. (Atkinson and Flint, 2004:875)
Gnad, 2002:337). There may be some merit in
viewing the development in Barton in such a
Th e ga t e d com m u n it y: t h e policy con flict
light. Villages tend to be isolated with access to
The emergence of a policy discourse on gated
many
facilities
dependent
upon
and
car
opportunities
being
communities
access:
is
objectives of the local planning community.
this
a
raises
concerns
about
the
characteristic of the Jazz development. Similarly,
MacLeod
building housing with restricted access in an
commentators imply a causal
area that is commonly associated in the media
gating
with crime intensifies the perception of personal
planning permission for a gated development,
risk to new residents without the security of the
regardless of any clauses that may have been
gates and walls of the security village. The very
associated with the permission to help assuage
fact that the development is gated implies to a
negative impacts, brings into doubt the vision of
purchaser that the area around their new home
the local planning authority. ( I t is underst ood
is not a space to be explored but to be accessed
t hat
by car from the conveniently located trunk road
developer t o dem olish t he exist ing pub and build
network.
social
apart m ent s on t he land, an agreem ent was
connections with local residents outside the
m ade for t he housebuilder t o provide a new pub
gates may be equally liable to associations with
in Bart on. Subsequent ly, t he building com pany
dubiety.
abandoned
By
extension,
making
(2004:20)
and
when
social
reports
between
By
granting
was grant ed
to
build
“some
link
exclusion”.
perm ission
plans
that
t he
for
new
t he
pub.
Negot iat ions bet ween t he local aut horit y and
Atkinson and Flint (2004) argue that gated
developer were on- going during t he research
communities
period and it has since been report ed t hat an
are
not
only
an
example
of
residential segregation but are also symbolic of
agreem ent
a contemporary turn towards segregation and
housebuilder will pay £140,000 of t he £300,000
social withdrawal which necessitate urgent policy
required t o refurbish t he sport s pavilion on
intervention:
Bart on’s
has
been
recreat ion
r eached
ground.
whereby
The
t he
balance
of
funding will be sought t hrough an applicat ion t o
In contrast to the view that gated communities
t he Nat ional Lot t ery Fund. ( Sources: Oxfordshire
provide
Count y Council websit e w ww.oxfordshire.gov.uk
an
extreme
example
of
residential
segregation we go further and argue that the
and
time-space trajectories of residents suggest a
refurbishm ent ”
dynamic pattern of separation that goes beyond
websit e
the
220105) .
place
of
residence.
Gated
communities
“ Developer
will
help
Oxford
fund
£300k
Tim es/ Oxford
ww w.t hisisoxfordshire.co.uk
Mail
accessed
appear to provide an extreme example of more
common attempts by other social groups to
Oxfordshire County Council’s social inclusion
insulate against perceived risk and unwanted
scrutiny review clearly states that promoting
encounters. Patterns of what we term time-
social inclusion is a key role of the authority:
space trajectories of segregation can thereby be
seen as closed linkages between key fields, such
‘Social inclusion’ is not just ‘jargon’, but refers to
as work and home, which enable social distance
the core work of the Council: helping people to
to be maintained and perceived risks to be
fulfil
managed by elite social groups. We conclude
disadvantages that they might face. It is vital
their
potential
and
to
overcome
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
the
32
that good quality services are provided to all
impacts of decisions that have not taken full
people, especially those who are potentially
account
vulnerable and need support. Social exclusion,
community. Pressure from developers to secure
whether through low income, poor educational
land adjacent to road networks and pressure on
achievement, illness and disability, isolation or
planners
other circumstances, is a loss to the whole
improvements
community,
judgement, obscuring professional sensitivity to
and
as
a
Council
we
have
a
of
consequences
to
secure
by
on
the
investment
developers
wider
in
road
can
cloud
responsibility to tackle both the causes of social
softer
exclusion as well as the outcomes. (Oxfordshire
reaching effects on local people. In this case,
County Council, 2004:3)
such as sanctioning the socially exclusionary use
impacts
which
may
have
more
far-
of land formerly occupied by the only pub on the
However, the report goes on to reveal that it
estate. The absence of a local pub precipitates
found a need to weave social inclusion issues
the need to travel away from Barton to go to a
through all Council policy and activity. It was
pub and the closure of the pub has removed one
critical of the lack of a corporate social inclusion
of the only spaces for social gathering from the
strategy, a deficit of resources to coordinate
neighbourhood.
social inclusion promotion, the absence of a
joined-up
approach
expressed
a
need
to
social
for
and
Along the road from “Jazz” is “Renaissance Park”
corporate
another Barratt Homes development, not gated
inclusion
greater
but also marketed with a distinct emphasis on
commitment to the social inclusion:
its convenience for access to the inter-urban
The Review found that although many officers
road network:
were committed to broad principles of social
inclusion,
there
understanding
of
was
what
not
that
a
common
meant
to
the
An appealing development…with access to the
M40 – London and Birmingham – A40 to
Council, or what the Council’s aims were for
Whitney
disadvantaged people. There is insufficient lead
(h t t p:/ / w w w .ba r r a t t h om e s.co.u k / se a r ch r e
from the Executive or the County Council’s
s.cfm accessed 281004)
Senior
Management
Team
on
(sic)-
and
Oxford
City
Centre’
co-ordinating
social inclusion activity or providing a strategic
Staying with the issues related to the planners’
focus. This makes it harder for individual service
decision to allow the gated development and the
managers and officers to pursue social inclusion
neighbouring housing site to go ahead raises
activity, or to get guidance on their social
another
inclusion priorities. (Oxfordshire County Council,
disconnection
2004:3)
statements that it promotes public transport
concern
about
between
the
the
apparent
authority’s
usage and less dependence on car travel. The
Given the above, there may be an unintentional
marketing of the two developments makes it
lack of awareness of the ways in which a gated
clear that the car-owning public is their target
community
market.
may
impact
a
local
community
The
premise
of
car-based
travel
negatively amongst the planning officers of the
associated with the new housing runs counter to
Council.
the
It
is
imperative
against
such
a
background that empirical studies of impacts of
Council’s
policy
on
transport
and
Structure
Plan
development:
new types of developments should be carried
out and findings fed back into future decision-
Oxfordshire
making within the Council as well as being
reinforces PPG13 - the Government’s planning
County
Council's
shared with other authorities. Evidence-based
policy guidance on transport - by aiming to
planning can do much to preclude the negative
reduce the need to travel by private car through
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
33
land use planning policy…More generally, the
However, despite the actions of the developer,
Structure Plan policies seek to ensure that
Barratt, in overtly marketing these properties in
developments are located and designed so as to
terms of their proximity to the inter-urban road
be easily accessible by walking, cycling and
network
public transport. (Oxfordshire County Council,
development’s location under guises such as
2000:25)
“Headington” and “Northway” rather than Barton
and
the
concealment
of
the
(which can only serve to undermine the fabric of
Oxfordshire County Council's Residential Design
the
Guide…
is
intended
the
house
builder
guide
promotes
developments
which
regenerator” (The Oxford Times, 06 May 2005:
by
47). In an article entitled “Barratts regenerate
minimising the need to use cars particularly for
local brownfield sites”, a mythology of intention
shorter trips to local facilities. (Oxfordshire
appears to be peddled:
to
encourage
provide
more
inform
community),
and
developers
to
local
sustainable
travel
itself
as
“Britain’s
leading
urban
County Council, 2005:ch1 p3)
House builder Barratt…is transforming derelict
land and recycling redundant buildings to create
Arguably, the two housing sites are located “to
new
be easily accessible” by walking and cycling:
Maidenhead has successfully transformed the
that is, if one does not feel uncomfortable
former site of the derelict Fox pub, in Northway,
walking through underpasses to access facilities
Oxford,
outside the estate, having to dismount from a
development…
bicycle
to
use
an
underpass
or
face
communities
into
its
around
stylish
the
and
UK…Barratt
popular
Jazz
the
of
‘We have successfully recycled all kinds of sites,
circulating traffic at the Headington Roundabout
which have made good use of valuable land
– a large junction where the volume of inter-
resources, helped to meet the strong demand
urban traffic transiting the roundabout has led to
for new homes and also brought life back to
reports of delays of up to 20 minutes for traffic
urban areas, producing a wide range of benefits
exiting the Barton arm of the junction at peak
for
times
environment…Regeneration can reduce the need
challenge
of
(Rajé,
negotiating
2004).
large
volumes
Similarly,
both
local
new
communities
infrastructure,
and
developments are near to bus stops. However,
for
the buses pass these stops as they enter the
residential
estate and passengers boarding here would have
communities nearer their workplaces, lessening
to travel through several other streets on their
car dependency.’ (The Oxford Times, 06 May
journey back to the main roundabout, out of
2005: 47)
developments
produce
the
and
sustainable
help
re-form
Barton and on towards Oxford city centre. It
should also be pointed out that the buses only
Despite the noble aims expressed by Barratt
operate along one route from Barton, to Oxford
group chief executive, David Pretty, in the quote
and on to Kidlington, resulting in the need for
above, this research indicates that a small
interchange to access some destinations, while
community
others, often relatively nearby geographically,
commuters are likely to live in the gated
are effectively inaccessible by bus. Therefore,
development. Working away from the area, they
the private car again becomes the most suitable
would have little opportunity to mix with anyone
solution to the in-migrant’s transport needs. It
beyond the gates and local people would gain
also protects him from perceived potential perils
nothing by having the new residents living in
beyond
their neighbourhood.
the
gates
of
his
manufactured
of
car-dependent
professional
community.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
34
How this development may bring life back to this
on an estate, rather than being seen as on the
peripheral urban area or produce a wide range
side of the residents (Page, 2000).
of
benefits
for
the
local
community
and
environment is not readily apparent. What does
Re fe r e n ce s
appear to
is a causative
Atkinson, R. and J. Flint (2003). Fortess UK?
connection between the proximity of the urban
Gated communities, the spatial elites and the
road network and the availability of brownfield
time-space trajectories of segregation. Gated
land
of
Communities: Building Social Division or Safer
regeneration. If lessening car dependency was
Communities?, Department of Urban Studies,
truly the developer’s objective, a site with
University of Glasgow, September 18-19.
to
emerge,
be
instead,
developed
under
the
guise
greater propinquity to the public transport,
cycling and walking networks would have been
Atkinson, R. and J. Flint (2004). "Fortress UK?
more attractive. Thus, in a competitive and
Gated communities, the spatial revolt of the
highly-lucrative
elites
housing
market,
the
road
network enables exploitative development to
and
time-space
trajectories
of
segregation." Housing Studies 19(6): 875-892.
take place, that is, development that goes
against
the
principles
environmental
concerns
of
social
sustainability.
about
the
This
acceptability
and
raises
of
Crossley, A. (1979). A History of the County of
Oxford - Vol. IV: The city of Oxford. Oxford.
such
enclaves in an area which has already been
Graham, S. and S. Marvin (2001). Splintering
singled out as in need of regeneration (i.e. in
Urbanism:
need of the development of a sustainable
technological mobilities and the urban condition.
community). It would appear that rather than
Abingdon, Routledge.
networked
infrastructures,
contributing to the regeneration of Barton, this
is an example of selective social exclusion with
Jürgens,
the transport system allowing enclave-dwellers
communities in South Africa - experiences from
the flexibility to look beyond their own locality
Johannesburg." Environment and Planning B:
for
Planning and Design 29(3): 337-353.
social,
employment
and
other
life
U.
and
M.
Gnad
(2002).
"Gated
opportunities.
MacLeod, G. (2004). Privatizing the city? The
Con clu sion
tentative
In summary, the granting of permission to build
developments and gated communities in the
a gated community in a deprived neighbourhood
United Kingdom: Final Report for the Office of
may be interpreted as a form of complicity
the Deputy Prime Minister. London, University of
between institutional actors, house builder and
Durham.
local planning authority, in perpetuating and
Oxford Times (2005). Barratts regenerate local
extending
brownfield sites. 06 May 2005.
socially
divisive
and
exclusionary
push
towards
edge
urban
features in the built environment. To local
people, planning decisions such as this imply a
Oxfordshire County Council (2000). Oxfordshire
lack of engagement of public service providers
Local
with estate communities. Residents feel, as a
Oxfordshire County Council.
Transport
Plan
(2001-2006).
Oxford,
result, that decisions have been imposed upon
their
Oxfordshire County Council (2004). Are we
circumstances and that they have little or no say
included? Why not?: Social Inclusion Scrutiny
in decisions about their neighbourhood. As a
Review. Oxford, Oxfordshire County Council.
them
result,
with
the
little
local
understanding
authority
may
of
become
associated with the arbitrary exercise of power
Oxfordshire County Council (2005). Transaction:
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
35
Local
Transport
2011(Draft
Plan
11/04/05).
for
Oxfordshire
Oxford,
2006-
Rajé, F. (2004). "Engineering Social Exclusion?
Oxfordshire
Poor transport links and severance." Municipal
County Council.
Engineer 157(ME4): 267-273.
Page, D. (2000). Communities in the balance:
Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce :
the
fr a j e @ou ce .ox .a c.u k
reality
of
social
exclusion
on
housing
estates. York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
36
Effe ct s of pe de st r ia n isa t ion on t h e com m e r cia l a n d
r e t a il a r e a s:
St u dy in Kh a o Sa n Roa d, Ba n gk ok
Sa n t osh Ku m a r & W illia m Ross
I n t r odu ct ion
Cities are becoming increasingly car dependent
and are rapidly being redesigned to make car
travel easier. Developing countries are framing
policies that will encourage motorised travel with
a
consequent
modes.
reduction
of
These policies seldom
non-motorised
consider
the
urban poor and the more vulnerable transport
users such as pedestrians and cyclists.
