World Transport Policy & Practice Volu m e 1 3 , N u m be r 1 Splin t e r e d u r ba n ism loca l pu blic spa ce or cor por a t e e con om ic ga in…? H o u se h o l d ca r o w n e r sh i p & ‘W a lk in g f o r T r a n sp o r t ’ SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY – SEEN TO THE YEAR 2030 Cyclin g for a ct ive t r a n spor t & r e cr e a t ion in Au st r a lia – St a t u s r e vie w & fu t ur e dir e ct ion PED ESTRI AN I SATI ON OF COM M ERCI AL RETAI L AREAS ‘Kh a o Roa d’, BAN GKOK World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006 Eco-Logica Ltd. ISSN 1352-7614 1 World Transport Policy & Practice Volu m e 1 3 , N u m be r 1 © 2006 Eco-Logica Ltd. Editor Professor John Whitelegg Stockholm Environment Institute at York, Department of Biology, University of York, P.O. Box 373, York, YO10 5YW, U.K Editorial Board Eric Britton Managing Director, EcoPlan International, The Centre for Technology & Systems Studies, 8/10 rue Joseph Bara, F75006 Paris, FRANCE Mikel Murga Leber Planificacion e Ingenieria, S.A., Apartado 79, 48930Las Arenas, Bizkaia, SPAIN Paul Tranter School of Physical Environmental & Mathematical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra ACT 2600, AUSTRALIA Publisher Eco-Logica Ltd., 53 Derwent Road, Lancaster, LA1 3ES, U.K Telephone: +44 (0)1524 63175 E-mail: j.whitelegg@btinternet.com http://www.eco-logica.co.uk/WTPPhome.html Professor John Howe Independent Transport Consultant, Oxford, U.K ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Co n t e n t s Editorial 3 John Whit elegg Abstracts & Keywords 5 What goes up must come down: Household car ownership and ‘Walking for transport’ 7 Hazel Baslingt on Trends, innovative course settings and levers for mobility & transport: 18 Seen to the year 2030 Har t m ut H. Topp Splintering the public realm: using local public space for corporate economic gain? 31 Fiona Raj e Effects of pedestrianisation on the commercial and retail areas: study in Kha San Road, Bangkok 38 Sant hosh Kum ar K., William Ross Cycling for active transport and recreation in Australia: status review and future directions 51 Rissel C, Garrard J Travel in Inner City versus Urban Fringe of Adelaide: the Role of Neighbourhood Design 64 Solt ani A, Allan A, Som m enhalli S, Prim erano F World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006 2 Edit or ia l The city of Brisbane in Australia has decided to build a central area tunnel at a cost of over $3 billion (Australian). The tunnel will end up costing far more than this and will be followed by many other high cost highway infrastructure projects. Brisbane’s approach to transport policy is not especially unusual but does bring into sharp relief the contradictions that lie at the heart of urban transport throughout the world. Brisbane is also the location of the self- proclaimed “largest travel smart project in the world”, and this project will work diligently to persuade people not to use the car. The combined highway projects and Travel Smart At an international conference on walking in th projects amount to a $10 billion plan to 2006, a encourage car use and a $30 million plan to large and eager audience sat patiently waiting discourage car use. This is silly and looks for the Minister of Transport of the State of especially silly when put in the context of the Victoria to give his opening address. He did not world-class physical environment of Brisbane turn up, and his absence sends a very strong and message indeed to all those who work very hard cycling possibilities. Brisbane has 1% of all trips to make the glaringly obvious point that walking currently accomplished by bike and about 80- is transport, walking is important and walking is 85% by car. It is a car dependent city that is central to everything from tackling obesity and rushing headlong into higher levels of car climate change to creating high quality liveable dependency at a time when peak oil and oil cities. Ministers of transport tend to turn up at dependency concerns are ringing alarm bells conferences devoted to private finance initiatives around the world. Car dependent and fossil fuel and highway construction. They will always turn dependent cities like Brisbane are heading for a up to share the limelight about transport plans social and economic crisis because they cannot related to Commonwealth and Olympic games, see the wisdom and precautionarity of moving to but walking is off the radar screen and is easily lower levels of oil dependency. Brisbane could replaced by something more important even if it easily have 10% of all trips by bike, 10-20% on has been in the minister’s diary for several foot and 15-20% on public transport but there is months. very little sign of the vision and clarity of Melbourne, Australia on October 24 its enormously attractive walking and thought that could produce this outcome. Australia is at the serious end of most transport, land use, energy and health and resource use Sweden on the other hand has declared its problems. Its high levels of car use, even for intention to become fossil fuel free by 2020 short (‘Making distance trips, makes it especially Sweden an OIL FREE Society’, vulnerable to the peak oil problem and the Commission on Oil Independence, 21st June refusal of its politicians to take sustainable 2006) This policy links well with its “Vision Zero” transport to road safety policy which was introduced in 1997 progress. Highway projects loom very large in and commits the country to achieving zero the in-tray of ministers of transport. deaths and zero serious injuries in the road seriously is a major obstacle traffic environment. This remarkable double-hit will ensure that Sweden maintains a high quality World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006 3 of life and an exceptional degree of insulation rise from global oil and price engineering to restore civilisation, calm, peace will and community richness to our cities. increases. supply problems Australian citizens find to the challenge of system-wide re- themselves living in a polar opposite world characterised by oil supply crises and prices of This challenge will involve setting maximum more than $100 per barrel. This is unnecessary speed limits of 30kph in all cities and banning and Australia has the experience and the people through-traffic from residential streets. It will to deliver a revolution in mobility. It simply lacks mean politicians with the vision and clarity of thought domination and returning streets and cities to to recognise that reducing car dependency is a people. win-win interventions of whatever kind that protect situation with hard monetary and reversing It almost will pursue disadvantaged, and we no longer tolerate noisy, for roads, bridges and tunnels and reduced intrusive traffic near our homes and in our greenhouse gases. communities. It can be done and it will be done. At the international walking conference almost John Whitelegg 400 people gathered to discuss best practice Editor and Melbourne, Australia multiple advantages of increasing walking and all modes of sustainable the car diabetes, mental health, reduced fiscal demands the and we of children, assess elderly that years security benefits that range across obesity, to the mean 100 mobility 24th October 2006 transport. The majority of the participants were Australian and there can be no doubt that if Making Sweden an OIL FREE Society these people could be given a few months to Commission on Oil Independence 21st June 2006 sort out walking, cycling, health and urban http://www.sweden.gov.se/content/1/c6/06/70/ design and planning in Australia then all these 96/7f04f437.pdf problems would be resolved. Walk21 - Walking Forward in the 21st Century It is increasingly clear that politicians are out of http://www.walk21.com step with the needs and requirements of the age in which we live and that a major paradigm shift is needed to deliver urgent action on climate change, transport-related health problems, cities drowning in car pollution, children damaged by noise and deeply traumatised communities. A radical shift towards walking, cycling, and public transport and traffic reduction will deliver a huge part of the solution to all these problems and will create happier citizens. This is the major challenge of the 21st century and we will succeed. The 19th century saw major world cities installing pure drinking water systems on a huge scale. The 20th century saw the elimination of the dreaded and dreadful sulphurous yellow smog that plagued London and all major UK cites and we must once again World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13. Number 1. September 2006 4 Abst r a ct s & Ke yw or ds W h a t Goe s Up M u st Com e D ow n : H ou se h old Ca r Ow ne r sh ip a n d 'W a lk in g for Tr a n spor t ' Hazel Baslingt on This paper reports research investigating the walking for transport but may facilitate other cultural determinants of childrens' travel. The exercise. 'diary sets' kept by 301 children linked travel extends with time spent on physical activity over one boundaries. A bold policy measure advocated week. is a 'one car' policy for households. Parents completed a travel and Possession of socio-economic two/more and cars geographical exercise questionnaire (n=136) and some were interviewed (n=22). Car use for regular Ke yw or ds: journeys and associated with time spent the number walking is Childrens' of in walking for transport, multi-car ownership, cars households. Availability of a car can reduce travel, mixed method design, 'one car' policy Tr e n ds, in n ova t ive cou r se se t t in gs, a n d le ve r s for m obilit y a n d t r a n spor t Se e n fr om t h e Ye a r 2 0 3 0 Hart m ut H. Topp We need innovative policies to shape the because future of mobility and transport. Sustainable developments, such as wasting fossil energy, mobility in terms of ecology, economy and climate social through global warming, dead-end street of justice is the goal, even though laissez-faire changes cause and undesirable natural disasters sustainability is poorly defined in the field of automobile mobility and transport, and, at the same resulting in high costs, unaffordable public time, transport in rural areas, macro-economic inflationarily used. Technical dependency, urban sprawl innovations in transport are often discussed, losses but we also need economic innovations, and health damage ... The list could be political innovations, social innovations, as continued. well as, behavioural changes, through congestion, environmental because sustainable mobility can only be achieved by Ke yw or ds: Technical/economic, social a broad range of measurements. We need innovation, behavioural change, sustainable new policies and innovative course settings, mobility Splin t e r in g t h e pu blic r e a lm : u sin g loca l pu blic spa ce for cor por a t e e con om ic ga in ? Fiona Raj e This paper provides an example of how of permission to construct a socially-isolating conflicts between transport and planning housing development within one of the city’s policy and practice can manifest themselves most deprived neighbourhoods. in local communities. It discusses the building of a gated community on a deprived Ke y w or ds urban peripheral estate in Oxford and the Gated dichotomy between policy statements about transport policy communities, splintered urbanism, promoting social inclusion and the granting World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 Effe ct s of pe de st r ia n isa t ion on t h e com m e r cia l a n d r e t a il a r e a s: St u dy in Kha o Sa n Roa d, Ba n gk ok Sant hosh Kum ar. K, William Ross Pedestrianisation of retail areas is a strategy results commonly implemented in city centres. It reported an increase of sales volume since has various impacts on the traffic speed and pedestrianisation increases the quality of life for the people reported living, working and visiting the area of liveability implementation. In addition, it also has an recommends impact authorities undertake businesses in the area of implementation. retail commercial The current study focussed on determining Bangkok to boost the sales volume and the effect of pedestrianisation on the retail increase the liveability of the area. on the commercial and retail showed a business and all noticeable of and that the respondents increase area. that owners The the in the study implementing similar projects areas in throughout and commercial businesses of Khao San Road, Bangkok. The results of this study Ke yw or ds were in line with earlier studies undertaken Pedestrianisation, in various other cities. Qualitative research Commercial areas, Khao San Road, Bangkok Retailing, Liveability, methods were used in this study and the Cyclin g for a ct ive t r a n spor t a n d r e cr e a t ion in Au st r a lia : st a t u s r e vie w a n d fu t u r e dir e ct ion s Rissel C, Garrard J Riding a bicycle is a potentially important but This review has highlighted the relatively low neglected form of sustainable transport that level of regular cycling for transport in can also contribute to achieving adequate Australia, and the marked gender disparity of levels of physical activity. Despite the clear riders. However, cycling is a very popular health and environmental benefits of cycling, recreational activity (fourth most popular there has been no systematic review of nationally), suggesting that under favourable strategies to increase or promote cycling in conditions Australia, nor any consideration of a health substitute short car trips for bicycle trips. promotion research agenda for cycling. Almost all of the identified cycling promotion program some of evaluations these have riders shown could some This paper reviews the available Australian degree of increase in cycling, suggesting that published and if they were to be implemented on a wider evaluation of grey literature or scale and with adequate resources they promote cycling (n=17). It identifies the would lead to increases in population levels prevalence of cycling in Australia from a of regular cycling. A number of suggestions range of strategies sources, influences on available evidence to reporting increase synthesises cycling, of reviews the main are made for cycling related research in the little Australia. effectiveness of strategies to increase or promote cycling, Ke yw or ds: and identifies research priorities. Cycling promotion programmes, strategy evaluation, cycling research World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 Tr a ve l in I n n e r Cit y ve r su s Ur ba n Fr in ge of Ade la ide : Th e Role of N e igh bou r hood D e sign Soltani A, Allan A, Somenahalli S, Primerano F Previous literature has found that suburban correlated with the choice of non-motorised development unbalanced is associated choice of travel with the modes, mode. The associated while suburban designs with the choices micro-scale aspects of the built environment driver/passenger. The multinomial that influence modal choice, however, have models suggest that micro-scale urban form not been well-established. Furthermore, the factors play an important role, and that majority of the literature is from North travel American or European cities, thereby less impact modal choice along with a number of Australian context. Using a sample from social Adelaide, the employment and family structure. This study, connection between neighbourhood design therefore, supports the assertion that land and modal choice, classifying the sample into use policies have at least some potential to two low-density, growing outer-ring suburbs reduce the choice of private vehicles, thereby versus two suburbs selected for their higher reducing car dependency. This study also density, stability, and inner-ring location. may serve to assist other practitioners in Statistical that Adelaide in their efforts to address the issue strong of induce travel, and to present better this research looked analyses neighbourhood design at showed has a association with modal choice. Specifically, traditional neighbourhood designs time and factors commute such as of are distance income solutions for sustainability concerns. are Ke yw or ds: Travel; land use; multinomial logit model; Adelaide World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 car logit also level, Must Come Down: W h a t goe s u p m u st com e dow n : Household Car Ownership and 'Walking for Transport' H a ze l Ba slin gt on This paper reports findings from a PhD (3,378, 3,775); Schools 2, 8 (247, 298). project cultural Schools 2 and 8 are in 'very deprived' determinants of childrens' travel (Baslington, districts, included to obtain a cross-section of 2006). The research was in part replicatory respondents. investigating the and in part exploratory. Previous research travel Diary sets were completed by 301 children behaviour varied according to level of car (53% response rate) by equal proportions of ownership instance, both sexes. They contained three colour (Roberts, Carlin, et al 1997, Davis, 1998, coded sections: a One Week Travel Diary Mackett, 2002). Additional analysis on this (TD) an Out of School, Sports & Exercise variable investigated nonschool trips, short Diary car journeys and time spent walking. The comprised a one page matrix with ample 'diary sets' kept by 301 children linked travel space to show trips: 'To/From' school, 'To with time spent on physical activity over one See and Go Out with Friends' and 'Other' week. journeys. revealed that in Parents childrens' school household, for completed a travel and (SED), a questionnaire. Children inserted The daily TDs travel exercise questionnaire (n=136) and some mode/s, destination/s and journey times were interviewed (n=22). (minutes). The SED was identical to TDs except children showed time spent daily on Sa m ple Com posit ion , Ch ildr e n physical activity with divisions for 'Sport and The children were aged 9 to 11 (Years 5/6) Exercise', 'Active Play/Street Games', 'Ot her and attended eight primary schools in West walking' (Walking or cycling not shown as Yorkshire, in 2003. Six schools are in urban transport on the TD). 