Outside of newly built, gated residential and
commercial areas, improved car access has
Plate 4: Khao San Raod during the night
bustling with visitors
generally resulted in poorer access for walkers
(Ravetz, 1980). The amount of space devoted to
the car in terms of road and car parking has
grown
throughout
although
it is
not
the
twentieth
commensurate
century,
with
the
increase in road traffic. The increase in the car
dependant
nature
of
neighbourhoods
has
reduced the business of small shops within the
neighbourhoods as the large department stores
are easily accessible by car and also provide
sufficient, usually free, parking. This car friendly
change in neighbourhood design encourages
people to drive more for a trip that could often
be fulfilled by a walk within the neighbourhood.
Higher road traffic levels also had major impacts
on the levels of social interaction and community
connectedness
at
the
neighbourhood
levels
(Ross, 1999). From a study in San Francisco, it
was found that the community interactions were
more in areas with less traffic and people had
more chance to meet and had good social
activities
in
these
areas
(Whitelegg,
1993;
Appleyard, 1981).
changes
through
Pedestrianisation
traffic
and
traffic
calming.
calming
have
proven to be effective measures of improving
lifestyle and safety to the residents. A study of
traffic calming areas in the UK showed that
there was a 29% reduction in accidents to
cyclists of all age groups and especially for
children where the figures fell by 48%. The
study also found an overall accident reduction of
60% after implementing traffic calming (Weber
and Mackie, 1996 cited by Galway Cycling
Campaign, 1999). Similarly results of large scale
traffic calming project
in
the Dutch cities,
Eindhoven and Rijswijk, found that the accident
rates were reduced by 80% (Schlabbach, 1997).
Pedestrianisation measures are best undertaken
at a local level. The down side of implementing
is
the
frequent
objections
during
implementation. The objections are sometimes
justified since no design method is without
problems
frequently
(Roberts,
object
1981).
as
Local
they
businesses
feel
that
pedestrianisation removes the business from
In order to obtain the positive effects for the
community, several car restraining measures
have
to
include
be
implemented.
economic
These
instruments
and
measures
passing traffic. This perception has been proven
wrong by various studies (Hass-Klau, 1993;
Drennen, 2003; Kumar, 2006).
physical
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
37
Pedestrian
areas
high
Pedestrianisation has a positive effect on the
walking densities. The walking does not only
businesses in the area of implementation. The
denote
effect is usually in
the
are
purpose
the
of
places
with
commute
but
also
the form
of
increased
represents the way the walkers feel about the
turnover, increased property values and streets
city. People usually have very few places to
attracting the wealthier, thereby benefiting the
meet in a car dependant city; these places
overall
include shopping complexes or conferences.
advantage to the area (Sermons and Seredich,
However,
more
2001; Hass-Klau, 1993). Pedestrianisation also
attractive then an increased meeting of people
encourages local people to buy utilities in their
in these precincts can be noticed, Central-
own
European countries provide good examples of
customers from a wider area, increasing the
public precincts. The success of a city centre
community
cannot only be understood from an idea of
2005).
reducing traffic problems but increasingly from
Poor pedestrian, cycling and transit options can
the amount of people who benefit from them in
harm businesses by losing the worker potential.
a recreational way (Monheim, 1992).
Investment in pedestrian programs is llittle and
The dramatic change that pedestrian precincts
sometimes nil. These projects often require
have brought to some cities in Europe can be
minimal time for construction and most do not
inferred from high pedestrian volumes and also
require any financial support from business
from the new businesses and shopping malls
owners. Litman (2004) summarised the various
developing in these city centres (Monheim,
effects of walking in a community (see Table 1).
where
public
spaces
are
retail
sales
and
neighbourhoods
relations
drawing
and
(Ross,
economic
attracts
1999;
more
Kumar,
2001).
Table 1: Effects of walking in a community
D e scr ipt ion
Cr it e r ia
M e a su r in g Te ch n iqu e s
Acce ssibilit y
Closeness to goods,
Extent that non motorised
Travel Modelling, analysis of travel
a n d Sa vin gs
services and activities,
transit providing mobility for
options, consumer expenditure
public transportation, cost
transit poor
surveys
Amount of active
Physical exercise provided to
Travel and Health Surveys to
transportation and net
usually inactive people
determine the number of people
savings
H e a lt h
impacts on public health
who benefit from walking exercise
Efficie n t La n d
More efficient land use
The level of car oriented
Identifying the social, economic
u se
associated with more non
infrastructure i.e. more roads
and environmental benefits of
motorised transportation-
or overpasses for cars
more non motorised
transportation-oriented land use
oriented land use
patterns.
Live a bilit y
The quality of the local
Change in appeal of the
Property values, business
environment and
implemented areas
activities, consumer preference
surveys.
community interactions
Econom ic
Impact on commercial
Change in sales in the
Market surveys and property
D e ve lopm e nt
establishments and shift
commercial sectors and the
assessments.
in consumer expenses
decrease in expense for fuel
and vehicle.
( Source: Lit m an, 2004)
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
38
Citing the above reasons it can be said that
study with recommendations in the other areas
pedestrian
precincts
economic
of Bangkok which can help in increasing the
productivity,
employment,
activity,
sales of the small businesses and also enhance
investment
and
development.
increase
other
business
kinds
Customers
of
place
economic
high
the liveability of the area.
value
onpedestrian environments such as retail malls,
Ba ck gr ou n d of t h e st u dy
suburban
pedestrian-
Bangkok has a rich cultural past and is a famous
Pedestrianised
tourist destination. The growing economy of the
commercial areas can be very important in
country led to an improvement in lifestyle and
increasing
an
oriented
office
resort
campuses
and
communities.
the
liveability
and
friendly
increase
in
vehicle
numbers.
Areas
in
environments that attract residents and visitors
Bangkok are filled with noise and emissions from
(USEPA,
on
automobiles. Everyday in Bangkok nearly 600
sidewalks widening the footpaths and increasing
new cars are added to the roads making an
the greenery near the store fronts can increase
extra 3 kilometres of bumper-to-bumper traffic
the appeal and attract the pedestrian/potential
(Kenworthy, 2003).
2004).
Placing
café
seating
customers.
According
to
a
100
Bangkok has a very impressive mixture of land
pedestrianised cities worldwide, it was found
use compared to similar western cities with high
that the turnovers in the city centres of these
car dependency. Commercial, residential and
cities
retail facilities are usually within a walkable
increased
study
in
of
49%
more
of
the
than
cities
and
remained stable in 25%. Cities in Austria,
distance
(Newman
and
Kenworthy,
1989).
Germany and Scandinavia experienced increase
However, Bangkok’s very high motor friendly
in turnover of more than 60% (OECD, 1978).
infrastructure, with generous parking facilities,
wide roads and flyovers act as a catalyst for
There have been several studies conducted in
increasing car dependency (Poboon, 1997).
many parts Europe and the US but very few or
almost none have been done in the Asian
Walking and cycling characteristics in Bangkok
developing cities. Hence, this study focussed on
are very bleak with only 13% of the work trips
the effects of pedestrianisation on the retailing
on these modes while the other Asian countries
and commercial community of Bangkok. Khao
have
San
in
Kenworthy, 1999). The low levels of walking and
Bangkok, was selected to investigate the effect
cycling are due to the safer and more pleasant
that pedestrianisation had on the businesses and
conditions
the way the business community felt since
Kenworthy (2003) recommended that if priority
pedestrianisation. The results documented in
is given to improving pedestrian and cycling
this paper will focus on the changes in sales
conditions in Bangkok, there will be a significant
volumes,
on
shift from car to other modes. Apart from
pedestrianisation since implementation of the
initiating a modal shift there are other affects of
project, their opinions on the existing timings
pedestrianisation, it can bring economic benefit
and their stance on future improvement of the
to the retailers on the pedestrianised area.
Road,
project.
a
partially
opinion
The
results
pedestrian
of
will
street
retailers
help
in
an
average
for
car
of
34%
travel
(Newman
(Kumar,
and
2006).
further
developing the project and also replicating the
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
39
commercial areas. One such area is the famous
Khao San Road (Plate 1). It is a street located in
the Banglampoo district of Bangkok (Figure 1).
It is a famous destination for many local and
foreign travellers and backpackers. The location
is apt for backpackers as it provides cheap
lodging and boarding facilities. Apart from the
motels, Khao San Road has food stalls, travel
agencies, souvenir and music shops. The road
has been pedestrianised as part of government
policy with the help of the local police station.
The Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) helped
in promoting the project. The project was
implemented in the year 2001 (C Kaewumporn
Plat e 1: Pedest rianised Khao San Road
As a strategy to develop pedestrian areas
Bangkok
initiated
Metropolitan
Authority
pedestrianisation
(BMA)
schemes
in
has
some
2006, pers. comm., 23 February) and another
reason for implementation was the increasing
traffic
jam
on
the
street.
Figure 1: Map of Khao San Road
Pedestrianisation has been implemented in some
pedestrian projects. The study investigated the
areas of Bangkok but the outcomes of the
response of the small business owners in Khao
projects were never studied. Hence this study
San Road upon the effect of pedestrianisation on
attempted to fill the vacuum of the outcome of
their
business
turnover
and
their
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
view
on
40
pedestrianisation
after
Khao San Road has a wide diversity of retail
implementation. For this study, the businesses
shops. For this study all shops that were present
in Khao San road have been categorised viz.
before implementing pedestrianisation and after
Restaurants, shops, guest houses, and travel
pedestrianisation
agencies
through
According to pre-survey results it was found that
stratified random sampling method. The data
there were about 100 guest houses, 125 food
was collected by means of a questionnaire which
stalls, 20 travel agencies and 120 shops selling
focussed
music, souvenirs, and textiles.
and
on
before
samples
the
and
were
economic
taken
changes
since
have
been
considered.
pedestrianisation. The obtained results have
A stratified random sampling method was used
been interpreted using SPSS 13.0.
in
selecting
the
samples.
Neuman
(2003)
St u dy sit e , sa m plin g a n d sa m ple size
suggests that for a study with a population
Khao San Road in Bangkok, the study site, is a
under 1000, the required sample size has to be
famous destination for foreign backpackers as it
more for accuracy hence a sample size of about
offers a wide range of services along with
30% is suggested, and for a moderately larger
reasonably priced accommodation. The road is
populations (about 10,000) the sample size can
currently pedestrianised during specific hours of
be about 10% and for populations over 150,000
the day. During non-pedestrian hours, on-road
the sample size ratio can be 1%. For this study,
parking is available making the street narrow.
the shops in Khao San road have been divided
There is a high frequency of taxis and tuk-tuk's
into
on the road. Public transport cannot be found on
shops, guest houses, and travel agencies and
the road mainly due to its size, but there are bus
the respective samples have been considered.
categories
(Table
2)
viz.
Restaurants,
stops near to Khao San Road which are easily
accessible on foot.
Table 2: Population and sample size of the study
Popu la t ion
Sa m ple Size
Food stalls
125
38
Shops
120
36
Guest houses
100
30
20
06
365
110
Type of Sh op
Travel Agencies
Tot a l
Re su lt s of t h e St u dy
The
following
section
discusses
the
results
obtained from the questionnaire survey. The
research was carried out during the months of
September
and
October
2005
and
mainly
focussed on the changes in business activity,
linking
these
liveability
of
changes
the
to
area.
changes
Other
in
the
studies
(Appleyard,1981; OECD,1990; Hass-Klau,1993,
Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) have shown that
the
implementation
of
traffic
calming
in
residential areas and the pedestrianisation of
Figure 2: Change in sales volume of retailing shops
retail areas will improve amenity and liveability
of the affected area. For the purpose of this
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
41
research, liveability is expressed in the quality of
increased aft er t he proj ect , people like t o walk
the local environment which will act as an
and shop...” replied one restaurant owner, while
attractor of customers to the businesses in the
35% said that their sales volume had not
area. As stated in the Table 1, the changes in
changed,
sales volume and rental values were considered
m uch…because of t he foot pat h shops..” said a
to be good indicators of improved business
souvenir shop owner. The reason for this can be
activity
liveability.
attributed to the location of the shop which was
Other things being equal, improvements in these
away from the mainstream pedestrian area and
indicators can be attributed to an improvement
also because of the services the shop offered. A
in the local pedestrianised environment.
few guest houses in the study were located
resulting
from
improved
“ ...m y
business
has
not
changed
inside “soi’s” or lanes lacking direct contact with
Ch a n ge s in sa le s volu m e
the
Sales volume is the sales volume of a retail shop
“ ...t he guest house is away from t he m ain road
in a specified period of time. The sales volume
so not m uch affect but t he t ourist s have t o walk
depends
wit h
on
various
factors
such
as
the
mainstream
t heir
of
the
luggage...”
pedestrian
said
a
activity.
guest
house
economic condition of the country or the area
manager.
and the amount of activity in the area. The
establishments which benefited the most were
number of customers to the area is a direct
the food and souvenir shops. It can be noted
factor affecting the sales volume. If the area can
from the activity of the street that not only
attract more visitors then the shops in the
foreign tourists avail the retailing service, but
location will have more potential customers.
also the local Thai people buy from the shops on
Pedestrianisation tends to increase the sales
Khao San Road.