'Ot her cycling', 'Other areas, one a rural and another, a semi-rural Ways district. housework/gardening. Ninety approximately percent 1.13 of pupils kilometres lived (three to be Active', such Examples as were provided as well as open questions, 'Another quarters of a mile) from school. An indication Sport/Exercise…'? of socio-economic status is provided by the collected were: age, sex, household car Indices of Deprivation (ID 2000 was the ownership and postcode. Diary sets included index used in the fieldwork), identified from a yellow instruction sheet and were tied and school postcodes. This ranks English districts protected with plastic covers. To increase between '1' and '8,414' on an ascending motivation scale. Rank 1 is bottom and ten percent of laminated 'Certificate of Appreciation' and a districts are considered 'very deprived' (rated decorative sticker. children Demographic were details awarded a ID 841 or lower). Ward level data from six indices are health deprivation, used: income, employment, Sa m ple Com posit ion , Pa r e n t s education, Children took home a request letter to training and access to services. The ID parents requesting participation. To obtain a ratings are: Schools 1, 6, 7 (ID 4,518, sizeable sample a further seven schools (five 4,547); School 3 (5,672); Schools 4, 5 state and two privately run) in a cross- housing, World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 8 section of districts in another West Yorkshire 'housewives', one a student. Nine were in town were contacted in Winter 2003/4. The professional/managerial parents completed a short Parents' Travel & were skilled and five semi/unskilled. occupations, four Exercise Questionnaire (PTEQ n=136, 11% response rate). A sample of children whose Fin din gs: Ch ildr e n s' Tr a ve l t o Sch ool by parents completed the PTEQ (all schools, N u m be r of Ca r s in H ouse h old n=121) were used to check the accuracy of Public transport (only 18 (7%) used a childrens' responses to the question, " Does public/school bus, none used trains) was not your fam ily have a car? Count all t ypes of used by the majority of pupils to travel car or van" . A Cronbach Alpha coefficient, ά to/from school therefore the findings for = .97, revealed a high level of concurrence. walking and car travel are reported. Data from TDs were analysed by comparing those Twenty two parents were interviewed (20 who walked to school (4/5 days) with non- female, 2 male). Nineteen had interviews at walkers. home and three in private offices. The differences duration ranged from 30/35 minutes (n=6), ownership (to school χ 28.151 p<0.001 df 40/45 (n=13), 50/60 (n=3) Although self- 3, from school χ2 28.156 p<0.001 df 3). As selected, the sample represented a cross- car ownership increases, walking to school section by age, family size (including six decreases. Table 1 shows the results of the single parents), socio-economic status, travel cross tabulation. National Travel Survey data mode behaviour. Of the 22: four were from showed that the decline across car ownership '0 car' households; seven '1 car'; ten '2 car' categories in walking trips to school is the and one had '6 cars'. A breakdown by ID is: same nationally: 82% of trips by 5-10 year one parent (ID 6,163); three (5,017); five olds from 'no car' households are walk (4547, 4,518); four (3,378); one (2,069); journeys, 54% of 'one car' and 37% of those two (1,841, 1,070); five (ID <1,000), one from unknown. Eight interviewees had part-time, 2004/5) ten full-time employment, three There in were the highly significant proportions by car 2 'two/more cars' households (NTS, were Table 1: Children, Walk to School, 4/5 Days by Cars in Household W a lk t o Sch ool N o Ca r On e Ca r Tw o Ca r Yes Tot a l Tot a l M 4 / 5 D a ys No Th r e e / M or e 7 58 62 40 167 (23%) (48%) (63%) (77%) ( 55% ) 24 62 36 12 134 (77%) (52%) (37%) (23%) ( 45% ) 31 120 98 52 301 ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) Percent ages rounded t o nearest 1% The corresponding cross tabulation for 'Car used to investigate if 'travel distance' to to School 4/5 Days' also revealed significant school was a confounding variable. There 2 proportional differences (to school, car, χ were no significant differences in the travel 31.363 p<0.001 df 3, from school car, χ2 distances according to the number of cars in 13.390 p<0.004 df 3). Postcode data were World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 9 households (Kruskal Wallis Test, chi-square 8.111 p<0.05 df 3). The pattern remained .564 p<.905 df 3). consistent for car journeys. As car ownership increased, the numbers travelling by car also Tr a ve l t o Fr ie n ds, Ot h e r Pla ce s a n d Sh or t Ca r Jou r n e ys increased (car to χ2 'Friends', 17.335, p<0.001 df 3, car to 'Other', χ 2 19.390 Less than 1% of children used trains for trips p<0.001 df 1). A 'short car journey' is a trip to see 'Friends' (some children did not make lasting 'five minutes or less' (Goodwin 1995). these journeys, 18% did visit friends, friends The purpose of this analysis was to count the may have visited them) or journeys to number of children, not the total per child. 'Other' places. Nineteen (6%) used public Overall, buses to 'Friends' and 42 (13%) for 'Other' journeys and 160 (59%) of these made at journeys. Regarding walking journeys to see least one short trip. Two thirds of children 'Friends' and travel to 'Other' places, the from households with two/more cars made at proportional differences by number of cars in least one short car journey during the week household are significant (walk to 'Friends', (χ2 20.037, p<0.001, df 3). 272 of 301 children made car χ2 11.556, p<0.009 df 3, walk to 'Other', χ2 Table 2: Childrens' Short Car Journeys in Week by Cars in Household Sh or t Ca r N o Ca r On e Ca r Tw o Ca r Th r e e / Tot a l M or e Ch ildr e n Jou r n e y No Yes 20 50 27 15 112 (71.5%) (48.0%) (29.0%) (32.5%) ( 41% ) 8 (28.5%) 54 67 31 160 (52.0%) (71.0%) (67.5%) ( 59% ) 28 104 94 46 272 ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) Tot a l Ch ildr e n Percent ages rounded t o nearest 0.5% Ch ildr e n s' Tr a ve l, D iffe r e n ce s in Socio- households. The proportional different (there also differences strongly towards e con om ic St a t u s? A comparison of socio-economic children from circumstances greater number of ‘no car' or 'one car' are cars and public differences in attitudes buses in this suggests it is the fact of car ownership rather subsample (Baslingtobn, 2006)) in Table 3 than were highly significant with a correlation socio-economic differences per se, which accounts for travel mode to school. coefficient Schools 2 and 8 are in economically deprived association between 'walk to school 4/5 days' districts, (IDs 247 and 298 respectively). In and 'number of cars in household' (Schools total, 49 of the 100 pupils who completed 2, 8 walk to, χ2 17.44 p<0.001 df 3, TDs live in two or three car households. Cramér’s V = .421 p<.001, (Schools 2, 8 However, walk from, χ2 11.808 p<0.008 df 3, Cramér's census data showed that this proportional split is not representative of other households in the two V revealing = a .344 'very strong' p<.008). school catchment areas. As expected, there are a World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 10 Table 3: Children from Economically Deprived Districts: Walk to School, 4/5 Days by Cars in Household W a lk t o Sch ool N o Ca r On e Ca r Tw o Ca r Th r e e 4 / 5 D a ys Tot a l / M or e No 4 17 14 23 58 (27%) (47%) (61%) (89%) ( 58% ) 11 19 9 3 42 (73%) (53%) (39%) (11%) ( 42% ) 15 36 ( 100% ) Yes Tot a l ( 100% ) 23 26 100 ( 100% ) ( 100% ) ( 100% ) Percent ages rounded t o nearest 1% Similar proportions of children in these to level of car ownership, not area of districts walk to see 'Friends' but there residence or socio-economic status. are highly significant differences for journeys to 'other' places (χ2 22.001 p<0.001 df 3, p<.001, n=84). Cramér's Of V the = .512 'no car' M in u t e s Spe n t W a lk in g The minutes spent walking during the week of diary set completion included all walking shown on TDs or SED. The mean time spent walking was 127 minutes (2.11 hrs) and median, 97 minutes (1.61 hrs), 6% did not show any walking. Table 4 provides descriptive statistics for minutes spent on 'All Exercise' and 'Walking' by number of cars in household (n=294). As car ownership increased, time spent walking decreased. The differences in physical activity only apply to walking, no other exercise subcategories. households: 8 (61%) walk, 'one car' 22 (73%), 'two car’ 4 (22%) and three/more 4 (17%) of households walk. A plotting exercise was undertaken around the district of School 2 (48 of 52 postcodes were known) using an ordnance survey map. Street addresses were marked according to car ownership. Altogether, 17 of the 21 ‘no car’ or ‘one car’ households lived in the same street or adjoining roads as those from two/more. Hence, the travel mode differences relate Table 4: Children, Minutes Spent on 'All Exercise' and 'Walking' One Week by Number of Cars in Household D e scr ipt ive St a t ist ics N o Ca r On e Ca r Tw o Ca r Th r e e / M or e (minutes) 'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk ' 'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk ' 'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk ' 'All Ex e r ' 'W a lk ' Mean 561 181 573 129 570 119 559 98 Median 488 175 459 111 440 79 440 61 Interquart/Range 524 141 529 127 417 155 700 101 S.D. 329 86 453 102 446 109 409 130 Sa m ple Size n= 3 0 n= 1 1 7 n= 9 6 World Transport Policy & Practice_______________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 n= 5 1 11 The distribution for time spent walking for ranks for children, time spent walking in the the sample of children who reside in 'no car' four car ownership categories (chi-square households (Kolmogorov- .22.672 p<.001 df 3). Figure 1 compares Smirnov test .461 p<.984) therefore more the mean time spent walking by children likely according to was normal be representative of the to car ownership categories. population. The distributions for children There were 9 extreme scores across sub from two, car samples (>375 minutes: 5 children from 'no households were not normally distributed car/one car' households, 4 children from therefore may not be representative. 'two/more'). A one, Kruskal Wallis and three/more Test indicated highly significant differences between the m ean 200 Mean Time Spent Walking (Minutes) 180 181 160 140 129 120 119 100 98 80 No Cars One car Two cars Three/more Number of Cars in Household Figure 1: Children, Mean Time Spent Walking (Minutes) in One Week by Number of Cars in Households Pa r e n t s Tr a ve l t o Sch ool, W or k a n d from 'two/more cars' households walked (χ2 Ot h e r Pla ce s 29.936, p<0.001, df 2). The pattern of Similar percentages of parents in all car results for the unem ploy ed sub sample of ownership categories escorted their child parents was consistent with others and NTS to/from school: 75% of parents in 'no car', data 84% of 'one car' and 84% from 'two/more' nationally. Only 30% of school escort trips car households (only 3 parents in the PTEQ by the 'economically inactive' in 'two/more' sample were households, from and are shows this finding is reflected ‘three/more car car households are walk journeys compared included with with 53% of 'one car' and 83% of trips in ‘two/more’). Nevertheless, the mode used 'no car' households (NTS, 2004/5). varied according to 'car availability.' As the number of cars in a household increased, Of 107 parents in employment: 57% travel fewer parents walked to escort children: 15 by car, 16% walk, 11% bus, 4% train, 1% (94%) 'No car' households walked, 17 share car, 11% 'other' (use two modes (55%) of 'one car' and 11 (20%) of parents car/walk, bus/walk). There were highly World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 12 significant differences in the proportions of 18 car owners, 14 named regular physical car travellers according to number of cars in activities 2 household (χ 30.718, p<0.001, df 2). made transportation. easier because of car Another resided in a rural Again, NTS data shows this finding is area and had no alternative transport. reflected nationally: 87% of t rips to work Activities mentioned were: gym, sports by 'two/more' journeys, 5% car households are car centre, swimming, tennis, football, cricket, are walk, are bus dog walking. Typical responses were: 2% journeys. For 'one car' households: 68% of Q. " Are t here any ways a car trips are car, 11% walk, 8% bus. For 'no helps you t o be act ive and car': 15% of trips are car, 26 walk and 32% get exercise? bus, 27% 'other' (NTS, 2004/5). Few parents walked or A. used public Well, t o get t o t he pool she'll norm ally go wit h her dad at t he transport for regular journeys to 'Other' weekend" places therefore the findings reported are (Interview No.19: 'One car' household). for car journeys (7% used full/part journey; 12% walked trains for full/part A question on the interview schedule journey; 19% used buses full/part journey). enquired about the opposite effect, if cars Of 102 parents who made trips to 'Other' prevent ed exercise. Five of 18 car owners places by car, 6% were made by 'no car' responded with a “no” t hey did not think so. households, 34% by 'one car' and 60% by Nine parents thought it did: parents in households with two/more cars Q. " Are t her e any ways t hat (car to 'Other', χ 22.029, p<0.001, df 2). you t hink t he car st ops you from being The analysis of 'minutes spent walking' by act ive and get t ing exercise at all? 2 car ownership level was repeated on the A. Yes, because I always have parents' sample. Unfortunately the data for t o walk t o school ot herwise and back. By this was incomplete. Walking for school being t her e it j ust st ops you being act iv e" escort trips was not requested, resulting in (Interview No. 20: Two car household for reduced totals for the 38 parents who ten years) walked. The 'time spent walking' and 'all exercise' was higher for 'no car' households The remaining four mentioned having less but the differences in proportions were not exercise when responding to a previous statistically significant. question/s about the advantages/disadvantages of having two Ca r Usa ge for Ex e r cise Ninety-six parents (71%) travelled by car to play sport/get exercise including walking. Of these 4% use a car daily, 55% weekly, cars, or else not having any car: Q. " Are t here any ot her disadvant ages t o having t wo cars? A. I t hink you get lazy really; it 's a 12% twice monthly and the remainder less bit of a luxury having t wo cars really. frequently. Of the 96, 60 had two/more (Interview No.13: Two car household for cars, 32 'one car' and 4 'no car'. There were four years) highly significant differences in 'car usage 2 for exercise' by car ownership level (χ 37.134, p<0.001, df 2). The interviews Q. " Do you t hink t here are any advant ages t o not having a car? A. Yes t he exercise. I t hink enabled further investigation and parents you get lazy, som e people j um p in t he car were asked about all family members. Of t o go down t he road for a newspaper. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 13 (Interview No.21: One car, single parent households with two/more cars suggests a household) habit forming relationship signified by the Several interviewees remarked on their gradient which cuts across car ownership decreased usage of public transport since categories in cross tabulations. Those of becoming a two car household: more recent second car ownership were Q. " Do your children norm ally conscious of behavioural change in relation to amount of walking and diminished use of t ravel wit h you when you go on t he bus? Yeah. I t would be a bit of an public transport. Goodwin (1995) concludes advent ure now, going on a bus, wouldn't it ? that car dependence is a process not a (looks at child). Because we used t o go state. Justifications for escorting children by everywhere on buses" car are based on social, psychological and (Interview No.3: 'two car' household for economic three years) danger' or busy roads, time pressure, peer A. variables: safety: 'stranger pressure, convenience, the weather, cost, The 22 parents were asked if they liked all of which are tangible reasons. These walking and about acceptable distances. For explain peoples' needs, but not the greater some context, usage of cars in multi-car households. Do separating walking for transport (to local these parents feel more threatened by shops or school) with recreational walking, 'stranger danger’? Do they have less time for pleasure or exercise. The desire to walk than others? Fear of strangers or busy or the distance did not depend on car roads is reason for parental accompaniment ownership levels. Two of the four 'no car' of children but does not explain car use for interviewees walked only when necessary: this this depended on the purpose, except if the parent Q. " Do you like Walking? themselves feels threatened. Time pressure A. I don't like it – I do it , but I because of employment is an important factor, but nationally, the numbers involved wouldn't say I lik e it " (Interview No.12: 'no car' household, interviewee's emphasis) are surprising. A picture of 'trip chaining' and school escort is provided by the DfT: 57% of women and 53% of men return Discussion: Number of Cars in Household, straight home in the morning (DfT, 2005). Travel Mode and Habit Forming Behaviour Of the 43% who 'trip chain' only 18% of A link female escorters, (17% of male) continue between the amount of car usage and the on to employment. Shift work or part-time 'number of cars in households' (it is also employment associated cars, interestingly, the unemployed in two/more future car households use the same mode as the pervasive public finding with buses aspirations is the attitudes and learning strong towards childrens’ to drive own car employed. may be explanatory, Housewives have but time (Baslington 2006)). It is the independent pressures; they may be full-time carers variable on regular journeys as well as with toddlers or elderly relatives. However, childrens' short car