It
has
been
found
that
the
volume as it attracts more visitors to the area of
implementation (Plate 2). Even though the
Ch a n ge s in t h e Pr ope r t y/ Re n t a l Va lu e s
economic condition of the country is good and
rising, unappealing areas don’t attract visitors
Figure 3: Change in the Rental Values
Plate 2:More customers is more sales
resulting in business closures in that area (Colin
Fluctuation in rental values in a commercial area
Buchanan and Partners, 2001). Pedestrianisation
mainly depends upon the amount of business
can remedy such a situation.
done in the area. This sub-section will discuss
the results obtained on the vacillation of rental
In the current study the respondents were asked
values in Khao San Road. The respondents were
about the status of their sales volume. About
questioned about the changes in the rental value
47% (Figure 2) of the respondents replied that
of their business premises. The majority of the
their
responses (52%) (see Figure 3) expressed “no
sales
volume
had
increased,
“ Sales
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
42
change” in the rental value and 22% replied that
ranged from as little as 1,000 baht to 2,500
the rental value factor does not apply to their
baht to the existing rent. The latest period of
business. “ I don't need t o pay rent ..” replied a
increase in rent noted was for the previous 3
guest house owner. On the other hand, 26%
months and the maximum period was for the 3
reported that their rent had increased.
previous years.
However,
the
changes
in
sales
volumes
discussed earlier clearly state that there as been
a positive change after pedestrianisation. The
sales volume has not decreased greatly but has
either remained constant or has increased.
Opin ion of r e t a ile r s on pe de st r ia n isa t ion
Pedestrianising a street requires stakeholder
agreement and in many cases pedestrianisation
projects
Figure 4: Revision of Rents
fail
if
there
is
a
vacuum
in
the
consultation process among the stakeholders,
such as the retailers, the police, and municipal
Similarly, the respondents were asked about the
authorities. If there is strong approval from the
revision in the rent they pay to the owner and
stakeholders, the project is more likely to be
28% (Figure 4) reported an increase in their
successful. In this study the retailers have been
rent, “ ..m y owner increased m y rent by 2,000
asked about their opinion on pedestrianisation of
baht a year back..” replied a tenant retailer,
Khao San Road.
while the majority of the respondents replied
that the question was not applicable for them.
The study found that before implementation, a
The
is
majority of the retailers (Figure 5) believed that
because the owner of the shop also operates the
pedestrianisation could not improve the existing
business. The respondents who replied that
condition and were indifferent to the project. A
there was a change in rent were tenants.
retailer replied “ why pedest rianise t he st reet ?
According to Thailand laws, the area of Khao
farang ( foreigners) like t o com e in a car” . It was
San Road falls under ‘royal property’ and hence
also found that 30% disagreed with the idea, as
ownership cannot be claimed. The shops located
they believed that pedestrianisation would bring
in this area are under a long lease and the value
negative effects to their business (the removal
is revised every 3 years.
of cars from the street would also remove their
major
response
of
“not
applicable”
customers) and disagreed to the project idea;
The unusual replies can be explained because
“ ...t raffic
many of the shops were not rented but rather
business....people wat ch m y shop when t hey are
run by the owners; hence some of the responses
st uck in t he j am ...” replied a tailor shop owner.
were “does not apply”. In most of the cases, the
Among the retailers 20% were optimistic and
owners of the building did not want to increase
felt that the changes pedestrianisation would
the rents and hence there was no change in
bring to their business would be positive and
rental values. However, some of the landlords
agreed
did increase the rents giving rise to the result of
“ ...rem ove t he cars and t he cust om ers will
“increased rent”. The increase in the rents
increase...” replied a restaurant manager.
j am s
to
the
are
project
good
for
t he
implementation.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
43
Opin ion
of
the
pe de st r ia n
cu r r e n t
t im in gs
st a n ce
on
and
fu r t h e r
pe de st r ia n isa t ion
Khao San Road is pedestrianised
from
6pm
to
3am.
Partially
pedestrianising a street in many
cases
will
not
allow
the
full
potential of pedestrianisation to
be
utilised.
pedestrianisation
other
traffic
Partial
also
restricts
calming
benefits,
such as increased liveability and
Figure 5: Opinion of retailers on pedestrianisation project
street appeal, as during the day
the
Since pedestrianisation, the majority of the
street
is
just
like
other
ordinary streets with cars.
retailers (85%) have agreed with the project
while the retailers who disagreed decreased to
This study has questioned the respondents
just 10%, “ ..I
cars m eans m ore
regarding their opinion on the current pedestrian
cust om ers, now even Thais com e and drink...”
timing and the results are explained below. The
replied a pub owner. It has to be noted that the
results from the study revealed that 74% of the
results obtained are in accord with the general
respondents agree or strongly agree to the
psychological tendency of retailers around the
current pedestrian timings and required no
world. In other places of pedestrianisation there
change in them (darkened portion of Figure 6).
are records showing that initially there was a
“ A perfect and classic proj ect ” replied a retailer,
protest
after
while another said “ …com m ercial areas can
implementing there were requests from other
benefit wit h t his proj ect . My sales increased….”
businessmen to implement the project in their
While 13% of the respondents reported that
areas. The number of retailers who still disagree
they disagreed to the current timing, (among
with the project (10%) is related to the kind of
whom 5% disagreed or strongly disagreed with
business they hold. In the case of travel agents,
the timings and recommended an increase of
the project might not be effective as the
the timings to be longer), the rest of the 8%
customer evaluates the quality of service the
disagreed
agents provide rather than the accessibility to
recommended a decrease in the current timings;
the agency itself.
“ very hard t o walk on t he st reet
against
t hink
the
no
project
but
dist ance,
or
should
strongly
reduce
disagreed
t im ings for
and
for
long
visit ors
convenience.” replied a guest house owner.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
44
Figure 6: Opinion on the current pedestrian timings
The respondents were also questioned on their
proclivity towards further pedestrianising the
street and implementing other traffic calming
measures. Forty-four percent responded that
they will not participate while 41% (Figure 7)
showed
support
for
the
retailer said “ Sure m y
improvement.
support
One
is t here,
it
increases t he sales and also wide variet y of
t hings t o buy” (Plate 4). As with every project
there were also people (15%) who said they will
oppose the idea, “ I will not suppor t it if t he
garbage condit ion is wor se like now ….” said a
retailer. The opposition can be reduced with
proper awareness among the stakeholders.
Figure 7: Stance on further pedestrianisation
Con clu sion
Earlier studies found that the implementation of traffic calming measures, including pedestrianisation, will
reduce traffic speeds and accidents and thus make the streets safer and more pleasant places to be. The
current study, conducted in Khao San Rd, Bangkok, Thailand, has shown that traffic calming can also
have a positive economic benefit for the retailing and commercial community by increasing sales
volumes. Furthermore, as indicated by increased property/rental values and business activity as well as
by the preference of consumers as expressed in surveys, the liveability of the area is also improved. The
current study also found that retailers were positively inclined towards further pedestrianisation in the
area.
It is also suggested that while implementing the project, sufficient care must be taken in providing
enough garbage disposal facilities and efficient collection measures so that as visitor numbers increase
the appeal of the road will not be diminished by litter.
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
45
This study has shown that the argument often put forward by retailers that their customers need car
access (presumably in order to carry the goods home), is simply not correct. While retailers in Khao San
Rd were initially sceptical of the pedestrianisation project, few were opposed to extending the project
once they had experienced its benefits. In a city as dominated by cars as Bangkok, Khao San Rd has
become an oasis for both foreigners and Thai people seeking refuge from the noise, dangers and pollution
of cars.
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Protection
http://www.ite.org/traffic/documents/JGA
http://www.epa.gov/dced/
97A38.pdf
CharPerm_RTS.htm, Retrieved on June
Sermons
and
Traveller
Seredich,
2001,
Responsiveness
to
Assessing
Land
and
Agency
Available
at
17th, 2005
Whitelegg J, 1993, Transport for sust ainable
The case of Europe. Belhaven
Locat ion based Accessibilit y and Mobilit y
fut ure:
solut ions, Transportation Research Part D:
Press, London
Transport and Environment, Vol.6, Issue.
6, pp. 417-428
Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce :
USEPA, 2004, Charact erist ics and Perform ance
of
Regional
Transport at ion
su n n ysa n t hosh @gm a il.com
Syst em s,
World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
47
Questionnaire for studying the impact of pedestrianisation on the business owners in Khao San Road
Date of Interview
: ___________________
Business Type: FS/SH/GH/TA (FS: Food stall,
SH: Ordinary Shop, GH Guest House, TA travel
agency)
Number of years doing the business in KSR: ________________
1. What was your opinion when the project was proposed? Did you think there will be an impact on
the business because of pedestrianisation: Yes / No
Please explain ___________________________________________________
2. What were the opinions of your co-businessmen in Khao San Road about
pedestrianisation at the time of implementation? _________________
3. In your opinion do you feel that the footpath shops are an obstacle for your
business: Yes / No / Does not concern
4. Do you derive any benefit from the footpath shops: Yes / No.
Please explain ___________________________________________
Effe ct on Econ om ic Va r ia ble s
5. What is your opinion on the following after applying pedestrianisation?
Increase Reduce
i.
ii.
Change is sales volumes
□
Change in the rental/property values
No Change
□
□
□
□
□
6. When was the last time that your rent was revised? ___________ (Increased/Decreased)
7. What is your opinion on the current pedestrian timings in Khao San Road?
□ Strongly Agree
□ Agree
□ Indifferent
□ Disagree (Increase / Decrease)
□ Strongly Disagree (Increase / Decrease)
8. What role will you play if more pedestrian friendly measures are implemented in Khao San Road
and the nearby areas?
□ Support □ Protest □ will not participate
9. What will be your recommendation to other commercial areas in Bangkok in regard to
pedestrianisation? ______________________________________________
10. Any other comments or suggestions:
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
48
Cyclin g for a ct ive t r a n spor t
a n d r e cr e a t ion in Au st r a lia :
Status review and future
directions
Risse l C, Ga r r a r d J
In
Australian
proportion
trips
capitals,
taken
by
the
bicycle
ranges from one to five per cent, while
I n t r odu ct ion
An
of
state
important
priority
for
21st
health
proportion
of
Australians
owning
bicycles ranges from 30-65 per cent
increasing the levels of physical activity
(Australian Bicycle Council, 2004). In
for whole populations. Physical inactivity
many European cities the proportion of
is the second (after tobacco smoking)
trips taken by bicycle is over 25 per cent
most important behavioural cause of ill-
of all trips (ADONIS, 1998). Over half
health in society (AIHW, 1999). The
(55%) of car trips in Sydney and other
majority of adult Australians are not
capitals are less than five kilometres and
physically
33
in
the
active
century
the
is
promotion
at
the
level
per
cent
are
less
than
three
recommended to achieve health benefits
kilometres
(AIHW, 2004). Physical inactivity is a
Transport, 1995), distances considered
major
easily amenable to cycling.
modifiable
cardiovascular
risk
factor
of
While
risk
examples of policy and practice that have
factors such as type II diabetes, total
contributed to increases in levels of
blood-cholesterol
cycling
affects
(CVD)
Department
and
independently
disease
for
(NSW
other
level,
CVD
obesity
and
there
are
(Pucher
many
and
European
Dijkstra,
2003),
hypertension (USDHH, 1999; Bauman
there is very little Australian research to
and Owen 1998).
provide evidence to policy makers on
The
energy
expenditure
to
achieve
effective
interventions
to
promote
population level increases in physical
cycling. The purpose of this paper is to
activity
review all the published and as much of
levels
sustained
routines.
if
is
most
likely
incorporated
Therefore,
the
into
to
be
daily
concept
of
the
unpublished
literature
that
‘grey’
could
Australian
be
found
that
‘active transport’ is an important one.
addresses the promotion of cycling, and
The term ‘active transport’ relates to
that has an evaluation component that
physical activity undertaken as a means
allows
of transport (Davis, 1999). This includes
interventions or factors that influence
travel by foot, bicycle and other non-
population levels of cycling.
motorised
vehicles
(Mason,
the
identification
of
effective
2000).
Among the three major active transport
M e t h od
modes (ie public transport, walking and
The
cycling), cycling is currently the least
PUBMED, and APAIS were searched for
used in Australia, although all three have
the years 1995-2005 using the terms
the potential for substantial increases
“cycling”, “cyclist”, “cycl*” and “bicycles”.
(Austroads, 2005).
The Google internet search engine was
electronic
data-bases
MEDLINE,
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
49
used to help locate possible reports or
Cyclin g pr e va le n ce in Au st r a lia
papers that described the evaluation of
Limited data on cycling prevalence in
interventions to promote cycling. Further,
Australia are available from the national
the
census
authors
Australian
persons
cycling
contacted
cycling
active
in
in
all
major
organisations
the
promotion
years),
transport
or
surveys, and special purpose studies.
of
Data
have
been
collected
in
the
transport, health, sport, recreation and
unpublished evaluation reports of cycling
tourism sectors, often using inconsistent
promotion programs.
measures. This review focuses on data
Papers or reports that focused on the
related
health benefits of cycling were excluded,
recreation.
as this has been internationally well
separately, though in some studies no
researched with unequivocal results of
distinction is made between these two
the positive health benefits (see for
forms of cycling.
papers
to
five
identify
example
Australia
(every
or
articles
to
cycling
These
for
transport
are
and
described
by
Paffenberger et al (1986), Roberts et al
Cyclin g a s a m e a n s of t r a n spor t
(1996), Anderson et al (2000), Hu et al
Unlike other modes of transport, data on
(2003),
cycling as a means of transport is poor.
and
Steindorf
et
al
2003)).