journeys. Although the this also applies to housewives from 'no car' PTEQ sample was self-selected, the findings or 'one car' households' but unemployment mirrored school appears to provide the incentive for these escorters as well as a sample of employees to walk. Distance travelled did not have a from bearing, a the national general sample of population. The 90% lived approximately 1.13 pervasiveness of car usage by mothers in World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 14 kilometres (three quarters of a mile) from two cars – why not get full use from them? school – close enough to walk. The nature of the PTEQ sample prevents some generalisations, parents in London An issue of cause and effect arises: does use public transport more. As parents, the the availability of an extra car/s increase interviewees differ from the population of car dependency or do those who lack single fervour for walking, ensure ample supply of parental and non-parental populations using cars random samples of both sexes and couples to avoid it? The findings from interviews suggest car availability increases adults. Further investigation on without children is planned. dependency, but some cases of the latter are likely to exist. The interview sample contained two parents from 'no car' Tr a n spor t a n d Re cr e a t ion a l W a lk in g Children from 'no car' households spent households who did not like it and they more probably car access to cars. It is not known if the owning community. A difference is the distributions for 'time spent walking' by latter can afford a car to avoid walking! children in car owning sub samples are This does not mean that those from 'no car' representative. However, other researchers households are fitter. A high proportion of of childrens' travel have found dichotomous car owners used them for transport to differences between 'car owning' and 'non- sports centres and elsewhere for exercise. car owning' households. These are most This is the likeliest explanation for the noticeable in the statistics when the number similarities in childrens' and parents' total of cars is '0-1', compared with '2-4' car physical activity levels across all categories households. of car ownership. Availability of a car can people in 'non-car' owning households walk reduce 50% more on average, quoting NTS data. have walking counterparts for in transport the but may time walking because of limited Davis (1998) concluded that Recent findings from the NTS show the gap facilitate other exercise. has widened: " Those people living in a Interestingly, some households in household wit h a car walk less t han t wo economically deprived districts have access t hirds as far to several cars. One explanation is qualit y wit hout a car ” ( DfT, 2005, Table 2.12). The of car, owning older or smaller vehicles. Of NTS travel diary excludes walking off the those in the lowest income group, 46% public have cars over ten years old (DfT, 2003). walking is unlikely to be shown. However, The cost of new and secondhand cars has Table 2.12 DfT (2005) is compiled from decreased and although petrol prices have responses to an interview question which risen, the running costs of vehicles have asks about any walks of 20 minutes or risen less than the cost of living since 1980 more, (Hibbs, 2000). Access to a 'company car' is therefore comparisons are useful. Weinstein possible for skilled, semi and unskilled and Schimek (2005) stress the need for manual workers such as builders and taxi improved drivers. An older sibling/s may run a car travel. The American equivalent of the NTS increasing the availability. An economic fails to capture all walk trips. Their analysis factor may have a bearing on car usage. by Two/more transport walking ownership level car families financial commitment. have a greater If they are running as t hose in highway on or therefore off data number a household the public collection of cars is recreational of highway pedestrian highlighted related whereas to that car recreational World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 15 walking is not. A finding of Ross (2000) was between groups of parents (mainly female) that residents of economically deprived and neighbourhoods are more likely to walk household. It is known that for one type of than those in less disadvantaged places. journey, school escort, the travel distances Van Lenthe, Brug and Mackenbach (2005) were very similar for most, therefore the also found that those who resided in the fact of car ownership had independent most economically deprived areas of a city effects to the social situation. Other findings in the Netherlands were more likely to walk for non-school journeys and short car trips for transport reasons but less likely to walk strongly suggest that the number of cars in or participate in sport in their leisure time. a Possession individual's degree of car dependency. of a car appeared to be children household by is number a of determinant cars on in an associated with an increased risk of almost never walking or cycling to shops or work. D e t e r r in g M u lt i- Ca r Ow n e r sh ip Bostock (2001) found that 'no access to a The definition of a problem has implications car' is an indicator of low socio-economic for tackling it. A contention of the author is status and also of having to walk to places that transport and social policies need to because of necessity, not pleasure. address both the individual and the social determinants of car dependency to be D e fin in g 'Ca r D e pe n de ncy' Con ce pt u a l effective. Measures such as 'travel D iffe r e n ce s awareness' campaigns do not address the There are conceptual differences in the effects of a 'social' dependency on cars - usage of the expression, 'car dependency' they deal with individuals who are car by academics. It is applied to describe dependent and could make some changes differences between individuals regarding in behaviour. This is only part of the reliance on car transportation. A proposition problem. of impacts on all households including ‘no car’ Goodwin (1997) differ" (p.454) and he is that notes " People the A social dependency on cars wide households. The effects of 'social exclusion' variation of 'car dependence' in adults. on the latter are discussed by Solomon People as individuals increase their use of (2003). cars, relying on them more and more. Goodwin also discusses the term in relation Tolley (2003) discusses the contradiction in to social changes such as land use and government policy: car ownership should provision of services which m ake people increase and usage decrease. He stresses dependent on cars as a society. Brindle that owning a car is not the problem, but (2003) discusses 'car dependency' with 'car dependence' is. Walking is unlikely to reference to the social situation. He argues rise that the car is a means to an end. If there promised by government for a National is an addiction, word Walking Strategy materialise. With greater 'dependency'), it is not to cars, but to economic prosperity, car ownership levels mobility. It is " t he m obilit y dem ands of our are likely to increase and the rise is an lifest yle and consum pt ion pat t erns wit hin " underlying t he cont ext (p.190). A worrying trend is indicated by (implied by the of t he physical, social and econom ic environm ent t hat we liv e in" even if the force facilities for and reduced support walking" the statistics for 'second car' ownership in (p.65). The author identified differences in Britain. travel 1980: from 15% to 29% of all households. mode behaviour and attitude This has almost doubled since World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 16 The percentage of 'one car' households government or employers (p.300). While remains the same, 45%. Those with 'no car' advocating have dropped from 41% to 26% (DfT, innovative campaigns, Meaton and Kingham 2005). Another concern is that children (1998) transported acceptance that radical action is required. by car experience a high for stress a complete how there package needs of to be proportion of short car trips, for instance, the 'school run' and may associate car use Con clu sion s with this. Some of the author's statistical The variable 'car availability' is normally findings used as an economic indicator, synonymous for 'one car' households are inconsistent and a likely explanation is with higher 'single parent' families. In these there is a particular neighbourhoods. Possession of ratio of one car to each adult. In two two or more cars extends socio-economic parent, one car households, car usage is and geographical boundaries therefore the higher than in 'no car' households but lower effects than multi-car households. restricted of income multi-car to the and residency ownership affluent. are Bold in not policy measures are necessary to prevent the Baird (1998) quotes Michael Palin, " perhaps trend we will end up wit h a policy like Chinese ownership. birt h cont rol, one car per towards second become 'one car', or 'no car' households M.R.Tight and Dr. P. Firmin, Institute for should be introduced. Road tax on a second Transport car could be set at a higher rate and that England, for their guidance and support. on income Without the help of staff and pupils in the generated should be hypothecated to pay participating schools in West Yorkshire, the for these. But the efficacy of a 'one car' research could not have gone ahead. policy is higher extremely still. to remain Ack n ow le dge m e n t s I am grateful to my PhD supervisors, Dr. third, families car or a for third household" (p.168). A system of inducements and disincentives and The doubtful if Studies, University of Leeds, not incorporated with an integrated package of measures. Dobbs (2005) highlights that Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : sustainable transport systems may have Institute serious gender implications. Hence, a 'one University Road, University of Leeds, Leeds. car' policy should be marketed as 'car England. LS2 9JT share' within families so that women are Email: baslington@sagainternet.co.uk for Transport Studies, 36-40, not the losers. Dealing with transport to work issues (which is one reason 24, Rogerson Square, households obtain a second car) is of vital Yorkshire, England importance. HD6 1TJ Kingham, Dickinson et al Brighouse, West (2001) point out that while some employers provide a car and allowances for petrol, people will not be persuaded to leave cars at home. Cullinane (1992) describes company cars as " an unnecessary addit ion t o t he park of cars" advocating that owners are fully charged without subsidy from World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 17 Trends, innovative course settings, and levers for mobility and transport Seen from t he Year 2030 H a r t m u t H . Topp We need innovative policies to shape the transport are tightly interconnected with future space of mobility and transport. and time, settlement, Sustainable mobility in terms of ecology, communication, economy and social justice is the goal, even economy, life styles etc. Due to these though sustainability is poorly defined in complex interdependencies there are no the field of mobility and transport, and, at simple recipes or easy successes on how to the same time, inflationarily used. Technical reach innovations in transport sustainable mobility. I energy, choose a often retrospective view from 2030 to present my discussed, but we also need economic scenario because I think it is more inspiring innovations, than political innovations, as are environment, innovations, well as social behavioural a prospective scenario, plus it underlines the visionary character of a long- changes, because sustainable mobility can term only be achieved by a broad range of completeness for my scenario, it rather measures. and contains important influences of mobility innovative course settings, because laissez- and transport in cities and regions like faire cause undesirable developments, such stones in a mosaic. And, of course, I also as wasting fossil energy, climate change could draw different scenarios. For my and global scenario I have chosen ten topics; they warming, dead-end street of automobile reach from energy and prices for mobility dependency, urban sprawl resulting in high over city development and life styles to costs, unaffordable public transport in rural different transport issues. areas, We natural need new disasters macro-economic congestion, policies through losses environmental and scenario. I do not claim total through health damage ... The list could be continued. 1 . A fr a m e for e n e r gy 2 0 3 0 I invite you to leap forward with me into the year 2030. The Kyoto Protocol is now Undesirable developments, like these, are accepted world-wide; the Rio Declaration avoidable; that is what I would like to show from 1992, as well as, the Agenda 21 are with a scenario for mobility and transport in considered as the beginning of a new epoch the year 2030. Scenarios are images of of global co-operation. The CO2-problem possible futures following a comprehensive and high prices for crude oil, since the path - in the favourable, optimistic case beginning of this century, lead to a massive with the right innovations and right political promotion of renewable energies. Now, in course settings at the right time. Such an 2030, optimistic scenario requires future-oriented dominating. renewable forms of energy are and societally accepted innovations not only in the field of transport, for mobility and World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 18 However, it should not be forgotten how are now paid by the road users through an long it took for the transition from fossil to ecological tax. Since 2012, the transport renewable energy, and which economic and sector as a whole is involved in CO2- technological efforts were needed. Iceland, emission trading. Since 2006 , former tax with benefits its huge resources energy, played a process. With high of special geothermic role spare in capacity for commuters have been this abolished step by step. At the turn of the of century, the public bodies could no longer abundant electricity from geothermic power afford to maintain and adjust the 'free of plants it established the first hydrogen- cost' usable roads. In Germany, already in based economy of the world in 2012, the 1990s maintenance dropped to 54 % of including power-cell driven cars and trucks. the actual requirement on national roads, Today (in 2030) motor vehicles are clean. and to 63 % on motorways. In most countries half of the fleet is still based on traditional combustion engines, 'Make the road user pay instead of the tax while new vehicles use hydrogen produced payer' was the solution: In Germany, it with started renewable energy. The prices for in 2005 with road pricing on energy increased drastically, which lead to motorways for heavy trucks; and road better efficiency in industry and transport pricing for all vehicles on all roads outside by more than a factor of 4. the cities was introduced in 2012. The GPSbased The national was finally successful, and proved to be extendable to the all vehicles and all roads. It could also be century) from the gross national product to exported to several countries. This system the ecological national product. This total is accounting of the national economy, which construction and uses telematic services, considers and which have been standard equipment in environmental burdens as cost factors, has vehicles since 2010. Spatially and timely created a new economic framework for staggered road pricing was able to flatten transport and energy. peak volumes and to balance demand and (starting at consumption balances technology were changed economic on-board the of turn of nature self-sufficient, requiring no roadside supply. The former notorious traffic jams 2 . Ph ysica l m obilit y is e x pe n sive are now exceptions. Road pricing in cities Mobility, especially auto-mobility in 2030, is (such as that in place in some Norwegian expensive. The demand for crude oil had cities, Singapore, London or Stockholm) increased was not introduced in Germany cities, decade of the century and, since 2015, because politicians were deliveries recurrently could not cover it. concerned that road pricing would make the Some years later, the transition of the city more expensive and thus less attractive transport sector from carbon to hydrogen compared gained ground, but even in 2030 it is not argued that parking fees could have a yet completed; in most countries we still similar effect as road pricing. dramatically during the first planners to the and periphery. They also have an expensive double network of filling stations. Parts of the former uncovered The increases of mobility prices were often external by protested against, but with their long-term environmental damage, health risks and impact and calculability they also lead to a macro-economic losses through congestion new balance between mobility requirements costs of transport caused World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 19 and traffic behaviour. Social hardship was areas) compensated towards by a transport allowance had dissolved what we spatial call structures 'Zwischenstadt'; similar to the former residence allowance suburbia and urban sprawl with low density, for people living on public welfare. car-orientation dependency. and, finally, Concentrated, car- radial traffic 3 . I n n e r cit y de ve lopm e n t flows, directed towards the city centre were For a long time Green land development becoming was very common, rarely questioned and peripheral flows and criss-cross flows over promoted longer thorugh commuters. benefits Auto-mobility telecommunication demand tax for (together bigger with residences, for increasingly distances superimposed throughout the by region and (figure 1). The density of the city decreased the - cheap a process, which was additionally accelerated by demographic changes. building plots and a family home in green Figure 1: Spatial structure of travel patterns (own figure) Parallel to green land development at the density beginning of the century, new, dense and parallel to suburbia and the 'Zwischenstadt'. and mixed-use areas survived mixed-use city quarters were established on empty land abandoned by military, industry Inner city development (instead of green or railways. These inner city developments land development) with 'more mobility and were very successful and they initiated a less traffic' (Topp, 2003) became the most new trend 'back into the city' (Brühl et al, important strategy of spatial development. 