Papers dealing with the use of bicycle
National
helmets and injury issues were also
available for journey to work only, which
excluded, even though the mandatory
represents travel on only one day in the
wearing of helmets in Australia may
middle of the Australian winter. Travel
adversely influence population frequency
surveys that include all forms of cycling
of cycling (Jacobsen, 2003; Robinson,
for transport have been conducted in a
2005) by acting as a general, albeit small
limited number of Australian states, cities
deterrent to everyday or casual cycling.
or regions.
While safety concerns directly impact on
are available.
population levels of cycling, the injury
In
prevention literature is distinct from that
Population
of cycling promotion, and is not included
employed persons aged 15 years and
in this review.
over travelled to work by bicycle (Bell,
Physiological focused papers on athletic
Garrard and Swinbourne, in press). There
performance represented more than half
was a marked gender difference, with
of
0.40%
the
articles
literature
retrieved
search.
from
However,
the
articles
the
population
data
are
No consistent national data
2001
of
census
Australian
Census
of
Housing,
0.94%
of
and
women
cycling
to
work,
compared with 1.39% of men (Bell,
dealing with competitive sport and elite
Garrard
cycling were also excluded, as this area
Cycling prevalence was highest in the
of
Northern Territory for men (4.19%) and
cycling
is
quite
specialised
and
and
Swinbourne,
in
press).
restricted to a relatively small proportion
women
of the population. There is much greater
Australian Capital Territory (2.70% and
potential
0.96% respectively). Cycling prevalence
participation
for
in
population-wide
cycling
and
(2.37%),
followed
by
the
physical
was highest in the youngest age groups
activity through a focus on cycling for
(15-24 years and 25-34 years) and
transport and recreation.
declined thereafter with age, except for a
small increase in the 75 and older age
group).
Cycling prevalence declined for
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
50
men (from 1.45% to 1.39%) from 1996
made on weekends than on weekdays.
to 2001 and increased marginally for
The majority of bicycle trips are up to 1
women (0.37% to 0.40%).
km in length (36%) and nearly 90% of
The
1996
and
2001
were
bicycle trips are 5 km or less. Cycling to
collected on a single day in August (the
work accounts for the highest proportion
middle of the Australian winter). Wet
of all bicycle trips (14%). It should be
weather and limited daylight hours can
noted that the VATS survey data include
adversely influence a person’s decision to
bicycle trips undertaken for recreational
cycle to work. The Victorian Activity and
purposes.
Travel Survey for the period 1997 to
In a survey of physical activity levels of
1999 indicated up to 30% more cycling
South Australian adults conducted in
trips
2004
undertaken
in
censuses
autumn
than
in
by
winter (VicRoads, 2004). Therefore, the
Department
above
the
South
of
Australian
Health,
8.5%
of
data
respondents reported cycling at least
underestimates the yearly prevalence of
once a week (Gill and Taylor, 2005).
cycling to work in Australia.
Almost
The Victorian Activity and Travel Survey
respondents had cycled for at least 10
(VATS) is an example of a survey that
minutes for recreation only in the past
measures all travel by all modes by all
week, 1.6% had cycled for transport
people
only, and 1.4% for both recreation and
cycling
in
the
prevalence
surveyed
households
five
per
cent
(4.8%)
of
(McGinley, 2003). While it records all
transport.
bicycle trips (and not just journey to
In metropolitan Sydney in 1998, one
work), the sample of 14,874 households
percent
with
everyday,
30,464
household
occupants
of
the
population
which
represents
cycles
91,000
(comprising 770 individuals, 2.52%, who
bicycle trips each week day (Transport
reported
their
Data Centre, 2003). However, there are
allocated travel day) is drawn only from
using
a
bicycle
marked regional differences, with some
metropolitan
inner
Melbourne.
on
This
does
Sydney
areas
seeing
2-3%
of
suggest that the prevalence of cycling is
journeys to work, and outer suburbs
higher in urban areas compared with
seeing less that 1% (Telfer and Rissel,
rural areas.
2003). There has been a 64% increase in
For the data collection period 1997 to
cycling to work in the inner Sydney areas
1999 in the VATS, approximately 75% of
between the 1996 and 2001 censuses
cyclists are male, and 49% are less than
(Telfer, 2003). In 1998, the majority of
20 years old (mainly in the 10-20 years
Sydney
age group). On average, 1.2% of all trips
(Transport Data Centre, 2003).
riders
(58%)
were
male
in Melbourne are by bicycle, more than
by bus (1%) or tram (1%). The average
Cyclin g for r e cr e a t ion
number of bicycle trips is 0.07 trips per
Annual
person per day, although this varies by
Australians aged 15 years and over in
locality,
exercise, recreation and sport have been
with
cycling
for
transport
surveys
by
of
conducted
Melbourne to 1.3% in the inner suburbs
Commission
to 1.0% in the outer suburbs to 0.9% in
(Australian Sports Commission 2005).
outer metropolitan regions of Melbourne.
Cycling,
A higher percentage of bicycle trips are
10.5% in 2004, is the fourth most
from
a
Australian
of
decreasing from 3.7% of trips in central
with
the
participation
2001
to
participation
Sports
2004
rate
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
of
51
popular activity after walking (39%),
different
aerobics/fitness (17.1%) and swimming
Crawford, 2005). This could reflect age
(16.5%).
cycling
differences in frequency of cycling (most
increased by 15.3% from 2001 to 2004
event participants train in preparation for
(Australian Sports Commission 2005).
rides and are therefore likely to cycle
Participation
in
more
age
than
ranges
once
a
(Garrard
year);
and
real
age
Pa r t icipa t ion in r e cr e a t ion a l cyclin g
differences in participation in organised
e ve n t s
events
State-based
bicycle
advocacy
compared
with
recreational
cycling, or the possibility of differences
organisations conduct a range of single-
between
day rides and multi-day bicycle tours.
Australia.
Analysis of the ride participant database
Statistics journey to work data indicates
of the largest and most active of these
that
organisations,
Bicycle
census
reveals
there
Victoria
(BV),
the
rest
of
cycling
for
data)
transport
has
high
(national
levels
of
participation among people aged 15-24
participants in eight BV-organised rides
years that is similar to that of people
and tours from 1994 to 2004 (Garrard
aged 25-34 years, and shows a similar
Crawford,
were
and
The Australian Bureau of
208,244
and
that
Victoria
2005).
26
Overall,
decline
with
age
as
for
recreational
participation in BV rides increased by an
cycling (Bell, Garrard and Swinbourne, in
average of 10.8% per annum from 1994
press).
to 2004, with much of this increase
There are substantial gender differences
occurring between 2001 and 2004.
in cycling in Australia. The female rate of
Gender
shorter
Australian commuter cycling is less than
distance recreational cycling events are
one third that of the male rate, and
generally not as great as for cycling for
similar
transport, averaging about 30% across
recreational cycling (Garrard, 2003). In
all rides. The longer recreational cycling
contrast, in several western European
events attract relatively fewer female
countries commuting cycling rates are
participants, with the 210 km Victorian
high, and women cycle more frequently
‘Around the Bay in a Day’ ride comprising
than men (Garrard, 2003). In Australia,
12% females (Garrard and Crawford,
women cycle shorter distances than men
2005).
and
differences
in
the
gender
have
a
differences
stronger
occur
preference
for
for
cycling on bicycle paths, which provide
I n flu e n ce s on cyclin g
separation from motor vehicles (Garrard
Demographic influences on cycling in
et al, personal communication). Female
Australia
cyclists’ income distribution is similar to
economic
include
age,
status
and
gender,
location.
socioThe
the general
Victorian population, but
highest level of recreational cycling (at
male cyclists are more likely to be in
least once in the past year) occurs in
lower and higher income groups (Garrard
those aged 25-34 years, and declines
et al, personal communication).
steadily with older age (Australian Bicycle
Council, 2004). The age distribution of
Ba r r ie r s t o cyclin g
participants in cycling events organised
Of the approximately 40-50 per cent of
by Bicycle Victoria shows a slightly older
the
age distribution though comparisons are
access to a bicycle and are healthy
made more difficult due to the use of
enough to ride one, and looking at those
Australian
population
that
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
have
52
trips where using a bicycle is feasible,
and yet may also be a motivating factor.
there are different influences on cycling
For example, for a non-cyclist getting
dependent on individual current cycling
fit/healthy can be a significant reason to
behaviour. For example, for persons not
start riding, but at the same time the
currently riding a bike, or not having
lack of fitness can make starting to ride
done so for several years, then the
an effort and the perception that cycling
barriers and motivations to cycle are
takes great effort serves as a barrier.
different compared with someone who is
Safety concerns, often arising from the
a current recreational rider, or a regular
speed and volume of traffic and not
cycle commuter. It is worth identifying
having designated space for people riding
three
non-riders,
bicycles, and aggressive driving has been
occasional riders, and then commuter
consistently identified as deterrents to
cyclist and regular recreational riders.
regular cycling (Greig, 2001). It is worth
There
main
groups
here:
people
noting that concerns about safety are
involved in competitive cycling, such as
higher among non-cyclists than regular
road-racing or technical mountain bike
riders (Rissel et al, 2002), with non-
riding, and touring cyclists, but these
cyclists consistently overestimating the
people
level of risk involved. People with varying
are
other
have
groups
separate
of
and
specific
levels
barriers and motivations.
The
following
table
considers
those
of
traffic
cycling
safety
experience
differently.
perceive
Based
on
factors that influence people who cycle
qualitative research with women, Garrard
for recreation and for transport. These
(2003) suggests that this it is more to do
influences are grouped by whether they
with skills, self-confidence, experience
are
and
individual,
economic
factors,
social,
and
cultural
or
environmental
factors. Sometimes the same variable
route
familiarity
increase,
traffic
–
when
safety
these
concerns
decrease.
can have one dimension that is a barrier,
Ta ble 1 : I n flu e n ce s on cyclin g
Influences
Individual factors
Includes
Specific factors
Recreation
Transport
Age, gender, health status,
Age, gender, health status,
SES
distance, SES
Personal:
Health, fitness, other people,
Cost,
motivation/initiation
campaigns,
fitness,
Demographic
events,
convenience,
incentives,
information, skills, resources,
environmental
challenge,
other
social
people,
encouragement, support to
address
address
time availability
safety
concerns,
health,
concerns,
support
safety
to
concerns,
time availability/priority
Fun,
Personal: maintenance
enjoyment,
self-
efficacy,
achieve
cycling
Above, plus, establishing a
goals,
acquire
skills,
routine that works (eg safe
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
53
experience, community links
route,
carrying
things,
(eg cycling groups)
change
Sense of control over safety
security), sense of control
facilities,
bike
over safety
Social/
cultural/
economic factors
Family/social ‘time together’
Normative
Values
behaviour
(eg
encouraging
Driver behaviour
children to be active)
Cost
(relatively
transport
low,
but
requires bike and helmet)
‘Invisible infrastructure’ (eg
traffic calming)
Cost
and
convenience
alternatives
(eg
cost
of
of
petrol)
Population density
Destinations of interest
Environmental
Natural environment
Easy
factors
access
to
pleasant
Weather, geography
surroundings, geography
Built environment
Cycling
facilities
(off-road
paths), amenities
On and off-road paths, urban
design, end-of-trip facilities
Greig (2001) identified a number of
bicycle owners living 1.5 kilometres from
predisposing
the path (Merom et al, 2003).
factors
that
negatively
impact on cycling. These are important to
identify, in order that strategies can be
Au st r a lia n I n t e r ve n t ion s t o pr om ot e
developed
cyclin g
that
address
them.
These
negative predisposing factors are the
Seventeen Australian programs with a
belief that cycling is dangerous, the
component to increase cycling published
perception that great effort is required,
since
the
component have been included in Table
reaction
to
compulsory
helmet
1995
with
an
evaluation
not
2 below. The program title and first
being aware of improved cycle ways, or
author and year of publication is given,
the perception that cycling is something
followed by a brief summary of the main
you do before you start driving. The
strategies used and results found. An
fitness image of cyclists (for example,
assessment of the level of evidence
athletes or wearing lycra) can also be a
provided by
barrier to those people who do not
according to the following hierarchy of
currently cycle.
evidence:
wearing,
limited
secure
storage,
I
the evaluation is given
Evidence
obtained
from
a
of
all
The degree of effort required to get to a
systematic
cycle path is also related to whether a
randomised control trials (RCT)
cycle path is used. In a study in Western
Sydney, those people who owned a
II
review
Evidence obtained from at least
one properly designed RCT
bicycle and were living close to a cycle
path were more likely to use it than
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
54
III-1 Evidence
obtained
well-
data (Petticrew et al, 2005).
allocation or some other method)
There
obtained
certainly
more
programs
seeking to promote cycling in Australia
with
than are reported here, although many of
concurrent controls and allocation
these are not being formally evaluated or
not randomised (cohort studies),
the results of evaluations that have been
Case control studies or interrupted
conducted have not been documented, or
time series with a control group
the documentation of these evaluations
III-3
studies
Evidence obtained from
are not readily accessible to external
comparative studies with historical
agencies. The level of evidence of the
control, two or more single arm
effectiveness of the various strategies to
studies or interrupted time series
promote cycling provided by the available
without a parallel control group
published
reports
consistent
with
Evidence
obtained
from
case
series, either post-test or pre test
and post test
This
hierarchy
of
study
designs
evidence”) is used by the National Health
and Medical Research Council (NHMRC,
2000) to indicate the increasing potential
for bias in those studies on lower levels,
and therefore the greater reliance on the
conclusions
from
those
higher
rated
studies. However, it is also important to
recognise
that
this
hierarchy
disadvantages research study designs
where
the
subject
communities,
of
policies,
interest
or
local
phenomenon. It is very expensive to
allocate
government
areas
control
conditions
whole
to
local
treatment
and
and
community
interventions are relatively rare in the
health
literature.
It
is
also
important to note that in some public
health settings it may only be feasible,
or politically and/or ethically acceptable
conduct
(Rychetnik
Evaluation
observational
and
Frommer,
opportunities
that
relatively
low,
international
this
is
more
a
of
reflection
the
of
the
traditional
bio-
medical evidence hierarchy in assessing
the types of interventions needed to
promote cycling in a variety of settings.
Almost
all
promotion
shown
of
the
program
some
degree
identified
cycling
evaluations
of
have
increase
in
cycling, suggesting that if they were to
be implemented on a wider scale and
with adequate resources they would lead
to
increases
in
population
levels
of
regular cycling.
is
governments or other complex social
randomly
is
previous
reviews (Ogilvie et al, 2004). However,
inadequacies
(commonly referred to as “levels of
to
are
from
comparative
public
provide relevant and useful ‘real life’
designed pseudo-RCT (alternative
III-2 Evidence
IV
from
studies
2004).
arise
through policy or infrastructure changes
D iscu ssion
This review has highlighted the relatively
low level of regular cycling for transport
in Australia, and the marked gender
disparity of riders. However, cycling is a
very popular recreational activity (fourth
most popular nationally), suggesting that
under
favourable
conditions
some
of
these riders could substitute short car
trips for bicycle trips. This review has
also highlighted the variety of personal,
social and environmental influences on
cycling, which are more or less influential
depending on where on the continuum of
cycling development a person might be.
can create natural experiments that can
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
55
Canberra at 65 per cent (Australian
Ach ie va ble cyclin g t a r ge t s
In
thinking
about
the
factors
that
Bicycle Council, 2004).
influence people to ride a bicycle, it is
important to remember that even in
those European cities where cycling is a
Re com m e n da t ion s for r e se a r ch a n d
common mode of transport, the highest
pr a ct ice
proportion of trips by bicycle is around
This review has highlighted the relative
45 per cent of all trips (Anderson 2005).
paucity
There are some circumstances where
studies concerned with the promotion of
using a bicycle is not an option. First,
cycling. Given the lack of evaluation
there is a time/distance barrier for a
data, there are many aspects of cycling
journey, beyond which it is not an option
that require research and evaluation. The
to use a bicycle. While this point will vary
main areas of work identified in our
depending
review are summarised below, but these
on
the
level
of
cycling
enthusiasm, between 30-60 minutes is a
of
research
and
evaluation
are not intended to be comprehensive.
general limit for the majority of the
•
population.
Implement and evaluate advocacy
Second, certain commitments will impact
strategies
on the ability to use a bicycle. For
commitment
example, carrying heavy or bulky items
cycling, and increase the profile of
reduces the feasibility of cycling, as do
everyday cycling among policy and
other choices, such as walking to school
with a child or taking an elderly relative
to
increase
political
will
support
and
to
decision makers;
•
Regular and systematic national and
shopping which then intrudes on the
state
time/distance barrier.
frequency and prevalence, such as
Third, a certain proportion (10%) of the
outlined in the Cycling Data and
population will be physically unable to
Indicator
ride
Bicycle Council, 2000);
a
bike
because
of
a
physical
disability – between 5.2% (severe or
profound
core
activity
of
Guidelines
Document/evaluate
cycling
(Australian
the
effects
of
to
‘invisible’ infrastructure on cycling
15.3% (one or more activity limitations
prevalence and safety, such as lower
or
speed limits and traffic calming;
restrictions
restriction)
•
assessment
or
participation
restrictions), and this increases in older
populations(AIHW,
physical
fitness
2003).
or
even
Lack
which
reduces
Document/evaluate the effects of offand on-road cycling infrastructure,
of
and its promotion;
adequate
physical activity affects almost half the
population,
•
•
Better
access
understanding
the
to
of
documents
the
/
individual,
time/distance able to be cycled.
normative, and social factors that
Finally, not having access to a bicycle is a
facilitate or hinder cycling;
critical determinant of cycling behaviour.
•
Better
understanding
and
Approximately 40 per cent (39%) of
documentation of the role of ‘road
Sydney households have access to a
rage’,
bicycle (Transport Data Centre, 2003).
‘safety
with Sydney having the lowest level of
prevalence;
bicycle ownership in Australia at 29 per
cent, compared with bicycle ownership in
•
poor
Research
driver
concerns’
to
behaviour
on
explore
and
cycling
whether
increases in cycling leads to overall
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
56
increases
•
•
in
levels
of
physical
subst it ut ion of short car t rips by cycling
activity;
and
Clearinghouse role for the Australian
Communities, 1998.
Bicycle
Anderson LB, Schnohr P, Schroll M, Hein
Council
(or
similar)
for
European
reports on cycling and evaluations of
HO.
strategies to promote cycling; and
with physical activity during leisure
Bicycle advocates/researchers need
time, work, sports and cycling to
to
work. Archives of I nt ernal Medicine
document
better
the
effective
From the published evaluation studies
located, it is clear that there are very few
high quality Australian evaluations as
by
biomedical
research
standards, although the number of such
reports and publications have increased
substantially
in
the
last
five
years.
Despite this lack of evidence, there has
been a small but sustained increase in
the prevalence of cycling over recent
years, particularly in the inner state
capital
city
areas.
There
are
many
examples of small projects that have
increased
cycling,
conditions
for
examples
from
absence
of
or
improved
cycling,
and
other
control
the
many
countries.
groups
is
The
not
necessarily an evaluation limitation, as
the prevailing cycling trends are declines
no
change.
The
best
available
evidence indicates that the investment in
cycling
infrastructure
AND
promotion
successfully encourages cycling. It is also
clear
from
data
on
frequency
of
recreational cycling that a great many
people want to ride bicycles. However,
despite the multiple benefits of cycling
across many sectors, political support
and financial commitment to cycling are
required to increase the prevalence of
cycling.
developm ent
associated
Cycle city. ‘Connect ing Cycling- Planning
for
Healt hy
Federat ion
Com m unit ies,
of
Bicycle
Aust ralia
bi- annual
Conference,’ Brisbane October 5-8, 2005.
Ashley B, Rissel C. Monit oring of cycling
and act ive t ransport in t he Hawt horne
Canal cat chm ent . HCAT Technical Report
No.1 / 04, November 2004.
Ashton-Graham C, John G, James B,
Brög W, Grey-Smith H. Increasing cycling
through 'soft' measures (TravelSmart) Perth, Western Australia. In: McClintock
H, editor. Planning for cycling: principles,
pract ice and solut ions for urban planners.
Cambridge:
Woodhead,
Department
for
2002.
Planning
and
Infrastructure. Travel behaviour change
program for t he cit y of Sout h Pert h under
t he
TravelSm art
progr am :
t echnical
appendix. Perth: Government of Western
Australia, 2003.
Australian
Cycling-
Bicycle
Bicycle
Council.
Aust ralia
ownership,
use
and
dem ographics ( draft ) . July 2004.
Australian Bicycle Council. Cycling Data
and
Indicator
Guidelines.
Canberra:
Commonwealth
Department
of
Health
and Aged Care, 2000.
Australian
Institute
of
Welfare. Aust ralia’s Healt h
nint h
biennial
Aust ralian
healt h
I nst it ut e
Health
2004:
r eport
of
of
Healt h
and
t he
t he
and
Welfare. Canberra: AIHW, 2004.
Re fe r e n ce s
ADONIS
mortality
Anderson T. Odense-Denmark’s National
Con clu sion s
defined
All-cause
2000; 160: 1621-1628.
strategies for promoting cycling.
or
Italy:
walking.
Project.
of
Analysis
new
insight
and
int o
Australian
Institute
of
Health
and
Welfare. Disabilit y prevalence and t rends.
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Volume 13.1 September 2006
57
Canberra: AIHW, 2003. AIHW Cat no.
Davis A. Act ive t ransport : a guide t o t he
DIS34.
developm ent
Australian
Institute
of
Health
and
of
local
init iat ives
to
prom ot e walking and cycling. London:
Welfare: Mathers C, Vost T, Stevenson C.
UK: Health Education Authority, 1999.
The burden of disease and inj ury in
Garrard J, Crawford S. Bicycle Vict oria –
AIHW
Aust ralia.
Cat.
No.
PHE
17.
part icipat ion
in
cycling
event s
1994-
Canberra: AIHW, 1999.
2004. Unpublished report. Melbourne:
Australian Sports Commission. Exercise,
Deakin University, 2005.
Recreation and Sport Survey (ERASS).
Garrard J, Rose G, Sing KL, Barton A.
Canberra: Australian Sports Commission,
Commuter
2005.
Australia: are females more likely than
(www.ausport.gov.au/scorsresearch/eras
males
s2003.asp.)
separation from motor vehicle traffic?
Austroads.
Cycling
The
St rat egy
cycling
to
use
in
routes
Melbourne,
with
greater
Aust ralian
Nat ional
(Personal Communication, March 2006)
2005- 2010.
Sydney:
Garrard
J.
Healthy
revolutions:
Austroads, Department of Transport and
promoting cycling among women. Healt h
Regional Services, 2005.
Prom ot ion
Journal
of
2003;
Aust ralia
Baker S. Evaluat ion of t he Com m unit y
14(3):213-5.
and
Gill T, Taylor A. Physical act ivit y in Sout h
Road
Educat ion
Schem e
( CARES
facilit y) , Sydney Park. Sydney: City of
Aust ralian
Sydney, 2005.
Australian Department of Health, 2005.
Adelaide:
adult s.
South
Bauman A, Owen N. Physical activity of
Greig R. Cycling promotion in Western
adults
Australians:
Australia. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of
evidence
and
epidemiological
potential
strategies
for
health gain. Journal of Science, Medicine
Aust ralia 2001; 12(3):250-3.
Hu G, Qiao Q, Silventoinen K, Eriksson
and Sport 1999;2:30-41.
JG, Jousilahti P, LindstronJ, Valle TT,
Bell C, Garrard J, Swinburn B. Active
Nissinen
transport to work in Australia: is it all
Occupational commuting and leisure-
downhill from here? Asia- Pacific Jour nal
time physical activity in relation to
of Public Healt h, (in press).
risk for Type 2 diabetes in middle-
Bicycle Victoria.
aged
Cycle I nst ead Vict or ian
Pilot : final r eport .
2004.
(http://www.bv.com.au/file/cycle_instea
d_final_report_general.pdf, accessed 14
March 2006).
Bicycle
bicycle
Victoria.
Australia’s
thoroughfare.
BV
busiest
News
June
2003. p. 10.
Cooper B, Meiklejohn D. A new approach
for
travel
Universities.
behaviour
Proceedings
change
of
t he
in
26 t h
Aust ralasian Transport Research Forum ,
Wellington, New Zealand, 1-3 October,
Toumilehto
Finnish
men
and
J.
women.
Diabet ologia 2003: 46(3): 322-329.
Melbourne: Bicycle
Victoria,
A,
Jacobsen PL. Safety in numbers: more
walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and
bicycling. I nj ury
Prevent ion
2003; 9:
205-209.
James B. Walking and cycling more: the
TravelSmart evidence. Paper presented
at the 14 t h
Annual
Aust ralian
Healt h
Prom ot ion Associat ion Conference ‘Made
in
t he
Fut ure’, Sydney, 17-20 June,
2002.
Kuiper G. The Cycling in t he Cit y Proj ect :
City
of
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
58
2003.
sum m ary
report .
Sydney:
Sydney, May 2005.
Marfut H, Rose G, Meikeljohn D, Wills S,
Sparks
Barber H. Ride to work and beyond!
underused tool for public health. Public
Maximising
Healt h
the
behaviour
change
L.
Natural
experiments:
2005;
119:
an
751-757.
impacts of an active transport event.
Carlin JB. Taylor P. Nolan T. School
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport
based
2005;
8(4):
bicycle
safety
education
and
s219.
bicycle injuries in children: a case-control
Marshall G. Promoting cycling for health
study. I nj ury Prevent ion 1998; 4(1):22-
and fitness. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of
7.
Aust ralia 2001; 12(3):258-60.
Pucher J, Dijkstra L. Promoting safe
Mason C. Healthy people, places and
walking and cycling to improve public
transport. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of
health: lessons from the Netherlands and
Aust ralia 2000; 10(3): 190-196.
Germany. Am erican
McGinley F. Cycling in Melbourne 1997 –
Healt h 2003; 93(9): 1509-1516.
1999: Final r eport t o VicRoads based on
Rissel C, Campbell F, Ashley B, Jackson
dat a from t he Vict orian Act ivit y & Travel
L. Driver knowledge of road rules and
Survey ( VATS) 1997-1999. Melbourne:
attitudes
Transport
Journal of Prim ary Healt h 2002; 8(2):
Research
Centre,
RMIT
Journal
towards
cyclists.
of
Public
Aust ralian
University, 2003.
66-69.
Merom D, Bauman, Vita P, Close G. An
Roberts I, Owen H, Lumb P, MacDougall
environmental intervention to promote
C. Pedalling healt h: healt h benefit s of a
walking and cycling-the impact of a
m odal
newly constructed Rail Trail in Western
University of Adelaide, 1996.
Sydney.
Robinson
Prevent ive
2003;
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t ransport
DL.
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36(2): 235-242.
Australia: more walkers and bicyclists,
National Health and Medical Research
safer
Council.
Prom ot ion
How
to
review
evidence:
syst em at ic ident ificat ion and review of
t he
scient ific
Canberra:
lit erat ure.
AusInfo, 2000.
NSW
walking
Department
of
Transport.