2005) and the renaissance of the inner city. In inner city areas, a household can easily Attractive cities, which kept an eye on the live with one car and (if so desired) even quality of their public spaces, advertised without a car. Here, public transport plus urban culture and urbanity with success. car-sharing is a realistic alternative. Car- They especially attracted the group of the dependency in suburbia on the other side 'new' old people wanting to live in an urban absorbs more from a household's budget cultural than ambience. Suburbia is not is usually noticed. That can attractive for the older generation because compensate for higher building costs in the shops, services, leisure time facilities and inner city over a long period. In suburbia medical care are not easily accessible, and people loose not only flexibility and mobility the car is needed for almost every journey. but also economic liberties. This gained The traditional European inner city with its more and more importance during the years because of more expensive transport World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 20 and (at the same time) of smaller, freely Saarbrücken, the capital of the German disposable parts of household incomes due Federal State of Saarland with 180,000 to more financial provision for sickness and inhabitants. Here, the transport-oriented old urban functionalism of the 1960s had perfected structures, at least in transport aspects with the motorway and, at the same time, less age. Robust and car-dependency, stable more deprived the city from its specific character attractive whilst car-dependent living in and it’s most important potential. There suburbia became less so. The planning of were a lot of similar examples all over the the 'compact city' and of 'decentralised world. In the early century, a transport concentration' infrastructure cutting wounds like this into in became the region became effective, whereas today (in the year 2030) the we have problem areas of urban renewal in Saarbrücken, €160 million was invested in a suburbia and the 'Zwischenstadt'. tunnel and, in 2012 the city centre was city was no longer tolerated. In back on the river banks. It was not only a An indispensable aspect of inner city revamp of the city centre, but also provided development is the quality of public spaces. the turn around of a declining city, which Urban design, architecture, green areas and today is better off and able to compete with water in the city; quality of life for jobs, prosperous neighbours such as Trier, Metz leisure activities and residents; and urban and Luxemburg. An early example similar culture became the deciding factors within to Saarbrücken is Düsseldorf on the Rhine the growing competition between cities. A River, lack of these qualities, very often, was completed in the early 1990s. where a similar project was caused by brutal transport infrastructure. A good example Figure 2a: is our project in Saarbrücken 2006: motorway along the river World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 21 Figure 2b: Saarbrücken 2012: city centre on the river banks activities, which, at the turn of the century 4 . I n dividu a l life st yle s Living in the city, living in the already made up for about half of the 'Zwischenstadt' (edge-city), and living in kilometres covered by passenger transport. suburbia all represent different life styles. Public means of transportation, as collective We experienced a multitude of diverse life means with large vehicles, do not fit too styles, through well into such a development. They have individuality, flexibility and spontaneity. The held their importance in inner cities; but in integration of people in time and space other parts of the cities and in the regions systems has dissolved; working hours are they have become more individual and more flexible, operating and working hours more are fail-safe locomotion (foot, by bicycle and by car) automation. Service hours are significantly have gained further meaning. The bicycle, expanded; in many cases to around the in a stylish high-tech form now is a symbol clock (car-sharing is an example). Tele- for independence, individuality, and healthy working is widespread in 2030: around living. which de-coupled are coined through widely flexible. The individual forms of 30 % of the employed work at home, mostly three days per week, plus 20 % 5 . D e m ogr a ph ic ch a n ge a n d m obilit y work call World-wide the population is still growing. been In Europe, however, the population has in centres. dispersed Commuter tele-offices traffic has or noticeably reduced; the traffic peaks have been shrinking since about 2015 become less accentuated. Traffic problems societies are rapidly ageing. In Germany, (in 2030) are mainly caused by leisure for instance, the birth rate had sunk to 1.3 World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 and 22 children per woman at the beginning of the Regional differences are more interesting century; later it stabilised to about 1.4 than the generalised figures for a whole (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2003), whereas countr. Due to regional migration within a 2.1 would be needed to maintain the country and different chances of regions to population constant. A table comparing attract median age and birth rate in the European differences Union in 2003 shows Germany with the shrinking regions grew. The spatial planning oldest population and one of lowest birth objective of equal living conditions was no rates, while Ireland had the youngest and longer most reproductive one. Iceland would stay prosperous, stagnating in this chart almost exactly where Ireland regions by is. In Germany, even though immigration problems in peripheral rural areas. migrants from between achievable. side outside, the prosperous In side 2030, we and with and have shrinking the biggest was made easier, it could not make up for the low birth rate. 6 . Pu blic t r a n spor t Public transport was affected through The other component of the demographic demographic changes in several aspects. change of First, with fewer students, the biggest societies and that happened all over Europe group of public transport users collapsed; in due to higher life spans. In this respect, rural areas the backbone of public transport Iceland is no exception. In Germany, the was affected. Second, less people working number of older people over 60 grew by resulted in less commuter rides - which 41 % since 2003, while the figures for the were, at the beginning of the century, a population under 20 dropped by 19 %. strong column of public transport. Thirdly, was the continuous ageing the older generation of 2030 (having grown Figure 3: Median age and birth rate in the European Union 2003 up with the car) drive longer and more than the generation before. Decreasing body strength speaks more for the car. Decreasing speed of reactions is compensated by defensive driving and driver's Walking automatic assistances. disabilities are less restricting in a car than in public transport; the desire determined to as live long selfas possible, has postponed a move away from the car. According to the saying, 'You are only getting old, when you can't drive your car anymore.' Definit ion ‘m edian age‘: 50 % of a populat ion ar e younger and 50 % are older t han m edian age The car industry has quickly focused on the fast World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 23 growing group of older customers with 'age- patterns adjusted' cars (comfortable getting in and influences, out) transport, could hardly be controlled by and with all possible drivers’ in time as and space. adversaries of These public assistances. Barrier-free public transport in planning the sense of 'universal design' without any resulted in a far-reaching restructuring of impediments concerning access and usage transport has been taken for granted for a long time. efficiency. In about 2012, when car driving Age-adjusted public became significantly more expensive new transport means (beyond the elimination of financial opportunities for public transport physical were opened. According to the principle and barrier-free barriers) comfort, direct or political measures. authorities towards They higher connections and simple handling before 'transport short travel times and transfers. 'Captive transport received transfer payments from riders' (young people under 17 or 18, or the general road pricing of all vehicles on all older people without a car) have become roads outside the cities. This was the fewer; occasional customers, those who are precondition free to opt for modal choice, regular choice transport. finances for a transport' new, quality public public riders and older customers have higher demands for transport supply, information, 7 . M obilit y a ssocia t ion w it h ca r - sh a r in g liability, service, security, and cleanliness. Since the beginning of this century public In 2030, the public transport customer is transport and car-sharing co-operate under the the common roof of the so-called mobility 'king'. Passenger rights include a 'mobility guarantee' in case of late arrivals association. and missed connections; customer-oriented integration service and information leads to better transport, car-sharing, dial-a-bus and taxi understanding of inconvenience. (physically and spatially), as well as in Understanding improves the terms any transport of This of means walking, information the total biking, public and organisation. climate as well as customers' satisfaction Public transport authorities evolved into and loyalty. High functional and aesthetic comprehensive mobility providers offering design of stops, helpful staff members, integrated mobility or 'seamless travelling'. electronic tickets or mobile phone tickets The instead of ticket machines, enough seats, competitive alternative to the private car. good vehicle climate and design are 2030 Car-sharing became the 'public car' and the customers' basic claims. forth column in the mobility association mobility association created a additional to walking, biking and public How was public transport able to manage transport. the split between a difficult market and the needed quality jump? At the start of this Car-sharing started at the end of the last century, several century as an ecological niche product. countries of the European Union was on the public transport in Soon, it became strongly professionalised border line: in addition to the demographic developing into a country-wide, high-tech changes it had to face liberalisation and service competition, cuts into financial budgets GPS-navigation, travel data compiled by according to European harmonisation and on-board computers, automatic phone and freedom of competition, tight finances of internet-based booking systems etc. Instant public bodies, the retreat of the state from access without reservation, open end and with chip-cards, satellite-based public provision and more disperse traffic World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 24 one way use are taken for granted since sharing car without searching for a parking 2015. space and not having to pick it up on my A pioneer in the co-operation between way back. public transport and car-sharing was the When auto-mobility (around 2012) became Transport Authority of Zürich, where in significantly more expensive, car-sharing 1995 the brand 'züri mobil' was coined. The reached the steep slope of the common s- next milestone of integrated mobility was shaped logistic curve of market penetration set by the 'mobility packages' in the cities and, finally, today's position in the mobility of Freiburg and Hannover. This was a market with 2 million car-sharing customers comprehensive and 65,000 cars in Germany (Topp, 2005). information service directed at providing satisfying customer's mobility demands in a fast, Figure 4: Market penetration of car-sharing convenient, reliable, and cheap manner in Germany (own figure) with the most appropriate mode of transport. By 2007, car-sharing spaces in Germany were legally established within the public realm and similar to taxi stands. The public transport stations thus evolved into mobility stations, which are now common all over the cities. In Switzerland (as early as in 2005), carsharing had 60,000 customers and almost 2,000 cars. In Germany, similar numbers were only reached by 2010 within the mobility association (That means 650,000 considering the different populations) (see Figure 4). More and more people considered car ownership to be expensive and inefficient. Indeed, so it is. At the beginning of this century, a private car on average was only driven one hour per day. It was parked uselessly somewhere at the roadside or in a garage for at least 23 hours. On the other hand, integrated mobility offers the appropriate transport mode for different purposes: for every occasion, at any time, the right car at the right location. This is a both a convenient and fun system which saves a lot of money due to the fact that buying, maintenance and servicing of the car is taken care of by others. 8 . I n t e r m oda l t r a n spor t syst e m At the beginning of the 21st century, the most important and more individual if I can return 'my' car- in transport planning was the physical connection of the different transport modes, as well as their informational and networking. organisational Information technologies merged with transport technologies pushing forward transport innovations. Physical and virtual mobility grew together. In 2030, the system limits of the former separated transport modes are abandoned: cars and bikes have become more public through car-sharing collective individual Mobility chains are getting more flexible challenge and public bike-sharing transport mobility chains schemes; is part which of are established through individual information. The former spatially and modally separated World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 25 transport control and management centres parking space, parking fees, taxi, public have merged. transport, car-sharing, bike-sharing, mobile phone and internet. The mobility invoice Since 2012, cars and mobile phones as comes monthly on the basis of 'best price', mobile which takes into account all benefits or detectors were collecting inter- modal traffic data as floating car and additions during peak times. floating phone data. Taxis and buses with special sensors are working as floating car 9 . Vir t u a l m obilit y observers delivering dynamic data (while on Virtual mobility was the big hope at the their routes) of traffic volumes and speeds, beginning of the century. The question was: lengths of jams, hold-ups and roadside will information and communication reduce parking occupancy. physical transport? 'never-ending' story Derived of from the information and This floating data is coupled with data from transport (Cerwenka, 1989) the answer stationary detection by video or ultrasound could only be 'no'. On the contrary, it had for traffic light control, public transport always been the case that new technologies management, parking guidance and road build up information and transport as well. pricing. In this way, actual information is Of course, tele-working, tele-banking, e- gained commerce, about traffic flow, disturbances, tele-learning and tele- mode and route choice, and origin and conferences replace physical transport, but destination term at the same time, the range of actions and prognoses, based on this, manage on-line the frequency of contacts of companies and signal settings, public transport operations, persons are increasing, finally resulting in and individual guidance systems for route new transport over longer distances. The recommendations telephone also had not been able to curb of journeys. Short and passenger information. transport: 'Over the phone more appointments are made than cancelled'. EThe PTA - the Personal Travel Agent - not commerce finally lead to a strong increase any longer car-bound, but now integrated in in deliveries. Despite sophisticated logistics, the mobile phone - facilitates individual the mobility chains. It informs, books services hardly be combined. multiplying instant deliveries could and bills the user for them. Inter-modal mobility providers have excellent business. Nevertheless, in 2030 we have experienced The car industry has developed into a that this amplifying process of parallel mobility produces growth of transport and information did not 'hardware' like cars, buses, trains and continue because transport became more stations as interfaces, but now sells these and more expensive and communication as cheaper and better. Nowadays, the virtual a industry, 'mobility which package' still including the accompanying 'software' and service. At the visit start of the century the electronical mobility background card was established. Chips integrated in traditional visit. Virtual city tourism brings mobile phones, watches or mobility cards in us not only into present cities, but also into the form of a 'Be in/Be out' system detect past and future cities. What is still lacking the presence of a customer without any co- with operation from him or her needed. The experiencing of other regions and other system covers road fees, booking of a people - a reality close tele-presence is still to a cyber museum information excursions provides than is the more did the sensual World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 26 in the pipeline. For many purpose oriented 5) activities, easily accessible, cheap and top functions very simple: the electronic town quality communication is a substitute for and road maps of the 'travel pilot' were time-consuming complemented and significantly more expensive transport. 'virtual' introduced by (Menzel, the 2004). respective It speed limits. The information about a speed limit is The was mechanically transformed by the globalisation has gained accelerator or by the throttle in a way that The globalisation accelerating beyond the speed limit is either however (represented by global flows of not even possible or only by a kick-down passengers momentum. and 'real' down. procedure as we know from the speed Regional economy cycles and continental freight) slowed controller. In 1998 I already drove such a tourism were backed up. The exotic fun (as car in Lund, Sweden. You get accustomed far as it survives in the globalised world) is to it very quickly and I found it very expensive. Through 'virtual' mobility finally, convenient. around 2010, the already in the 1990's discussed de-coupling of economic growth Figure 5: and ISA transport development could be Intelligent speed adaptation - achieved. 1 0 . 'Vision Ze r o' for t r a ffic sa fe t y In 1997 the Swedish Parliament proclaimed their 'Vision Zero'; a vision that nobody should be killed or severely injured in road traffic. The effect of a vision lies on the way to the goal. Whether a vision is one-to-one achievable or not is less important. In Germany, the country of fast cars and fast driving, and where speeding as the major cause of heavy accidents was a taboo, 'Vision Zero' for a long time had no chance. The car of 2030 has, beside the 'Intelligent It took society until 2010 to no longer Speed Adaptation', a lot of 'intelligent' accept more than 5,000 people killed and driver assistants like headway control, lane 80,000 changing warning or parking assistance ... severely injured in road traffic were The car has increasingly become a rolling introduced: 130 km/h on motorways, 80 on computer. Nevertheless, automatic driving highways and 30 within the cities. (demonstrated in the 1990's) has not yet accidents. New speed limits been introduced. The car industry, as well A further developed jurisdiction ensured as the road operators, is still afraid of the that the operators of the privatised roads product liability. have to guarantee a defined standard of compliance with the rules by enforcement, 1 1 . Ré su m é otherwise they share responsibility in case My scenario 2030 for mobility and transport of was in regions and cities contains elements significantly improved. The speed problem which are controllable by planning and was further resolved when, in 2015, the politics to very different extents. There are 'Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)' (figure trends an accident. Traffic safety (figure 6) like the world-wide World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 27 increasing demand for energy, more As mega-trends these developments are expensive mobility, flexibilisation of time hardly steerable by planning and politics, and space structures, demographic changes but we have to face them in order to be with the ageing of societies, merging of prepared and to adjust to them. information technologies into transport etc. Figure 6: Trends, course settings, and levers for mobility and transport ( M e ga ) t r e n ds ฀ increasing demand for fossil energy Cou r se se t t in gs ฀ support of ฀ ecological tax ฀ flexible public renewable ฀ emission transport ฀ mobility is getting more expensive ฀ suburbanisation, forms of energy ฀ true costs in transport urban sprawl and 'back to the city' ฀ more individual including 'external' costs ฀ user financing life styles ฀ more flexible time and space Con cr e t e m e a su r e s a s le ve r s of road trading in transport ฀ cancelling benefits of commuters' ฀ road pricing for all motor infrastructure vehicles ฀ transit-oriented ฀ compensating settlement structures for social ฀ ageing of structures hardship populations ฀ inner city instead of ฀ urban quality ฀ merging of physical green land and virtual mobility development ฀ total telematisation of the transport barrier-free ฀ from car-sharing to the 'public car' ฀ car-sharing spaces licensed ฀ multi-modal mobility stations ฀ merging of traffic management agencies ฀ automatic traffic data processing ฀ speed management ฀ reforming the cities ฀ parking financing ฀ noise protection management system ฀ ... and in rural areas of public transport ฀ barrier-free 'universal design' ฀ integrating modes in & traffic calming ฀ promoting ฀ service offensive of public pedestrian and bicycle traffic ฀ ... transport the mobility association ฀ 'Vision Zero' for traffic safety ฀ e-ticketing instead of ticket machines ฀ new mobility culture ฀ road toll pays and traffic behaviour for public transport ฀ ... World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 28 Political planning and innovative course settings Personennahverkehrs im Mobilitätsverbund mit (figure Car-Sharing. Der Nahverkehr 23, Nr. 9 6) for future developments (like renewable energies, true costs of transport, transit-oriented settlement structures, inner city Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : development instead of green land development, Imove, Institut für Mobilität & Verkehr integrating transport modes within the mobility Institute for Mobility & Transport association all need comprehensive packages of Kaiserslautern University of Technology measures, and we have to carefully consider Germany their possible undesired side effects. So for hartmut.topp@imove-kl.de instance, the basic claim for true costs in transport is closely connected with the price for mobility, and therefore it has to be introduced gradually step-by-step, so that it does not overburden economy and society. Beside trends and course settings there are, finally, many concrete measures which serve as levers (figure 6) in planning and politics, as for instance, an ecological tax reform, emission trading in transport, road pricing for all motor vehicles, a service offensive of public transport, promoting walking and biking, from car-sharing to the 'public car', multi-modal mobility stations, merging of traffic management agencies, intelligent speed adaptation and more. We have a lot to do to achieve more sustainable mobility. Re fe r e n ce s Brühl, Hasso et al (2005): Wohnen in der Innenstadt - eine Renaissance? Difu-Beiträge zur Stadtforschung Nr. 41, Berlin Cerwenka, Peter (1989): Verkehr - eine unendliche Geschichte? Straße und Autobahn (40) Nr. 9 Menzel, Christoph (2004): Basic Conditions for the Implementation of Speed Adaptation Technologies in Germany. Grüne Reihe Nr. 64, imove Kaiserslautern Statistisches Bundesamt (2003): Bevölkerung Deutschlands bis 2050. koordinierte Ergebnisse der 10. Bevölkerungsvorausberechnung. Wiesbaden Topp, Hartmut H. (2003): weniger bei Verkehr Mehr Innen- vor Mobilität, Außen- entwicklung. Raumforschung und Raumordnung 61, Nr. 4 Topp, Hartmut H. (2005): Die Potenziale von Car-Sharing - Mehr Chancen des Öffentlichen World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 29 2001:33). MacLeod (2004:28) provides an Splin t e r in g t h e pu blic r e a lm : overview of some of the features of the concept: Usin g loca l pu blic spa ce for cor por a t e e con om ic ga in ? deriving their analysis from a truly impressive Blending several theoretical perspectives and range of cities stretching across the global ‘north’ and ‘south’, Graham and Marvin position Fion a Ra j e the emergence communities, of features US-style like privatised gated Business I n t r odu ct ion Improvement Districts, self-enclosed shopping This paper reflects on empirical evidence from malls, and edge city developments within a recently-completed research on transport and broader context of political economic transition. social inclusion which revealed an apparent gap In particular, and importantly, they locate such between stated local authority policy and actual trends within the shifting contours of state planning practice in the urban environment. power and the practices of and limits to urban The wider research looked at the ways in which and regional planning. people in two case study areas in Oxfordshire in the UK experience the transport system and how The concept of fragmentation of the public realm this affects their ability to access key services, is relevant to discussions of transport and social activities and facilities. The findings described inclusion since any “splintering” which may here concentrate on one of the main issues occur would be counter to the objectives of revealed in the urban case in Barton, an urban lessening social exclusion. To this end, in this peripheral estate of Oxford. The paper looks at paper we examine one of the features of how local authority planning decisions may Graham conflict with their own Council’s stated policies environment and how the manifestation of this conflict can community, a residential area with restricted contribute to social exclusion in neighbourhoods access: and Marvin’s in greater splintered depth: the urban gated which are already vulnerable to the effects of social inequalities. Through the establishment of designated perimeters (usually in the form of walls or Ba ck gr ou n d The fences) as well as controlled entrances, gated concept of “splintering urbanism” was developed by the UK urban planning scholars Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin who were responding to “what we feel is an urgent need: to develop a more international, robust, critical, cross-cutting, dynamic and transdisciplinary approach to understanding the changing relations between contemporary cities, infrastructure networks and authors argued that “a parallel set of processes under way within which by non-residents. For some scholars, they are deemed to be precipitating a private world that shares little with its neighbours or the larger political system leading to a fragmentation that “undermines the very concept of civit as – organised community life” (Blakely and Snyder, 1999). (MacLeod, 2003:5) technological mobilities” (Graham and Marvin, 2001:33). The are communities are intended to prevent intrusion infrastructure networks are being ‘unbundled’ in ways that help sustain the fragmentation of the social and material fabric of cities” (Graham and Marvin, A h ist or y of r e side n t ia l se pa r a t ion in Ox for d While not as prevalent in European societies as in many other regions of the world, the gated community is showing a rising presence in the UK. There are now over 1,000 gated communities in England with most being found World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 30 in the wealthier south east and London in of the former local pub, The Fox, adjacent to particular (Atkinson and Flint, 2003). local authority-owned flats and is being sold as: The physical separation of one residential area A modern gated development…the development from another has an infamous precedent in is within close proximity to the Headington Oxford. In the 1930s, rapid growth of the motor Roundabout and has easy access to the A40 and industry brought an influx of immigrants from links to the M40. Buses to Oxford Central and other parts of the UK to Oxford. There was a London resultant pressure on the city’s limited housing (http://www.barratthomes.co.uk/searchres.cfm resources: accessed 281004). The council notorious estate at 1934 when Cutteslowe became away. The apartments are being marketed without reference to the Barton estate upon which they are built, their location being advertised as the council’s tenants from using its roads: it was “Headington, alleged that the tenants were former Oxford salubrious slum-dwellers, although most of the houses marketing were inhabited by newcomers to the city. The development’s main attribute appears to be that council was not able to compel the demolition of it is located near to the main inter-urban road the network for ease of access to the Oxford-London 1959. (Crossley, of walk adjoining private estate built walls to prevent until developers short an walls in a 1979 @ Oxford” adjacent – the more socially neighbourhood. information indicates The that the w w w .br it ish - corridor. The Barton estate has seen other h ist or y.a c.u k / r e por t .a sp?com pid= 2 2 8 0 5 private accessed 270505) boundaries but the establishment of a gated developments community being represents built another within its factor One of the newest gated communities is being contributing to the further fracturing of the local built in Barton (see Plate 1). The gated Barratt community fabric. Homes development “Jazz” is located on the site Plate 1: Gated development adjacent to local authority housing, North Way, Barton Source: Fiona Raj é World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 31 Th e ga t e d com m u n it y in the w ide r literature African gated communities further extend contemporary segregatory tendencies in the city com m u n it y The that city of the post-apartheid describes gated or South and that policy responses are required which walled curtail the creation of such havens of social communities as “security villages” (Jürgens and withdrawal. (Atkinson and Flint, 2004:875) Gnad, 2002:337). There may be some merit in viewing the development in Barton in such a Th e ga t e d com m u n it y: t h e policy con flict light. Villages tend to be isolated with access to The emergence of a policy discourse on gated many facilities dependent upon and car opportunities being communities access: is objectives of the local planning community. this a raises concerns about the characteristic of the Jazz development. Similarly, MacLeod building housing with restricted access in an commentators imply a causal area that is commonly associated in the media gating with crime intensifies the perception of personal planning permission for a gated development, risk to new residents without the security of the regardless of any clauses that may have been gates and walls of the security village. The very associated with the permission to help assuage fact that the development is gated implies to a negative impacts, brings into doubt the vision of purchaser that the area around their new home the local planning authority. ( I t is underst ood is not a space to be explored but to be accessed t hat by car from the conveniently located trunk road developer t o dem olish t he exist ing pub and build network. social apart m ent s on t he land, an agreem ent was connections with local residents outside the m ade for t he housebuilder t o provide a new pub gates may be equally liable to associations with in Bart on. Subsequent ly, t he building com pany dubiety. abandoned By extension, making (2004:20) and when social reports between By granting was grant ed to build “some link exclusion”. perm ission plans that t he for new t he pub. Negot iat ions bet ween t he local aut horit y and Atkinson and Flint (2004) argue that gated developer were on- going during t he research communities period and it has since been report ed t hat an are not only an example of residential segregation but are also symbolic of agreem ent a contemporary turn towards segregation and housebuilder will pay £140,000 of t he £300,000 social withdrawal which necessitate urgent policy required t o refurbish t he sport s pavilion on intervention: Bart on’s has been recreat ion r eached ground. whereby The t he balance of funding will be sought t hrough an applicat ion t o In contrast to the view that gated communities t he Nat ional Lot t ery Fund. ( Sources: Oxfordshire provide Count y Council websit e w ww.oxfordshire.gov.uk an extreme example of residential segregation we go further and argue that the and time-space trajectories of residents suggest a refurbishm ent ” dynamic pattern of separation that goes beyond websit e the 220105) . place of residence. Gated communities “ Developer will help Oxford fund £300k Tim es/ Oxford ww w.t hisisoxfordshire.co.uk Mail accessed appear to provide an extreme example of more common attempts by other social groups to Oxfordshire County Council’s social inclusion insulate against perceived risk and unwanted scrutiny review clearly states that promoting encounters. Patterns of what we term time- social inclusion is a key role of the authority: space trajectories of segregation can thereby be seen as closed linkages between key fields, such ‘Social inclusion’ is not just ‘jargon’, but refers to as work and home, which enable social distance the core work of the Council: helping people to to be maintained and perceived risks to be fulfil managed by elite social groups. We conclude disadvantages that they might face. It is vital their potential and to overcome World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 the 32 that good quality services are provided to all impacts of decisions that have not taken full people, especially those who are potentially account vulnerable and need support. Social exclusion, community. Pressure from developers to secure whether through low income, poor educational land adjacent to road networks and pressure on achievement, illness and disability, isolation or planners other circumstances, is a loss to the whole improvements community, judgement, obscuring professional sensitivity to and as a Council we have a of consequences to secure by on the investment developers wider in road can cloud responsibility to tackle both the causes of social softer exclusion as well as the outcomes. (Oxfordshire reaching effects on local people. In this case, County Council, 2004:3) such as sanctioning the socially exclusionary use impacts which may have more far- of land formerly occupied by the only pub on the However, the report goes on to reveal that it estate. The absence of a local pub precipitates found a need to weave social inclusion issues the need to travel away from Barton to go to a through all Council policy and activity. It was pub and the closure of the pub has removed one critical of the lack of a corporate social inclusion of the only spaces for social gathering from the strategy, a deficit of resources to coordinate neighbourhood. social inclusion promotion, the absence of a joined-up