St r at egy for t he
Great er
Region.
Met ropolit an
Sydney,
Journal
bicycling.
of
Healt h
2005;
Aust ralia
16(1): 47-51.
Rose G, Ampt E. Travel blending: an
Australian
I nt egrat ed Transport
and
travel
awareness
initiative.
Transport Res D 2001; 6: 95-110.
Rychetnik L, Frommer M. A schem a for
evaluat ing
evidence
on
public
healt h
1995.
int ervent ions – Version 4. Melbourne,
Ogilvie D, Egan M, Hamilton V, Petticrew
National Public Health Partnership, 2004.
M. Promoting walking and cycling as an
Steindorf K, Schmidt M, Kropp S, Chang-
alternative
to
using
cars:
systematic
review.
BMJ;
Claude
J.
Case-control
study
of
physical activity and breast cancer
doi:10.1136/bmj.38216.714560.55
risk among premenopausal women in
(published 22 September 2004).
Germany.
Paffenbarger RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL,
Epidem iology 2003; 157(2): 121-130.
Hsieh
CC.
mortality,
Physical
and
activity,
longevity
all-cause
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college
alumni. N Engl J Med 1986;314(10):
605-13.
Petticrew
M,
Cummins
S,
Ferrell
C,
Am erican
Journal
of
Telfer B, Rissel C, Bindon J, Bosch T.
Encouraging
cycling
cycling
proficiency
through
training
a
pilot
program
among adults in central Sydney. Journal
Findlay Z, Higgins C, Hoy C, Kearns A,
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Volume 13.1 September 2006
59
of Science and Medicine in Sport (in
m Last updated November 17, 1999.
press).
Accessed October 15, 2003.
Telfer B, Rissel C. Cycling t o work in
VicRoads.
Sydney:
ownership, use and dem ographics 1997-
Census
analysis
dat a
of
from
j ourney- t o- work
1996
and
2001.
Cycling in Melbourne: bicycle
1999. Melbourne: VicRoads, 2004.
Area
Wen LM, Orr N, Bindon J, Rissel C.
Health Service, Health Promotion Unit,
Promoting active transport in a workplace
September 2003.
setting: evaluation of a pilot study in
Telfer B. Increase in cycling to work in
Australia. Healt h Prom ot ion I nt ernat ional
Sydney:
2005; 20(2): 123-133.
Camperdown:
Central
analysis
of
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journey-to-work
Census data from 1996 and 2001. Healt h
Zaccari V. Big Bike Day 2000 – 2004.
2003;
Leichhardt: Leichhardt Municipal Council.
Prom ot ion
Journal
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Aust ralia
2004.
14(3): 222-224.
Transport
Data
Centre.
Cycling
in
Sydney- Bicycle ownership and use.
Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce :
Transport Data Centre, RTA, 2003.
Chris Rissel
USDHHS. Physical activity and health- a
report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta:
Centers
for
Disease
Control
and
Prevention, National Center for Chronic
Disease
Prevention
and
Health
Promotion.
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr.ht
Health Promotion Service
Level 9 (north), King George V
Missenden
Road,
Camperdown
NSW
2050, Australia.
Phone: (02) 9515-9055
Fax: (02) 9515-9056
Email: criss@email.cs.nsw.gov.au
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
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60
Ta ble 2 : Au st r a lia n in t e r ve n t ion s t o pr om ot e cyclin g by se t t in g a n d in t e r ve n t ion t ype
I n t e r ve n t ion t ype
Se t t in g/ popu la t ion
Edu ca t ion / sk ills
Sch ool
Bike Education program ( Carlin,
Taylor and Nolan, 1998)
Strategy:
School
based
curriculum program with skills
component.
Results: Increase in injuries in
the intervention group
Evidence level: III-2
Unive r sit y
W or k pla ce
Com m un it y- w ide
Adult skills group ( Telfer et al,
in press)
Strategy: 6 hours of group
instruction,
mostly
learning
cycling skills and ride practice
Results: An 40% increase in
weekly cycling time among
those not-riding at baseline
Evidence level: III-3
Monash Travel Smart ( Cooper
and Meiklej ohn, 2003)
Strategies: Travel behaviour
change
media
promotion
among students
Results: Observed increases in
cycling
Evidence level: III-3
Health workforce intervention
( Wen et al, 2005)
Strategies: Individual travel
behaviour change interviews
with a cohort of staff, plus
general
social
marketing
strategies
Results: Reduced car use, but
no change in cycling level
Evidence level: III-3
Adelaide project (Rose and
Ampt, 2001)
Strategies: individual action
program, known as Travel
Blending®,
involves
participating households being
sent a series of four kits,
containing information booklets
and travel diaries, over a nineweek period
Results: a 10% reduction in car
driver kilometres
Evidence level: III-3
Event series data analysis
( Garrard and Crawford, 2005)
Strategies:
Secondary
data
analysis
Results: Increase in event
participation over time
CARES program ( Baker , 2005)
Strategy: Purpose built training
venue for skills development,
plus classroom component
Results: Decrease in injuries in
intervention group (12% v
22%)
Evidence level: III-2
Socia l m a r k e t in g/ be h a viou r
ch a n ge
Ride to Work Day ( Marfut et al,
2005)
Strategies: Ride to work event
advertised
widely
through
workplaces
Results: 13% rode to work for
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
61
the first time, and a quarter of
these people were still riding to
work five months later
Evidence level: III-3
Hawthorne
Canal
Project
( Ashley and Rissel, 2004)
Strategies: Distribution and
promotion of local cycling map
illustrating key connections,
plus organised community rides
Results:
Bicycle
counters
indicated an increase in use of
highlighted route
Evidence level: III-3
Bike event days ( Zaccar i, 2004)
Strategies: Bike days organised
by local council, including a
family ride
Results:
Similar
level
of
participation each year
Evidence level: IV
Cycle monitoring in Victoria
( Bicycle Vict oria, 2003)
Strategies: Data analysis of
bicycle
counters
at
key
strategic routes
Results: Steady increase in bike
counts
Evidence level: III-3
Western Sydney Rail Trail
Evaluation ( Merom et al, 2003)
Strategies: Completion of new
dedicated bicycle infrastructure,
but minimal promotion
Results: Small but statistically
significant increase in use of
facility
Evidence level: III-2
I n fr a st r u ct u r e
‘I n visible in fr a st r u ct u r e ’ (eg
traffic calming policies, fiscal
policies such as congestion
taxes, petrol prices)
Evidence level: IV
No Australian data
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
62
M u lt i- com pon e n t
Cycling 100 ( Marshall, 2001)
Strategies:
Employees
committed to replacing 4 car
trips per week by bicycle and
were given use of a free bicycle
Results:
Significant
improvements in a range of
health indicators
Evidence level: III-3
Cycling in the city ( Kuiper,
2005)
Strategies: Employees at three
workplaces committed to riding
to work on two days a week
were
given
cycling
skills
training and social supportuse
within the workplace.
Results: Increase in employees
regularly riding
Evidence level: III-3
Cycle Instead program ( Greig,
2001)
Strategies:
Media
and
community intervention
Results: Significant increase in
the proportion of respondents
who had cycled in the previous
six months (28% vs 36%) plus
bike counters showed an overall
increase of 68.2% of cyclists.
Evidence level: III-3
Cycle
Instead
Shepparton
( Bicycle Vict oria, 2004)
Strategies:
Media
and
community campaign over two
months
Results:
39%
increase
in
cycling after two months
Evidence level: III-3
TravelSmart
South
Perth
( Jam es, 2002; Asht on- Graham ,
2002;
Depart m ent
of
I nfrast r uct ure, 2003)
Strategies: In-depth interviews
with households about travel
behaviour change
Results: 61% increase in cycle
trips
Evidence level: III-2
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
63
Tr a ve l in I n n e r Cit y ve r su s Ur ba n Fr in ge
of Ade la ide :
Th e Role of N e igh bou r h ood D e sign
A Solt a ni, A Alla n , S Som e n a h a lli, F Pr im e r a n o
Obesity, greenhouse gas emissions, and
Accordingly, for instance, a ‘‘Liveable
oil dependence are major concerns of
Neighbourhoods’’ approach (The Western
sustainability in Australian society1. One
Australian Planning Commission
factor is the increasing share of private
to planning has been proposed as a
vehicle
counter to urban sprawl.
using
contributes
to
these
1997)
problems. Another factor is suburban
There is considerable current interest in
development,
its
the effects of urban design and land use
trip
characteristics on the transport choices
contribution
widely
to
criticized
longer
for
average
lengths and excessive dependence on
made
private vehicles at the expense of public
underlying assumption is that residential
transport
neighbourhood characteristics have an
and
non-motorized
modes.
by
important
people
everyday.
influence
on
a
The
person's
willingness to make a trip by transit,
1
Australia is now equal second with the UK,
behind only the United States, when it comes
to the proportion of obese people in the
population Knox , S. (2003). "Planning as a
Public Health Issue." Urban Policy and
Research 2 1 (No. 4): 317–319.. Also, Australia
has higher greenhouse gas emissions per
capita than any other developed country.
Turton, H. and C. Hamilton (August 2002).
Updating
per
capita
emissions
for
ndustrialised countries, The Australia Institute.
ridesharing,
bicycling,
or
walking
-
modes other than driving alone. Further,
the amount and direction of other travel
behaviour issues such as the frequency
of travel, and the distance travelled
should be a function of surrounding
neighbourhood characteristics, thus that
the
combination
characteristics
and
of
neighbourhood
travel
demand
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
64
management
a
lower per capita travel was found to
positive interactive effect in influencing
apply in Australian cities in 1986, where
travel patterns.
higher-density cities had much more
This study investigates travel pattern in
travel than the smaller, less dense cities.
both
fringe
They mentioned also that despite the
households from four decisively selected
shortening of the separation between
suburbs to discover the potential impacts
residential areas and activity centres, per
of
capita
inner
strategies
city
can
and
neighbourhood
have
urban
design
on
travel
travel
increased
greatly.
They
choices. For this purpose, an integrated
concluded that travel convenience was
database of land use characteristics and
found to provide a better fit to the data
travel activities was developed for a
than did land use differences.
sample of households in the studied
areas. The database was established by
Li, Fisher et al (Li, Fisher et al. 2005)
adding
examined
site
information,
developed
the
relation
between
built
through field observation, to the specific
environment factors and walking activity
2005
Survey
at both the neighbourhood level and the
(HTS2005) dataset of the sample areas.
resident level, in an older adult sample.
The
This study resulted that there was a
Household
Travel
HTS2005
dataset
includes
information about individuals’ travel, and
positive
their perception on their neighbourhood
environment factors and walking activity
environment
at
individuals.
for
a
number
These
data
of
were
321
then
relation
the
between
neighbourhood
level.
built
At
the
resident level, perceptions of safety for
analysed to explore the interactions that
walking
may exist between transport level of
recreational
service,
related to high levels of walking activity.
land
use,
urban
design
and
characteristics, and individual pattern of
Also
travel.
observed
a
number
facilities
significant
between
of
nearby
were
positively
interaction
number
of
was
street
intersections and perceptions of safety
Ba ck gr ou n d St u die s
from traffic. In a similar study by Giles-
There is an ongoing trend to examine
Corti,
how urban form and land use patterns
Broomhall et al. 2005) it was found that
impact upon travel. This question was
the likelihood of using public open spaces
raised more than twenty years ago and
increased
inspired many debates so far. Review
access, but the effect was greater in the
articles
have
also
Broomhall
with
et
al
(Giles-Corti,
increasing
levels
of
been
written
model
empirical
results
attractiveness,
2001);
(Crane
adjustment, those with very good access
2000);(Handy 1996). However, research
to large, attractive open spaces were
efforts
50% more likely to achieve high levels of
summarising
related
(Stead
Marshall
and
are
modelling
underway
and
to
assessment
improve
adjusted
and
for
distance,
size.
After
to
walking. The observational study also
measure the impacts of these effects.
showed that after matching open spaces
Some
for size and location, 70% of users
Australian
and
tools
that
international
examples are reviewed below:
observed visited attractive public open
Moriarty and Beed (Moriarty and Beed
spaces.
1992)
found
that
the
expected
relationship between higher density and
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
65
With analysing the influence of personal
employment density of destination does
characteristics and the attributes of the
matter.
residential
environment
on
travel
behaviour in Randstad Holland Region
However,
(Dieleman, Dijet et al. 2002) it was found
significant contribution of urban form
that both set of factors have a strong
features in influencing travel behaviour.
influence on modal choice and distance
A study by Crane and Crepeau
travelled.
The
of
and Crepeau 1998) in US, found that
residential
environment
their
there is no evidence that street network
characteristics
retain
impact on travel when personal factors
impacts
are held constant, as the results from the
choice
multivariate
Portland,
analyses
demonstrate.
not
all
upon
for
studies
the
decision
non-work
Oregon,
found
(Crane
of
mode
travelling.
Hess
a
(Hess
In
2001)
Those living in the suburbs and rural
suggested that there is an expected
regions have to travel longer distances to
significant influence for parking charges
work, either by car or public transport.
on decisions to drive alone or to take
For shopping trips, urban form plays a
alternative
substantial part in the distance travelled
evidence that land use and proximity to
by public transport. Those living in rural
light rail can change the modal choice
areas or suburbs travel longer distance
decision.
via public transport. In fact, the two sets
Boarnet and Crane (Boarnet and Crane
of factors are of about equal importance
2001)
for modal choice and distance travelled,
friendly
although trip purpose modifies these
developed areas, close to or in the city
relationships considerably, especially for
centre, may well be a result of their
distances
preferences
travelled
for
shopping
and
modes.
suggest
But,
that
travel
there
the
living
no
environment
pattern
for
is
in
densely
there.
They
basically welcome the opportunity that
leisure.
city life offers for reduced travels. That is
Handy
(Handy
1996)
suggested
that
one of the reasons why they reside
given motivation to walk, urban form is
there.
an external factor that can enable actual
selection doesn’t seem to change the
walk.
hypothesis that neighbourhood design
A
traditional
encourages
walking
walkable
for
design
shopping
I
argue,
matters.
In
however,
fact,
when
this
self-
somebody
purpose, however, the newly designed
voluntarily prefers to live in a place that
suburbs can do the same if they afford
induces walking and bicycling in daily life
retailing
walkable
(thus subsequently avoiding using car) is
distance. In addition, Handy showed that
a fair example of the importance and
land use patterns affect the choice set
consideration of neighbourhood design.
formation of travel modes which are
There will be no change if we assume
realistic to the trip maker: land use
that the residents have been unwillingly
makes
surrounded by neighbourhood facilities
and
a
stores
difference
within
in
determining
whether residents perceived walking as
instead
an option available to them. Frank and
neighbourhood.
Pivo (Frank and Pivo 1994) found that
Brunton and Brindle (Brunton and Brindle
while residential density of trip origin is
1999) in
an important factor in choosing a mode,
metropolitan
of
choosing
deliberately
the
a study of the Melbourne
area,
concluded
that
regional accessibility to activities was
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
66
significant factors in car use, while other
with less diversity within it. Also the
urban form factors have relatively little
method of analysis can be criticised due
effect.
to its simple assumption on link between
If a broader range of factors is
considered,
the
relationship
between
exogenous factors.
density and car using becomes weaker.
They criticized the use of urban planning
It sounds that the relationship between
for addressing car dependency problems
urban form and travel behaviour is more
because of its frail role. They concluded
complex
that rather than take the normative
surface. The methodological obstacles,
position that a particular urban form
has made it difficult to study the causal
must be encouraged if desired travel
relationship. While some scholars have
outcomes are to be achieved, a given city
argued that the relationship is marginal,
may be able to adapt to achieve the
others suggest finding better ways to
desired
study on urban form-travel interactions
accessibility
level
in
several
ways. Policy may then be able to be
based
on
setting
accessibility
target
rather
than
levels
of
density
for
than
it
may
seem
on
the
(Handy 1996).
The
policies
that
the
research
by Brunton and Brindle (Brunton and
development or revision of the existing
Brindle
situation have to be supported with
considered
aggregated
attributes and measures of land use and
relevant
travel,
directing
from
particular areas and land uses. The study
1999)
for
emerge
empirical
work
the
to
new
be
more
finer
reliable. The critique of these studies has
characteristics of neighbourhoods (such
suggested that a number of issues must
as provisions for various forms of travel,
be taken into account when drawing any
neighbourhood
conclusions
failing
to
consider
character
the
and
its
for
policy
(Stead
and
conduciveness for non-motorised forms
Marshall 2001). These issues include the
of travel), the socio-demographics of the
strength
population (such as the difference in
transferability of findings, the scale of
travel
analysis,
patterns
of
individuals
and
of
the
and
evidence,
the
the
causality
of
households), and the type of travel being
relationships. Therefore, the degree to
undertaken.
which urban form might affect travel
behaviour can be lower than literature
The
study by Giles-Corti and Donovan
has indicated (where they have not
(Giles-Corti and Donovan 2002) in Perth,
considered socio-economics). Meanwhile,
found that the influence of the built
this
environment on physical activity levels,
planning/design
was marginal to individual social factors
significant role to play in helping to
and individual’s characteristics. Despite
achieve more sustainable travel patterns.
this,
and
Planning policies can influence transport
recreational facilities determined whether
supply as well as the distribution of land
or not they were used. Thus, in this way,
uses, and so provide a way of influencing
it
travel demand and/or modal choice.
access
can
open
support
achievement
physical
to
of
and
spaces
enhance
appropriate
activity
the
levels
behaviour.
does
not
mean
does
that
not
urban
have
a
of
One
M e t h odology
limitation of this study is choosing a
Some of methodological improvements
specific area which was homogeneous
have been made in this study: using
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
67
discrete
choice
models
individual
behaviour;
capturing
disaggregated
urban
form;
important
to
explain
using
GIS
incorporating
factors
for
elements
of
other
such
as
taken in CCD level. For those measures
with
a
regional
accessibility
to
impact,
work
such
as
throughout
the
metropolitan region, a Traffic Analysis
Zone
(TAZ)-as
defined
in
1999
household/individual
preferences
and
Metropolitan Adelaide Household Survey
attitudes;
incorporating
the
(Government of South Australia 1999)
region
has been applied as spatial unit. In case,
overall
and
also
structure
surrounded
the
of
city
neighbourhood
by
where a CCD was not compatible with
regional accessibility; jobs distribution
TAZ,
and
suggested
public
transport
infrastructure
measures.
a
weighting
by
system
Primerano
was
used
(Primerano
2004). Using GIS facilitates work with
more precision and efficiency. In case,
It
is
tried
approach:
to
in
opertionalising,
take
terms
a
a
of
disaggregated
urban
Census
form
Collecting
GIS maps were not up to dated or
apparent, an on-screen digitising method
used to
enter new features or edit
District (CCD)-as defined in (Australian
current spatial features. The role of GIS
Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2001)- is
for preparing data for modelling process
suggested as spatial unit of analysis.
is
depicted
on
Figure
1.
Thus all local urban form measures were
Analysis
Basic Data
Urban Digital Data
GIS Database
/Analyst
Transport Network
and Level of Service
Discrete
Choice
Modelling
Travel Survey Data
Figu r e 1 : The r ole of GI S for pr e pa r in g da t a for m ode lin g pr oce ss
The original survey consisted of 1500
response rate for a survey administered
addresses but only 321 valid addresses.
to the general population is typically 10–
The response rate is about 21% based on
40% (Sommer and Sommer 1997). A
the valid returned questionnaire only.
comparison of sample characteristics to
This response rate is considered quite
population characteristics, based on the
well for a survey of this length, since the
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
68
2001
Australian
Census,
showed
a
populations are younger, which now
reasonable distribution.
forms the age group of 0-35, the
highest
age
group
in
terms
of
For modelling purpose, a set of discrete
population but the age group over 65
choice
the
models
was
developed
for
lowest.
This
demographic
modelling individual mode choices. The
difference
models were all discriminated by travel
transport demand market over the
purpose and the geographic location of
time.
•
trip makers.
has
had
its
toll
on
The areas of Norwood and Unley are
characterized with relatively low car
Ca se St u dy Ar e a s
ownership compared to Golden Grove
The study area includes four residential
and Para Hills suburban areas. It is
suburbs
Adelaide:
interesting that Para Hills has the
of
metropolitan
Norwood, Unley, Golden Grove and Para
highest figure of vehicle ownership
Hills. These four suburbs are different in
per
terms of their physical attributes which is
household. Also it has the highest
assumed
considerable
percentage of households with three
difference in travel behaviour of their
vehicles or more. On the other hand
residents. Norwood (1853) and Unley
it has the lowest income average and
(1871) as typical traditionally designed
highest proportion of households with
neighbourhoods have a mix of land uses,
income
residential, office, shopping, civic uses,
primarily
and entertainment, within easy walking
ownership does not depend only on
distance of home. On the other hand,
income level.
to
make
a
suburban developed areas: Golden Grove
household:
lower
1.6
vehicles
than
shows
$500.
that
per
This
vehicle
All four suburbs are served properly
(1980s — 90s) and Para Hills (1974) lack
by public metro-ticket bus as the
heterogeneous land uses. The density of
only public mean. Meanwhile, public
population and activities of these suburbs
transport share in the studied areas
are lower than those of Norwood and
is not significant.
Unley. The styles of housing area mostly
•
The average commuting distance is
developments of separate houses with
different for each suburb. While the
back yards, land-escaped gardens and
residents of Norwood, Unley and Para
parking
some
Hills should travel about 16, 14 and
developments made by South Australian
18km, the Golden Grove workers
Housing Trust to accommodate different
should commute significantly longer:
social groups especially in Golden Grove
23km.
spaces,
however,
•
(Bosman 2004).
The home rent throughout the four
suburbs is similar: about $200 per
The locations of case study areas within
week
metropolitan Adelaide are depicted on
housing average price for Unley is
figure 2. Some travel characteristics of
highest followed by Norwood and
the four suburbs are provided in table 1.
Golden
Here are a number of facts about these
together. In Para Hills, the housing
areas extracted from HTS2005:
price is slightly lower.
•
Compared to other two suburbs, the
Para
Hills
and
Golden
Grove
•
in
average.
Grove
which
In
are
contrast,
similar
Norwood and Unley residents have
higher trip generation (for Norwood
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
69
•
and Unley were 3.7% and 3.5%
Norwood has the highest share of
which are higher than those of Para
short trips with length of less than 1
Hills and Golden Grove: 3.3%). The
km
travel behaviour among the four case
Grove has the longest trips for work
suburbs is markedly different, as the
(19.5 km) and non-work purposes
two outer suburbs are more car-
(16.3
(approximately
10%).
Golden
km).
dependent;
Figu r e 2 : The Loca t ion of Fou r Ca se St u die d Su bu r bs a n d Th e ir La n d Use Pa t t e r n
Ta ble 1 : Tr a ve l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics for t h e Re side n t s of Fou r Ca se St u die d Ar e a s
Pa r a
Golde n
H ills
Gr ove
76
88
91
61
60
81
76
commuting
15
11
2
4
non-work
31
28
11
9
3
7
5
6
6
12
6
9
Va r ia ble N a m e
N or w ood
Un le y
Car use share for commuting (percent)
78
Car
travel
use
share
for
non-work
(percent)
Walk/bicycle
share
for
(percent)
Walk/bicycle
share
for
(percent)
Public
bus
share
for
commuting
(percent)
Public bus share for non-work (percent)
Average travel time for daily trips (min)
14
16
23
21
Average commuting distance (km)
6.7
5.8
14.6
19.5
Average travel distance for non-work
5.0
5.4
11.1
16.3
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.3
(km)
Trip frequency per adult per day
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
70
composite measures of the suitability of
M e a su r in g u r ba n for m
A set of comparative spatial indicators
local streets for walking and cycling: PEF
were
and CEF - was introduced for this study-
developed
to
quantify
environment
characteristics.
measures
together
all
physical
character
of
built
These
represent
a
represent
the
quality
of
the
built
the
environment in terms of physical activity
residential
options (sidewalks, bike lanes), safety
neighbourhood and are assumed to be
(low
relatively independent from each other.
street
Density was measured using three single
(appearance, building setback, variety in
indicators:
residential
gross
traffic,
safe
lighting),
for
walking/cycling,
and
attractiveness
density;
housing styles, landscape). The values
employment density and retail density.
for these two measures were obtained
The land use entropy index (LUM) is used
through a field observation survey (which
2
as a measure of land use mix . Regional
was undertaken for 110 streets).
accessibility to workplaces was calculated
percentage
using a gravity-based formula. Proximity
covered by metropolitan public bus route
indices for shopping centres and schools
buffers was also calculated to consider
were calculated as the median distance
the
between them and all residential units
services. The covered area is the area
within a neighbourhood area weighted by
within 0.2 km of local bus routes, where
the number of dwelling units. To consider
pedestrian connections to transit areas
the
are available from the surrounding area.
permeability
of
each
residential
of
availability
neighbourhood
of
public
The
area
transport
neighbourhood, four different indicators
were developed: the proportion of culde-sacs; street space allocation as a
proportion
of
the
total
centreline
distances of streets in each area; the
route directness index was calculated by
dividing the direct distance between an
origin and destination by the actual
network distance between them and the
average
2
of
urban
block
area.
The
Mean land use entropy was computed as:
s
− ∑ ( pi ) ln( pi )
i =1
ln(s )
p is
i
where
the proportions of each of the s
land use types which s is the number of land
uses. Cervero , R., and K. Kockelman (1997).
"Travel Demand and the 3Ds: Density,
Diversity, and DesignTravel demand and 3D's:
density; diversity and design." Transportation
Research D V ol. 2 (No. 3.). The number of
seven categories considered for this study:
residential;
commercial;
recreational;
industrial; governmental; community services
and open spaces.
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
71
Ta ble 2 : Ur ba n For m M e a su r e s for Fou r St u dy Ar e a s
Va r ia ble N a m e
N or w ood
Un le y
Pa r a
Golde n
H ills
Gr ove
Residential Density (persons/ha)
53.8
43.8
30.2
47.2
Employment Density (jobs/ha)
22.1
19.9
6.3
7.6
Retail Density (Percentage of Floor
.03
.03
.001
.003
Land use mix entropy
.63
.72
.48
.38
Accessibility to Workplaces
872.6
754.0
1619.2
1633.9
Closeness to Shopping Complex (km)
.873
.754
1.619
1.634
Closeness to Schools (km)
1.051
.876
1.588
1.778
Proportion of cul-de-sacs
.35
.48
.51
.62
Route directness
1.22
1.37
1.53
1.61
Space)
Median block area (ha)
1.9
1.8
5.3
7.2
Pedestrian Environment Factor (PEF)
7.15
6.88
5.4
5.28
Cyclist Environment Factor (CEF)
6.14
5.84
5.09
4.72
Bus Coverage (percent)
.60
.64
.53
.73
Street Space Allocation
137 9
137 0
135 1
107 6
The aggregated results for four suburbs
Golden
show that Norwood and Unley have
walking/cycling activities.
better environment for inducing non-
Para Hills has the lowest share of non-
motorised travel modes. In addition to
motorised travel, which shows that the
providing various public facilities in these
built form is really poor in encouraging
suburbs,
sustainable
smooth
and
continuous
Grove
are
travel.
less
There
encouraging
are
several
sidewalks and on-street bike lanes have
disadvantages such as lack of sense of
been provided in Norwood, and also
safety/security after dark; single-zoning;
Unley
lack of community sense; lack of local
experienced
some
practice
of
traffic calming. Within two outer suburbs
facilities and a hilly topography.