approach expressed a need to social for and Along the road from “Jazz” is “Renaissance Park” corporate another Barratt Homes development, not gated inclusion greater but also marketed with a distinct emphasis on commitment to the social inclusion: its convenience for access to the inter-urban The Review found that although many officers road network: were committed to broad principles of social inclusion, there understanding of was what not that a common meant to the An appealing development…with access to the M40 – London and Birmingham – A40 to Council, or what the Council’s aims were for Whitney disadvantaged people. There is insufficient lead (h t t p:/ / w w w .ba r r a t t h om e s.co.u k / se a r ch r e from the Executive or the County Council’s s.cfm accessed 281004) Senior Management Team on (sic)- and Oxford City Centre’ co-ordinating social inclusion activity or providing a strategic Staying with the issues related to the planners’ focus. This makes it harder for individual service decision to allow the gated development and the managers and officers to pursue social inclusion neighbouring housing site to go ahead raises activity, or to get guidance on their social another inclusion priorities. (Oxfordshire County Council, disconnection 2004:3) statements that it promotes public transport concern about between the the apparent authority’s usage and less dependence on car travel. The Given the above, there may be an unintentional marketing of the two developments makes it lack of awareness of the ways in which a gated clear that the car-owning public is their target community market. may impact a local community The premise of car-based travel negatively amongst the planning officers of the associated with the new housing runs counter to Council. the It is imperative against such a background that empirical studies of impacts of Council’s policy on transport and Structure Plan development: new types of developments should be carried out and findings fed back into future decision- Oxfordshire making within the Council as well as being reinforces PPG13 - the Government’s planning County Council's shared with other authorities. Evidence-based policy guidance on transport - by aiming to planning can do much to preclude the negative reduce the need to travel by private car through World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 33 land use planning policy…More generally, the However, despite the actions of the developer, Structure Plan policies seek to ensure that Barratt, in overtly marketing these properties in developments are located and designed so as to terms of their proximity to the inter-urban road be easily accessible by walking, cycling and network public transport. (Oxfordshire County Council, development’s location under guises such as 2000:25) “Headington” and “Northway” rather than Barton and the concealment of the (which can only serve to undermine the fabric of Oxfordshire County Council's Residential Design the Guide… is intended the house builder guide promotes developments which regenerator” (The Oxford Times, 06 May 2005: by 47). In an article entitled “Barratts regenerate minimising the need to use cars particularly for local brownfield sites”, a mythology of intention shorter trips to local facilities. (Oxfordshire appears to be peddled: to encourage provide more inform community), and developers to local sustainable travel itself as “Britain’s leading urban County Council, 2005:ch1 p3) House builder Barratt…is transforming derelict land and recycling redundant buildings to create Arguably, the two housing sites are located “to new be easily accessible” by walking and cycling: Maidenhead has successfully transformed the that is, if one does not feel uncomfortable former site of the derelict Fox pub, in Northway, walking through underpasses to access facilities Oxford, outside the estate, having to dismount from a development… bicycle to use an underpass or face communities into its around stylish the and UK…Barratt popular Jazz the of ‘We have successfully recycled all kinds of sites, circulating traffic at the Headington Roundabout which have made good use of valuable land – a large junction where the volume of inter- resources, helped to meet the strong demand urban traffic transiting the roundabout has led to for new homes and also brought life back to reports of delays of up to 20 minutes for traffic urban areas, producing a wide range of benefits exiting the Barton arm of the junction at peak for times environment…Regeneration can reduce the need challenge of (Rajé, negotiating 2004). large volumes Similarly, both local new communities infrastructure, and developments are near to bus stops. However, for the buses pass these stops as they enter the residential estate and passengers boarding here would have communities nearer their workplaces, lessening to travel through several other streets on their car dependency.’ (The Oxford Times, 06 May journey back to the main roundabout, out of 2005: 47) developments produce the and sustainable help re-form Barton and on towards Oxford city centre. It should also be pointed out that the buses only Despite the noble aims expressed by Barratt operate along one route from Barton, to Oxford group chief executive, David Pretty, in the quote and on to Kidlington, resulting in the need for above, this research indicates that a small interchange to access some destinations, while community others, often relatively nearby geographically, commuters are likely to live in the gated are effectively inaccessible by bus. Therefore, development. Working away from the area, they the private car again becomes the most suitable would have little opportunity to mix with anyone solution to the in-migrant’s transport needs. It beyond the gates and local people would gain also protects him from perceived potential perils nothing by having the new residents living in beyond their neighbourhood. the gates of his manufactured of car-dependent professional community. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 34 How this development may bring life back to this on an estate, rather than being seen as on the peripheral urban area or produce a wide range side of the residents (Page, 2000). of benefits for the local community and environment is not readily apparent. What does Re fe r e n ce s appear to is a causative Atkinson, R. and J. Flint (2003). Fortess UK? connection between the proximity of the urban Gated communities, the spatial elites and the road network and the availability of brownfield time-space trajectories of segregation. Gated land of Communities: Building Social Division or Safer regeneration. If lessening car dependency was Communities?, Department of Urban Studies, truly the developer’s objective, a site with University of Glasgow, September 18-19. to emerge, be instead, developed under the guise greater propinquity to the public transport, cycling and walking networks would have been Atkinson, R. and J. Flint (2004). "Fortress UK? more attractive. Thus, in a competitive and Gated communities, the spatial revolt of the highly-lucrative elites housing market, the road network enables exploitative development to and time-space trajectories of segregation." Housing Studies 19(6): 875-892. take place, that is, development that goes against the principles environmental concerns of social sustainability. about the This acceptability and raises of Crossley, A. (1979). A History of the County of Oxford - Vol. IV: The city of Oxford. Oxford. such enclaves in an area which has already been Graham, S. and S. Marvin (2001). Splintering singled out as in need of regeneration (i.e. in Urbanism: need of the development of a sustainable technological mobilities and the urban condition. community). It would appear that rather than Abingdon, Routledge. networked infrastructures, contributing to the regeneration of Barton, this is an example of selective social exclusion with Jürgens, the transport system allowing enclave-dwellers communities in South Africa - experiences from the flexibility to look beyond their own locality Johannesburg." Environment and Planning B: for Planning and Design 29(3): 337-353. social, employment and other life U. and M. Gnad (2002). "Gated opportunities. MacLeod, G. (2004). Privatizing the city? The Con clu sion tentative In summary, the granting of permission to build developments and gated communities in the a gated community in a deprived neighbourhood United Kingdom: Final Report for the Office of may be interpreted as a form of complicity the Deputy Prime Minister. London, University of between institutional actors, house builder and Durham. local planning authority, in perpetuating and Oxford Times (2005). Barratts regenerate local extending brownfield sites. 06 May 2005. socially divisive and exclusionary push towards edge urban features in the built environment. To local people, planning decisions such as this imply a Oxfordshire County Council (2000). Oxfordshire lack of engagement of public service providers Local with estate communities. Residents feel, as a Oxfordshire County Council. Transport Plan (2001-2006). Oxford, result, that decisions have been imposed upon their Oxfordshire County Council (2004). Are we circumstances and that they have little or no say included? Why not?: Social Inclusion Scrutiny in decisions about their neighbourhood. As a Review. Oxford, Oxfordshire County Council. them result, with the little local understanding authority may of become associated with the arbitrary exercise of power Oxfordshire County Council (2005). Transaction: World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 35 Local Transport 2011(Draft Plan 11/04/05). for Oxfordshire Oxford, 2006- Rajé, F. (2004). "Engineering Social Exclusion? Oxfordshire Poor transport links and severance." Municipal County Council. Engineer 157(ME4): 267-273. Page, D. (2000). Communities in the balance: Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : the fr a j e @ou ce .ox .a c.u k reality of social exclusion on housing estates. York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 36 Effe ct s of pe de st r ia n isa t ion on t h e com m e r cia l a n d r e t a il a r e a s: St u dy in Kh a o Sa n Roa d, Ba n gk ok Sa n t osh Ku m a r & W illia m Ross I n t r odu ct ion Cities are becoming increasingly car dependent and are rapidly being redesigned to make car travel easier. Developing countries are framing policies that will encourage motorised travel with a consequent modes. reduction of These policies seldom non-motorised consider the urban poor and the more vulnerable transport users such as pedestrians and cyclists. Outside of newly built, gated residential and commercial areas, improved car access has Plate 4: Khao San Raod during the night bustling with visitors generally resulted in poorer access for walkers (Ravetz, 1980). The amount of space devoted to the car in terms of road and car parking has grown throughout although it is not the twentieth commensurate century, with the increase in road traffic. The increase in the car dependant nature of neighbourhoods has reduced the business of small shops within the neighbourhoods as the large department stores are easily accessible by car and also provide sufficient, usually free, parking. This car friendly change in neighbourhood design encourages people to drive more for a trip that could often be fulfilled by a walk within the neighbourhood. Higher road traffic levels also had major impacts on the levels of social interaction and community connectedness at the neighbourhood levels (Ross, 1999). From a study in San Francisco, it was found that the community interactions were more in areas with less traffic and people had more chance to meet and had good social activities in these areas (Whitelegg, 1993; Appleyard, 1981). changes through Pedestrianisation traffic and traffic calming. calming have proven to be effective measures of improving lifestyle and safety to the residents. A study of traffic calming areas in the UK showed that there was a 29% reduction in accidents to cyclists of all age groups and especially for children where the figures fell by 48%. The study also found an overall accident reduction of 60% after implementing traffic calming (Weber and Mackie, 1996 cited by Galway Cycling Campaign, 1999). Similarly results of large scale traffic calming project in the Dutch cities, Eindhoven and Rijswijk, found that the accident rates were reduced by 80% (Schlabbach, 1997). Pedestrianisation measures are best undertaken at a local level. The down side of implementing is the frequent objections during implementation. The objections are sometimes justified since no design method is without problems frequently (Roberts, object 1981). as Local they businesses feel that pedestrianisation removes the business from In order to obtain the positive effects for the community, several car restraining measures have to include be implemented. economic These instruments and measures passing traffic. This perception has been proven wrong by various studies (Hass-Klau, 1993; Drennen, 2003; Kumar, 2006). physical World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 37 Pedestrian areas high Pedestrianisation has a positive effect on the walking densities. The walking does not only businesses in the area of implementation. The denote effect is usually in the are purpose the of places with commute but also the form of increased represents the way the walkers feel about the turnover, increased property values and streets city. People usually have very few places to attracting the wealthier, thereby benefiting the meet in a car dependant city; these places overall include shopping complexes or conferences. advantage to the area (Sermons and Seredich, However, more 2001; Hass-Klau, 1993). Pedestrianisation also attractive then an increased meeting of people encourages local people to buy utilities in their in these precincts can be noticed, Central- own European countries provide good examples of customers from a wider area, increasing the public precincts. The success of a city centre community cannot only be understood from an idea of 2005). reducing traffic problems but increasingly from Poor pedestrian, cycling and transit options can the amount of people who benefit from them in harm businesses by losing the worker potential. a recreational way (Monheim, 1992). Investment in pedestrian programs is llittle and The dramatic change that pedestrian precincts sometimes nil. These projects often require have brought to some cities in Europe can be minimal time for construction and most do not inferred from high pedestrian volumes and also require any financial support from business from the new businesses and shopping malls owners. Litman (2004) summarised the various developing in these city centres (Monheim, effects of walking in a community (see Table 1). where public spaces are retail sales and neighbourhoods relations drawing and (Ross, economic attracts 1999; more Kumar, 2001). Table 1: Effects of walking in a community D e scr ipt ion Cr it e r ia M e a su r in g Te ch n iqu e s Acce ssibilit y Closeness to goods, Extent that non motorised Travel Modelling, analysis of travel a n d Sa vin gs services and activities, transit providing mobility for options, consumer expenditure public transportation, cost transit poor surveys Amount of active Physical exercise provided to Travel and Health Surveys to transportation and net usually inactive people determine the number of people savings H e a lt h impacts on public health who benefit from walking exercise Efficie n t La n d More efficient land use The level of car oriented Identifying the social, economic u se associated with more non infrastructure i.e. more roads and environmental benefits of motorised transportation- or overpasses for cars more non motorised transportation-oriented land use oriented land use patterns. Live a bilit y The quality of the local Change in appeal of the Property values, business environment and implemented areas activities, consumer preference surveys. community interactions Econom ic Impact on commercial Change in sales in the Market surveys and property D e ve lopm e nt establishments and shift commercial sectors and the assessments. in consumer expenses decrease in expense for fuel and vehicle. ( Source: Lit m an, 2004) World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 38 Citing the above reasons it can be said that study with recommendations in the other areas pedestrian precincts economic of Bangkok which can help in increasing the productivity, employment, activity, sales of the small businesses and also enhance investment and development. increase other business kinds Customers of place economic high the liveability of the area. value onpedestrian environments such as retail malls, Ba ck gr ou n d of t h e st u dy suburban pedestrian- Bangkok has a rich cultural past and is a famous Pedestrianised tourist destination. The growing economy of the commercial areas can be very important in country led to an improvement in lifestyle and increasing an oriented office resort campuses and communities. the liveability and friendly increase in vehicle numbers. Areas in environments that attract residents and visitors Bangkok are filled with noise and emissions from (USEPA, on automobiles. Everyday in Bangkok nearly 600 sidewalks widening the footpaths and increasing new cars are added to the roads making an the greenery near the store fronts can increase extra 3 kilometres of bumper-to-bumper traffic the appeal and attract the pedestrian/potential (Kenworthy, 2003). 2004). Placing café seating customers. According to a 100 Bangkok has a very impressive mixture of land pedestrianised cities worldwide, it was found use compared to similar western cities with high that the turnovers in the city centres of these car dependency. Commercial, residential and cities retail facilities are usually within a walkable increased study in of 49% more of the than cities and remained stable in 25%. Cities in Austria, distance (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989). Germany and Scandinavia experienced increase However, Bangkok’s very high motor friendly in turnover of more than 60% (OECD, 1978). infrastructure, with generous parking facilities, wide roads and flyovers act as a catalyst for There have been several studies conducted in increasing car dependency (Poboon, 1997). many parts Europe and the US but very few or almost none have been done in the Asian Walking and cycling characteristics in Bangkok developing cities. Hence, this study focussed on are very bleak with only 13% of the work trips the effects of pedestrianisation on the retailing on these modes while the other Asian countries and commercial community of Bangkok. Khao have San in Kenworthy, 1999). The low levels of walking and Bangkok, was selected to investigate the effect cycling are due to the safer and more pleasant that pedestrianisation had on the businesses and conditions the way the business community felt since Kenworthy (2003) recommended that if priority pedestrianisation. The results documented in is given to improving pedestrian and cycling this paper will focus on the changes in sales conditions in Bangkok, there will be a significant volumes, on shift from car to other modes. Apart from pedestrianisation since implementation of the initiating a modal shift there are other affects of project, their opinions on the existing timings pedestrianisation, it can bring economic benefit and their stance on future improvement of the to the retailers on the pedestrianised area. Road, project. a partially opinion The results pedestrian of will street retailers help in an average for car of 34% travel (Newman (Kumar, and 2006). further developing the project and also replicating the World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 39 commercial areas. One such area is the famous Khao San Road (Plate 1). It is a street located in the Banglampoo district of Bangkok (Figure 1). It is a famous destination for many local and foreign travellers and backpackers. The location is apt for backpackers as it provides cheap lodging and boarding facilities. Apart from the motels, Khao San Road has food stalls, travel agencies, souvenir and music shops. The road has been pedestrianised as part of government policy with the help of the local police station. The Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) helped in promoting the project. The project was implemented in the year 2001 (C Kaewumporn Plat e 1: Pedest rianised Khao San Road As a strategy to develop pedestrian areas Bangkok initiated Metropolitan Authority pedestrianisation (BMA) schemes in has some 2006, pers. comm., 23 February) and another reason for implementation was the increasing traffic jam on the street. Figure 1: Map of Khao San Road Pedestrianisation has been implemented in some pedestrian projects. The study investigated the areas of Bangkok but the outcomes of the response of the small business owners in Khao projects were never studied. Hence this study San Road upon the effect of pedestrianisation on attempted to fill the vacuum of the outcome of their business turnover and their World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 view on 40 pedestrianisation after Khao San Road has a wide diversity of retail implementation. For this study, the businesses shops. For this study all shops that were present in Khao San road have been categorised viz. before implementing pedestrianisation and after Restaurants, shops, guest houses, and travel pedestrianisation agencies through According to pre-survey results it was found that stratified random sampling method. The data there were about 100 guest houses, 125 food was collected by means of a questionnaire which stalls, 20 travel agencies and 120 shops selling focussed music, souvenirs, and textiles. and on before samples the and were economic taken changes since have been considered. pedestrianisation. The obtained results have A stratified random sampling method was used been interpreted using SPSS 13.0. in selecting the samples. Neuman (2003) St u dy sit e , sa m plin g a n d sa m ple size suggests that for a study with a population Khao San Road in Bangkok, the study site, is a under 1000, the required sample size has to be famous destination for foreign backpackers as it more for accuracy hence a sample size of about offers a wide range of services along with 30% is suggested, and for a moderately larger reasonably priced accommodation. The road is populations (about 10,000) the sample size can currently pedestrianised during specific hours of be about 10% and for populations over 150,000 the day. During non-pedestrian hours, on-road the sample size ratio can be 1%. For this study, parking is available making the street narrow. the shops in Khao San road have been divided There is a high frequency of taxis and tuk-tuk's into on the road. Public transport cannot be found on shops, guest houses, and travel agencies and the road mainly due to its size, but there are bus the respective samples have been considered. categories (Table 2) viz. Restaurants, stops near to Khao San Road which are easily accessible on foot. Table 2: Population and sample size of the study Popu la t ion Sa m ple Size Food stalls 125 38 Shops 120 36 Guest houses 100 30 20 06 365 110 Type of Sh op Travel Agencies Tot a l Re su lt s of t h e St u dy The following section discusses the results obtained from the questionnaire survey. The research was carried out during the months of September and October 2005 and mainly focussed on the changes in business activity, linking these liveability of changes the to area. changes Other in the studies (Appleyard,1981; OECD,1990; Hass-Klau,1993, Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) have shown that the implementation of traffic calming in residential areas and the pedestrianisation of Figure 2: Change in sales volume of retailing shops retail areas will improve amenity and liveability of the affected area. For the purpose of this World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 41 research, liveability is expressed in the quality of increased aft er t he proj ect , people like t o walk the local environment which will act as an and shop...” replied one restaurant owner, while attractor of customers to the businesses in the 35% said that their sales volume had not area. As stated in the Table 1, the changes in changed, sales volume and rental values were considered m uch…because of t he foot pat h shops..” said a to be good indicators of improved business souvenir shop owner. The reason for this can be activity liveability. attributed to the location of the shop which was Other things being equal, improvements in these away from the mainstream pedestrian area and indicators can be attributed to an improvement also because of the services the shop offered. A in the local pedestrianised environment. few guest houses in the study were located resulting from improved “ ...m y business has not changed inside “soi’s” or lanes lacking direct contact with Ch a n ge s in sa le s volu m e the Sales volume is the sales volume of a retail shop “ ...t he guest house is away from t he m ain road in a specified period of time. The sales volume so not m uch affect but t he t ourist s have t o walk depends wit h on various factors such as the mainstream t heir of the luggage...” pedestrian said a activity. guest house economic condition of the country or the area manager. and the amount of activity in the area. The establishments which benefited the most were number of customers to the area is a direct the food and souvenir shops. It can be noted factor affecting the sales volume. If the area can from the activity of the street that not only attract more visitors then the shops in the foreign tourists avail the retailing service, but location will have more potential customers. also the local Thai people buy from the shops on Pedestrianisation tends to increase the sales Khao San Road. It has been found that the volume as it attracts more visitors to the area of implementation (Plate 2). Even though the Ch a n ge s in t h e Pr ope r t y/ Re n t a l Va lu e s economic condition of the country is good and rising, unappealing areas don’t attract visitors Figure 3: Change in the Rental Values Plate 2:More customers is more sales resulting in business closures in that area (Colin Fluctuation in rental values in a commercial area Buchanan and Partners, 2001). Pedestrianisation mainly depends upon the amount of business can remedy such a situation. done in the area. This sub-section will discuss the results obtained on the vacillation of rental In the current study the respondents were asked values in Khao San Road. The respondents were about the status of their sales volume. About questioned about the changes in the rental value 47% (Figure 2) of the respondents replied that of their business premises. The majority of the their responses (52%) (see Figure 3) expressed “no sales volume had increased, “ Sales World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 42 change” in the rental value and 22% replied that ranged from as little as 1,000 baht to 2,500 the rental value factor does not apply to their baht to the existing rent. The latest period of business. “ I don't need t o pay rent ..” replied a increase in rent noted was for the previous 3 guest house owner. On the other hand, 26% months and the maximum period was for the 3 reported that their rent had increased. previous years. However, the changes in sales volumes discussed earlier clearly state that there as been a positive change after pedestrianisation. The sales volume has not decreased greatly but has either remained constant or has increased. Opin ion of r e t a ile r s on pe de st r ia n isa t ion Pedestrianising a street requires stakeholder agreement and in many cases pedestrianisation projects Figure 4: Revision of Rents fail if there is a vacuum in the consultation process among the stakeholders, such as the retailers, the police, and municipal Similarly, the respondents were asked about the authorities. If there is strong approval from the revision in the rent they pay to the owner and stakeholders, the project is more likely to be 28% (Figure 4) reported an increase in their successful. In this study the retailers have been rent, “ ..m y owner increased m y rent by 2,000 asked about their opinion on pedestrianisation of baht a year back..” replied a tenant retailer, Khao San Road. while the majority of the respondents replied that the question was not applicable for them. The study found that before implementation, a The is majority of the retailers (Figure 5) believed that because the owner of the shop also operates the pedestrianisation could not improve the existing business. The respondents who replied that condition and were indifferent to the project. A there was a change in rent were tenants. retailer replied “ why pedest rianise t he st reet ? According to Thailand laws, the area of Khao farang ( foreigners) like t o com e in a car” . It was San Road falls under ‘royal property’ and hence also found that 30% disagreed with the idea, as ownership cannot be claimed. The shops located they believed that pedestrianisation would bring in this area are under a long lease and the value negative effects to their business (the removal is revised every 3 years. of cars from the street would also remove their major response of “not applicable” customers) and disagreed to the project idea; The unusual replies can be explained because “ ...t raffic many of the shops were not rented but rather business....people wat ch m y shop when t hey are run by the owners; hence some of the responses st uck in t he j am ...” replied a tailor shop owner. were “does not apply”. In most of the cases, the Among the retailers 20% were optimistic and owners of the building did not want to increase felt that the changes pedestrianisation would the rents and hence there was no change in bring to their business would be positive and rental values. However, some of the landlords agreed did increase the rents giving rise to the result of “ ...rem ove t he cars and t he cust om ers will “increased rent”. The increase in the rents increase...” replied a restaurant manager. j am s to the are project good for t he implementation. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 43 Opin ion of the pe de st r ia n cu r r e n t t im in gs st a n ce on and fu r t h e r pe de st r ia n isa t ion Khao San Road is pedestrianised from 6pm to 3am. Partially pedestrianising a street in many cases will not allow the full potential of pedestrianisation to be utilised. pedestrianisation other traffic Partial also restricts calming benefits, such as increased liveability and Figure 5: Opinion of retailers on pedestrianisation project street appeal, as during the day the Since pedestrianisation, the majority of the street is just like other ordinary streets with cars. retailers (85%) have agreed with the project while the retailers who disagreed decreased to This study has questioned the respondents just 10%, “ ..I cars m eans m ore regarding their opinion on the current pedestrian cust om ers, now even Thais com e and drink...” timing and the results are explained below. The replied a pub owner. It has to be noted that the results from the study revealed that 74% of the results obtained are in accord with the general respondents agree or strongly agree to the psychological tendency of retailers around the current pedestrian timings and required no world. In other places of pedestrianisation there change in them (darkened portion of Figure 6). are records showing that initially there was a “ A perfect and classic proj ect ” replied a retailer, protest after while another said “ …com m ercial areas can implementing there were requests from other benefit wit h t his proj ect . My sales increased….” businessmen to implement the project in their While 13% of the respondents reported that areas. The number of retailers who still disagree they disagreed to the current timing, (among with the project (10%) is related to the kind of whom 5% disagreed or strongly disagreed with business they hold. In the case of travel agents, the timings and recommended an increase of the project might not be effective as the the timings to be longer), the rest of the 8% customer evaluates the quality of service the disagreed agents provide rather than the accessibility to recommended a decrease in the current timings; the agency itself. “ very hard t o walk on t he st reet against t hink the no project but dist ance, or should strongly reduce disagreed t im ings for and for long visit ors convenience.” replied a guest house owner. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 44 Figure 6: Opinion on the current pedestrian timings The respondents were also questioned on their proclivity towards further pedestrianising the street and implementing other traffic calming measures. Forty-four percent responded that they will not participate while 41% (Figure 7) showed support for the retailer said “ Sure m y improvement. support One is t here, it increases t he sales and also wide variet y of t hings t o buy” (Plate 4). As with every project there were also people (15%) who said they will oppose the idea, “ I will not suppor t it if t he garbage condit ion is wor se like now ….” said a retailer. The opposition can be reduced with proper awareness among the stakeholders. Figure 7: Stance on further pedestrianisation Con clu sion Earlier studies found that the implementation of traffic calming measures, including pedestrianisation, will reduce traffic speeds and accidents and thus make the streets safer and more pleasant places to be. The current study, conducted in Khao San Rd, Bangkok, Thailand, has shown that traffic calming can also have a positive economic benefit for the retailing and commercial community by increasing sales volumes. Furthermore, as indicated by increased property/rental values and business activity as well as by the preference of consumers as expressed in surveys, the liveability of the area is also improved. The current study also found that retailers were positively inclined towards further pedestrianisation in the area. It is also suggested that while implementing the project, sufficient care must be taken in providing enough garbage disposal facilities and efficient collection measures so that as visitor numbers increase the appeal of the road will not be diminished by litter. World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 45 This study has shown that the argument often put forward by retailers that their customers need car access (presumably in order to carry the goods home), is simply not correct. While retailers in Khao San Rd were initially sceptical of the pedestrianisation project, few were opposed to extending the project once they had experienced its benefits. In a city as dominated by cars as Bangkok, Khao San Rd has become an oasis for both foreigners and Thai people seeking refuge from the noise, dangers and pollution of cars. Re fe r e n ce s Cent res Appleyard D, 1981, Liveable St reet s, University Ent ert ainm ent of California Press, Berkeley, , , fr om Shopping to Ur ban Presented Cent res, at Walking the 21st Century Conference in Colin Buchanan and Partners, 2001, Kensingt on High St reet St udy, Colin Buchanan and Partners, London Perth WA, pp. 44 -54 Monheim R, 1992, The im port ance of accessibilit y for downt own ret ail and it s Drennen E., 2003, Econom ic Effect s of Traffic percept ion by ret ailers and cust om ers, Businesses, The attraction of retail locations, IGU- Department of Public Administration, San Symposium, Vol. I, Kallmünz/Regensburg: Francisco Verlag M. Laßleben. 