Golden Grove has successful landscapes,
The primary results from the figures
architecture
illustrated
Meanwhile
traffic
and
both
calming
green
outer
and
spaces.
suburbs
need
development
of
on
table
1
and
table
2,
reinforce the view that bringing origin
and
destinations
closer
together
is
pedestrian/cyclist infrastructure at local
associated to increase walking and daily
scale. While Golden Grove has similar
non-work activity frequencies. The extent
advantages to Unley and Norwood in
to which this association is casual is the
terms of suitability for walking/cycling,
matter that will be discussed in follow
the walking and cycling trends in Golden
modelling debates. However, the fact
Grove
remains that inner city residents exhibit
is
lesser.
Although
there
are
relatively good infrastructure; facilities
higher levels of non-motorised activities.
and landscape for pedestrian and cyclists
in Golden Grove, the question remains
M oda l Ch oice m ode llin g
why these residents do not? In fact,
Multinominal
homogeneous
developed and used to evaluate the
land
use
patterns
in
logit
models
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
were
72
effects of urban form/design variables on
modes by dividing the distance travelled
modal
by the speed of the mode alternative for
choice.
models
The
estimate
multinomial
the
logit
likelihood
of
every trip which is explained earlier.
choosing a mode of travel by a household
member.
These
models
use
socio-
Re su lt s
demographics of the sample households
The
(and individuals) as exogenous variables
values of Alternative Specific Constants
along
urban
(ASCs), Alternative Specific Attributes
form/design. For analysis, the individual
(ASAs), values of attribute coefficients
is considered as the unit of analysis to
and their significance are detailed in
with
the
measures
of
achieve more accurate outcomes.
Five
mode alternatives were modelled:
•
Metro-ticket
public
bus
(C5):
households that have at least one
vehicle available;
Walking
(C2):
to
all
except those aged over 76 and it is
designated as being also available to
individuals whose trip distance is less
than the maximum distance biked by
an individual in the sample.
0.56 (compared to the model with no
are all above the threshold values of
that
all
ASCs
and
the
coefficient
estimates of attributes are all significant.
The coefficients of the alternative specific
are significant. Model coefficients show
records taken from HTS2005 database to
travel
factors and their ability to improve the
explanatory
power
of
behavioural
models. Driving alone (C3) was taken as
the referent alternative here. All analysis
was done by LIMDEP ver. 7.0 (Greene
1998).
The sample data contains 1,027 trip
undertaken
by
individuals who resided in one of the four
case study areas. One alternative specific
attributes is calculated for non-chosen
alternatives: travel time. Travel time is
calculated using travel distance assuming
constant average speed 3 for different
Living farther from Adelaide CBD leads to
a lower propensity to make non-work
trips
by
non-motorised
The following values are applied: Car=46.4 ,
modes.
In
addition, living farther from CBD, is
associated
with
longer
kilometres
travelled for work purpose; they need to
travel longer, or they may travel longer
than they need? One reason is that
employment
centralised
3
values are
the importance and strengths of urban
Cycling (C1): available to individuals
represent
ρ2
attributes are all the expected sign and
available
individuals;
•
Appendix 1. The adjusted
including
±1.96 (95 percent confidence) showing
Driving alone(C3): available to adult
members with a driver’s licence from
•
models,
coefficients). The t-statistics in the model
Shared-ride (C4): available to all
individuals;
•
choice
good with values ranged from 0.36 to
available to all individuals;
•
modal
despite
has
in
remained
metropolitan
the
overall
quite
Adelaide
trend
to
(female) or 11
suburbanisation of jobs:”… 39 per cent of
(male), Public Bus=23 km/h (Primerano, F.
all jobs held by females in 1991 were still
(2004).
located in the CBD and inner suburbs,
Walk= 4.25 , Bicycle=8
Development
Measures
for
Planning.
Transport
of
Transport
Accessibility
and
Systems
Urban
Centre.
Adelaide, University of South Australia.
compared with 33 per cent for males
(Forster 1999), p. 59).” In other words,
the
CBD
is
the
largest
employment
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
73
centre, with one third of Adelaide's jobs,
recreation and open spaces; within the
and
the
studied suburbs, the farther the shopping
professional, office and service works.
strong
employment
centre the less likely an individual catch
Other employment centres of smaller
public transport to there; Also within the
scale also exist in the south, north and
two
northwest
parts
suburbs,
the
farther
One
education/training centre or schools, the
lower the likelihood of walking/cycling to
and
as expected;
employment
is
Adelaide.
outer
advantage of inner suburbs: Norwood
Unley
of
in
better
centres
access
in
CBD.
to
Baker
the
Within the two inner suburbs, higher
increasing number of employees in CBD
network density is associated positively
is contributing to the continuing demand
with the choice of walking/cycling. In
for terraces and town housing in inner
addition, where street space allocation is
Adelaide.
higher, it is less likely an individual to be
(Baker
1997)
suggested
that
driven by a household member or drive a
In addition, when job is located at least 2
vehicle with passenger to work. Within
kilometres far from home, the likelihood
the two outer suburbs, individuals tend
of walking/cycling to is decreased. On
to walk/cycle to non-work destinations
contrast,
to
where the neighbourhood designed as
workplace increases the propensity to
permeable. On the other hand, within the
walk/cycle to job. In fact, in Adelaide,
two inner suburbs, where urban block is
the
number
higher
of
accessibility
the
larger the likelihood of catching public
resident labour force is relatively low,
jobs
relative
to
transport is lower. As part of non-work
thus workers may find it difficult to find a
trips are taken by non-motorised means
job near their residential location. This
(15%-25% in studied areas), the impact
low job ratio may result in a large
of these variables may thus be a mixture
average commute distance and time and
of some local urban fabric factors to ease
related to this, lower shares of non-
the movement through the area.
motorised modes. However, this finding
or
Within the two inner suburbs, individuals
residential relocation may serve as a
residing in single-family houses are less
means for households to travel shorter,
likely to walk, but higher shared-ride
but it often functions as a last option
choice to work. On contrast, within the
when
two
recommend
other
insufficient.
that
employment
strategies
The
have
reason
for
proven
this
outer
suburbs,
living
in
flats/apartments increases the likelihood
reluctance to relocate is that substantial
of
costs are involved in changing jobs and
destinations. There was no clear casual
particularly the place of residence, not
relationship
only for the worker but also his/her
densities on modal choice in studied
family.
areas;
As expected, where land use mixing is
Travel time has a negative coefficient
higher, the more likely an individual to
with choosing a mode for both work and
be driven by a household member or
non-work trips. In fact, the higher the
drive a vehicle with passenger to non-
values of this attribute the lower the
work
utility, thus, the greater the travel time
destinations
such
as
shopping;
walking/cycling
between
to
non-work
residential/retail
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
74
the lower the benefit to the user. This
(Rosenbloom and Burns 1993) showed
finding is consistent with Crane and
that both mothers and fathers make a
Crepeau
significant number of trips solely for
(Crane
and
Crepeau
1998)
showing the importance of travel time as
children,
a cost factor in a behavioural model.
majority of these trips for children up to
Furthermore, time plays a central role
17 years old.
with
mothers
making
the
when deciding whether to engage in an
activity. A theoretical treatment of the
Con clu sion s
time constraint problem can be found in
Fu r t h e r I n ve st iga t ion
e.g.
and
I m plica t ion s
for
The
This study is a primary step in Australian
main consequence of the time constraint
context with applying a disaggregated
for the modelling of non-work trips is
approach;
that making a trip of one kind reduces
analysis is possible and is encouraged.
the time to make a trip of another kind.
The
Jara-Diaz
(Jara-Diaz
1998).
considerable
results
practical
would
means
help
to
additional
to
identify
incorporate
built
Among the social factors, it was found
environment aspects in local demand
that women in all four suburbs, are more
travel
likely to drive alone for work trips but
understanding of the connection between
also more likely to choose shared-ride
urban form and travel choice behaviour.
choice for non-work activities. Females
This study also may serve to assist other
are more likely to walk in inner suburbs
practitioners in Adelaide in their efforts to
but
less
likely
to
ride
a
forecasting
systems,
to
better
bike.
address the issue of induce travel, and to
Retired/unemployed individuals tend to
present better solutions for sustainability
use public transport. Young adults and
concerns.
part time/casual workers are likely to get
mode.
The results showed that urban form not
Individuals certified as driver are less
only makes more alternatives also makes
likely
transport.
a shift in modal choice. It is important to
Individuals of low income households in
say that improving access to more travel
inner suburbs tend to walk/cycle to work.
choices does not routinely result to less
Individuals of high income families in
car use. As pointed earlier, some people
outer suburbs are less likely to catch
take their own transport due to their
public
non-work
attitudes and perceptions. They drive
destinations, but those with low income
because they believe in it and they want
tend
it regardless of cost, time and other
to
work
to
with
shared-ride
catch
transport
to
catch
public
for
public
transport
to.
Individuals of low income households in
constraints.
In
a
unique
study
that
inner suburbs tend to walk/cycle to non-
looked at the association between land
work
middle-aged
use, transportation and attitudes , it was
individuals (36-55 years old) are more
found that personal attitudes is a strong
likely to drive with a passenger or be
predictor of travel behaviour, perhaps
driven by a member of the household.
stronger than land use characteristics
The presence of children has potential
(Kitamura,
impact, as many non work car trips are
While this research did not consider
generated by children’s needs, whether it
individuals’ attitudes directly, the findings
is for school, recreational activities, or
suggest
medical
influence travel decisions.
destinations.
concerns.
The
The
study
by
Mokhtarian
that
attitudes
et
al.
may
1997).
potential
What this
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
75
research
suggests
is
making
more
It would be interesting to see whether
alternatives and improvement in more
physical changes like the construction of
sustainable travel modes is a necessary
sidewalks or improvement to bike lanes
condition which should be given high
in an established suburb such as Para
attention in policy and planning.
Hills are associated with changes in
walking/cycling,
after
accounting
for
Walking and cycling are fringe modes
socio-economics.
and represent rare behaviours in studied
environments
that
offer
areas.
opportunities
for
walking/cycling
Even
among
the
inner
city
Does
move
to
better
households, and considering all utilitarian
associated
and leisure travel, over a 24-hour period,
walking/cycling? In this topic, recently,
only 6% cycled and 23%walked. So
on going longitudinal panel studies have
discussing
urban
been started in Western Australia, which
enable
is surveying people travel behaviour prior
the
form/design,
potential
to
induce
for
or
with
increase
in
walking/cycling should be taken with
to
caution. As Sallis and Owen (Sallis and
(University of Western Australia
Owen 1999) discuss, “Interventions in
An important question remains is that if
built environment do not directly change
increases
behaviour.
substantial enough to justify the cost of
Interventions
modify
the
and
after
in
a
residential
modal
2004);
are
not
factors that control behaviour, and those
improvements
changes
to
infrastructure especially in established
improved behaviour” (p. 135). I mean we
suburbs? Since in new developments
don’t expect to have a dramatically shift
such as part of Golden Grove, zoning and
in
the
subdivision rules can be modified to allow
design.
proximity to shops, parks and public
are
modal
expected
choice
modifications
in
just
to
lead
through
community
in
shifting
moving
walking/cycling
urban
services, but in established suburbs it is
form/design matters remains valid and
challenging. We could refer to other
here suggests that one need to live in a
environmental/health benefits as well as
quality
social impacts.
However,
the
design
theory
that
neighbourhood
with
a
close proximity-less than 200m as now in
Norwood for instance, to public facilities
Only four suburbs have been studied and
to
a modest survey response rate has been
have
a
significant
impact
on
walking/cycling. The fact that residents
obtained,
of Norwood and Unley spend more time
necessarily generalisable unless they are
being actively in their neighbourhood
replicated
may also be resulted from stronger sense
populations with different socioeconomic
of community and higher neighbourhood
attributes. A low variation between urban
cohesion which are explaining by many
form variables in geographical areas, due
non-physical
urban
to small sample size, plus lesser variation
spending
within suburbs makes the urban form
more time out-doors, in turn, cause an
measures less insensate to detect the
increase in social communication and
effect of urban form on travel choices.
social cohesion over time, and perhaps
Information was collected only about the
as a result reinforce increased physical
urban form of the sample sites. Such
activity.
kind of information should be gathered
design
factors
features.
not
sole
Intuitively,
so
in
theses
other
results
contexts
are
and
not
for
from the characteristics of destinations of
World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________
Volume 13.1 September 2006
76
daily commuting. Similarly, data on the
Forster,
destination
Continuity
of
midday
travel,
trip
C.
(1999).
and
Australian
Change.
Cities:
Melbourne,
chaining, or other related topics were not
Oxford University Press.
included, because the attraction of those
Frank, L. and G. Pivo (1994). "The
trips made outside of the origin suburbs
impacts of mixed use and density on the
are important as well.
utilization of three modes of travel: the
single
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World Transport Policy & Practice
Eco-Logica Ltd.
ISSN 1352-7614
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