19- 46 Calm ing on Sm all urban University, December 2003, Masters Thesis, Newman P and Kenworthy J, 1989, Cit ies and Galway Cycling Campaign, 1999, /Area Wide Traffic Calming,/ Galway Campaign -Feachtas Gaillimhe, April, Cycling Rothaiochta 1999. Available na at: Aut om obile Dependence: An I nt ernat ional sourcebook, Gower, Aldershot Newman P and Kenworthy Sust ainabilit y and http://www.eirbyte.com/gcc/info/calming. Aut om obile html#_edn1 Washingt on DC Hass-Klau C, 1993, I m pact of Pedest r ianisat ion and Traffic Calm ing on Ret ailing: A Review of t he evidence from Germ any and UK, Transportation Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 21-31 Bangkok: An I nt ernat ional wit h I m plicat ions for Com parison Planning Policies, World Transport Policy and Practice, Earth Scan, London and Scope for it s Applicat ion in Bangkok, Paper and Poster presented at the Road for Four Continents (RS4C) Conference, Warsaw, Poland, 5-7 October, 2005 Pr ess, 1990’s, OECD, Paris OECD, 1978, Results of a Questionnaire Survey on Pedestrian Zones in Paris, OECD, Paris Towards Bangkok’s Thesis, a Sust ainable Transport Murdoch Solut ion Problem s, University, to PhD Perth, Western Australia A, 1980, Cont radict ions Rem arkable of t he Cit ies: Recent Urban Environm ent , Croom Helm, London Roberts J, 1981, Pedest rian precinct s in Brit ain, Transport and Environmental Studies, London Ross W, 1999, Personal m obilit y or com m unit y Kumar K.S, 2006, Ret ailers, Pedest rianisat ion Khao San Road, Masters Thesis, Mahidol University, Thailand Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Canada R, 2001, The Role accessibilit y: a planning choice wit h social econom ic and environm ent al consequences, PhD Thesis, Institute of Litman T, 2004, Econom ic Value of Walkabilit y, Monheim Overcom ing I sland OECD, 1990, Environm ent al Policies for cit ies in Ravetz Kumar K.S, 2005, Benefit s of Traffic Calm ing and Cit ies: Dependence, 1999, Poboon C, 1997, Anat om y of a Traffic Disast er: Kenworthy J, 2003, Aut om obile Dependency in Safety J, of Pedest r ian Sustainability Murdoch and University, Technology Western Policy, Australia, Australia Precinct s in t he Evolut ion of Germ an Cit y World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 46 Schlabbach K, 1997, Traffic Calm ing in Europe, Smart Growth Program, US Environmental ITE Journal, July, 1997. Available at: Protection http://www.ite.org/traffic/documents/JGA http://www.epa.gov/dced/ 97A38.pdf CharPerm_RTS.htm, Retrieved on June Sermons and Traveller Seredich, 2001, Responsiveness to Assessing Land and Agency Available at 17th, 2005 Whitelegg J, 1993, Transport for sust ainable The case of Europe. Belhaven Locat ion based Accessibilit y and Mobilit y fut ure: solut ions, Transportation Research Part D: Press, London Transport and Environment, Vol.6, Issue. 6, pp. 417-428 Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : USEPA, 2004, Charact erist ics and Perform ance of Regional Transport at ion su n n ysa n t hosh @gm a il.com Syst em s, World Transport Policy & Practice________________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 47 Questionnaire for studying the impact of pedestrianisation on the business owners in Khao San Road Date of Interview : ___________________ Business Type: FS/SH/GH/TA (FS: Food stall, SH: Ordinary Shop, GH Guest House, TA travel agency) Number of years doing the business in KSR: ________________ 1. What was your opinion when the project was proposed? Did you think there will be an impact on the business because of pedestrianisation: Yes / No Please explain ___________________________________________________ 2. What were the opinions of your co-businessmen in Khao San Road about pedestrianisation at the time of implementation? _________________ 3. In your opinion do you feel that the footpath shops are an obstacle for your business: Yes / No / Does not concern 4. Do you derive any benefit from the footpath shops: Yes / No. Please explain ___________________________________________ Effe ct on Econ om ic Va r ia ble s 5. What is your opinion on the following after applying pedestrianisation? Increase Reduce i. ii. Change is sales volumes □ Change in the rental/property values No Change □ □ □ □ □ 6. When was the last time that your rent was revised? ___________ (Increased/Decreased) 7. What is your opinion on the current pedestrian timings in Khao San Road? □ Strongly Agree □ Agree □ Indifferent □ Disagree (Increase / Decrease) □ Strongly Disagree (Increase / Decrease) 8. What role will you play if more pedestrian friendly measures are implemented in Khao San Road and the nearby areas? □ Support □ Protest □ will not participate 9. What will be your recommendation to other commercial areas in Bangkok in regard to pedestrianisation? ______________________________________________ 10. Any other comments or suggestions: World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 48 Cyclin g for a ct ive t r a n spor t a n d r e cr e a t ion in Au st r a lia : Status review and future directions Risse l C, Ga r r a r d J In Australian proportion trips capitals, taken by the bicycle ranges from one to five per cent, while I n t r odu ct ion An of state important priority for 21st health proportion of Australians owning bicycles ranges from 30-65 per cent increasing the levels of physical activity (Australian Bicycle Council, 2004). In for whole populations. Physical inactivity many European cities the proportion of is the second (after tobacco smoking) trips taken by bicycle is over 25 per cent most important behavioural cause of ill- of all trips (ADONIS, 1998). Over half health in society (AIHW, 1999). The (55%) of car trips in Sydney and other majority of adult Australians are not capitals are less than five kilometres and physically 33 in the active century the is promotion at the level per cent are less than three recommended to achieve health benefits kilometres (AIHW, 2004). Physical inactivity is a Transport, 1995), distances considered major easily amenable to cycling. modifiable cardiovascular risk factor of While risk examples of policy and practice that have factors such as type II diabetes, total contributed to increases in levels of blood-cholesterol cycling affects (CVD) Department and independently disease for (NSW other level, CVD obesity and there are (Pucher many and European Dijkstra, 2003), hypertension (USDHH, 1999; Bauman there is very little Australian research to and Owen 1998). provide evidence to policy makers on The energy expenditure to achieve effective interventions to promote population level increases in physical cycling. The purpose of this paper is to activity review all the published and as much of levels sustained routines. if is most likely incorporated Therefore, the into to be daily concept of the unpublished literature that ‘grey’ could Australian be found that ‘active transport’ is an important one. addresses the promotion of cycling, and The term ‘active transport’ relates to that has an evaluation component that physical activity undertaken as a means allows of transport (Davis, 1999). This includes interventions or factors that influence travel by foot, bicycle and other non- population levels of cycling. motorised vehicles (Mason, the identification of effective 2000). Among the three major active transport M e t h od modes (ie public transport, walking and The cycling), cycling is currently the least PUBMED, and APAIS were searched for used in Australia, although all three have the years 1995-2005 using the terms the potential for substantial increases “cycling”, “cyclist”, “cycl*” and “bicycles”. (Austroads, 2005). The Google internet search engine was electronic data-bases MEDLINE, World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 49 used to help locate possible reports or Cyclin g pr e va le n ce in Au st r a lia papers that described the evaluation of Limited data on cycling prevalence in interventions to promote cycling. Further, Australia are available from the national the census authors Australian persons cycling contacted cycling active in in all major organisations the promotion years), transport or surveys, and special purpose studies. of Data have been collected in the transport, health, sport, recreation and unpublished evaluation reports of cycling tourism sectors, often using inconsistent promotion programs. measures. This review focuses on data Papers or reports that focused on the related health benefits of cycling were excluded, recreation. as this has been internationally well separately, though in some studies no researched with unequivocal results of distinction is made between these two the positive health benefits (see for forms of cycling. papers to five identify example Australia (every or articles to cycling These for transport are and described by Paffenberger et al (1986), Roberts et al Cyclin g a s a m e a n s of t r a n spor t (1996), Anderson et al (2000), Hu et al Unlike other modes of transport, data on (2003), cycling as a means of transport is poor. and Steindorf et al 2003)). Papers dealing with the use of bicycle National helmets and injury issues were also available for journey to work only, which excluded, even though the mandatory represents travel on only one day in the wearing of helmets in Australia may middle of the Australian winter. Travel adversely influence population frequency surveys that include all forms of cycling of cycling (Jacobsen, 2003; Robinson, for transport have been conducted in a 2005) by acting as a general, albeit small limited number of Australian states, cities deterrent to everyday or casual cycling. or regions. While safety concerns directly impact on are available. population levels of cycling, the injury In prevention literature is distinct from that Population of cycling promotion, and is not included employed persons aged 15 years and in this review. over travelled to work by bicycle (Bell, Physiological focused papers on athletic Garrard and Swinbourne, in press). There performance represented more than half was a marked gender difference, with of 0.40% the articles literature retrieved search. from However, the articles the population data are No consistent national data 2001 of census Australian Census of Housing, 0.94% of and women cycling to work, compared with 1.39% of men (Bell, dealing with competitive sport and elite Garrard cycling were also excluded, as this area Cycling prevalence was highest in the of Northern Territory for men (4.19%) and cycling is quite specialised and and Swinbourne, in press). restricted to a relatively small proportion women of the population. There is much greater Australian Capital Territory (2.70% and potential 0.96% respectively). Cycling prevalence participation for in population-wide cycling and (2.37%), followed by the physical was highest in the youngest age groups activity through a focus on cycling for (15-24 years and 25-34 years) and transport and recreation. declined thereafter with age, except for a small increase in the 75 and older age group). Cycling prevalence declined for World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 50 men (from 1.45% to 1.39%) from 1996 made on weekends than on weekdays. to 2001 and increased marginally for The majority of bicycle trips are up to 1 women (0.37% to 0.40%). km in length (36%) and nearly 90% of The 1996 and 2001 were bicycle trips are 5 km or less. Cycling to collected on a single day in August (the work accounts for the highest proportion middle of the Australian winter). Wet of all bicycle trips (14%). It should be weather and limited daylight hours can noted that the VATS survey data include adversely influence a person’s decision to bicycle trips undertaken for recreational cycle to work. The Victorian Activity and purposes. Travel Survey for the period 1997 to In a survey of physical activity levels of 1999 indicated up to 30% more cycling South Australian adults conducted in trips 2004 undertaken in censuses autumn than in by winter (VicRoads, 2004). Therefore, the Department above the South of Australian Health, 8.5% of data respondents reported cycling at least underestimates the yearly prevalence of once a week (Gill and Taylor, 2005). cycling to work in Australia. Almost The Victorian Activity and Travel Survey respondents had cycled for at least 10 (VATS) is an example of a survey that minutes for recreation only in the past measures all travel by all modes by all week, 1.6% had cycled for transport people only, and 1.4% for both recreation and cycling in the prevalence surveyed households five per cent (4.8%) of (McGinley, 2003). While it records all transport. bicycle trips (and not just journey to In metropolitan Sydney in 1998, one work), the sample of 14,874 households percent with everyday, 30,464 household occupants of the population which represents cycles 91,000 (comprising 770 individuals, 2.52%, who bicycle trips each week day (Transport reported their Data Centre, 2003). However, there are allocated travel day) is drawn only from using a bicycle marked regional differences, with some metropolitan inner Melbourne. on This does Sydney areas seeing 2-3% of suggest that the prevalence of cycling is journeys to work, and outer suburbs higher in urban areas compared with seeing less that 1% (Telfer and Rissel, rural areas. 2003). There has been a 64% increase in For the data collection period 1997 to cycling to work in the inner Sydney areas 1999 in the VATS, approximately 75% of between the 1996 and 2001 censuses cyclists are male, and 49% are less than (Telfer, 2003). In 1998, the majority of 20 years old (mainly in the 10-20 years Sydney age group). On average, 1.2% of all trips (Transport Data Centre, 2003). riders (58%) were male in Melbourne are by bicycle, more than by bus (1%) or tram (1%). The average Cyclin g for r e cr e a t ion number of bicycle trips is 0.07 trips per Annual person per day, although this varies by Australians aged 15 years and over in locality, exercise, recreation and sport have been with cycling for transport surveys by of conducted Melbourne to 1.3% in the inner suburbs Commission to 1.0% in the outer suburbs to 0.9% in (Australian Sports Commission 2005). outer metropolitan regions of Melbourne. Cycling, A higher percentage of bicycle trips are 10.5% in 2004, is the fourth most from a Australian of decreasing from 3.7% of trips in central with the participation 2001 to participation Sports 2004 rate World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 of 51 popular activity after walking (39%), different aerobics/fitness (17.1%) and swimming Crawford, 2005). This could reflect age (16.5%). cycling differences in frequency of cycling (most increased by 15.3% from 2001 to 2004 event participants train in preparation for (Australian Sports Commission 2005). rides and are therefore likely to cycle Participation in more age than ranges once a (Garrard year); and real age Pa r t icipa t ion in r e cr e a t ion a l cyclin g differences in participation in organised e ve n t s events State-based bicycle advocacy compared with recreational cycling, or the possibility of differences organisations conduct a range of single- between day rides and multi-day bicycle tours. Australia. Analysis of the ride participant database Statistics journey to work data indicates of the largest and most active of these that organisations, Bicycle census reveals there Victoria (BV), the rest of cycling for data) transport has high (national levels of participation among people aged 15-24 participants in eight BV-organised rides years that is similar to that of people and tours from 1994 to 2004 (Garrard aged 25-34 years, and shows a similar Crawford, were and The Australian Bureau of 208,244 and that Victoria 2005). 26 Overall, decline with age as for recreational participation in BV rides increased by an cycling (Bell, Garrard and Swinbourne, in average of 10.8% per annum from 1994 press). to 2004, with much of this increase There are substantial gender differences occurring between 2001 and 2004. in cycling in Australia. The female rate of Gender shorter Australian commuter cycling is less than distance recreational cycling events are one third that of the male rate, and generally not as great as for cycling for similar transport, averaging about 30% across recreational cycling (Garrard, 2003). In all rides. The longer recreational cycling contrast, in several western European events attract relatively fewer female countries commuting cycling rates are participants, with the 210 km Victorian high, and women cycle more frequently ‘Around the Bay in a Day’ ride comprising than men (Garrard, 2003). In Australia, 12% females (Garrard and Crawford, women cycle shorter distances than men 2005). and differences in the gender have a differences stronger occur preference for for cycling on bicycle paths, which provide I n flu e n ce s on cyclin g separation from motor vehicles (Garrard Demographic influences on cycling in et al, personal communication). Female Australia cyclists’ income distribution is similar to economic include age, status and gender, location. socioThe the general Victorian population, but highest level of recreational cycling (at male cyclists are more likely to be in least once in the past year) occurs in lower and higher income groups (Garrard those aged 25-34 years, and declines et al, personal communication). steadily with older age (Australian Bicycle Council, 2004). The age distribution of Ba r r ie r s t o cyclin g participants in cycling events organised Of the approximately 40-50 per cent of by Bicycle Victoria shows a slightly older the age distribution though comparisons are access to a bicycle and are healthy made more difficult due to the use of enough to ride one, and looking at those Australian population that World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 have 52 trips where using a bicycle is feasible, and yet may also be a motivating factor. there are different influences on cycling For example, for a non-cyclist getting dependent on individual current cycling fit/healthy can be a significant reason to behaviour. For example, for persons not start riding, but at the same time the currently riding a bike, or not having lack of fitness can make starting to ride done so for several years, then the an effort and the perception that cycling barriers and motivations to cycle are takes great effort serves as a barrier. different compared with someone who is Safety concerns, often arising from the a current recreational rider, or a regular speed and volume of traffic and not cycle commuter. It is worth identifying having designated space for people riding three non-riders, bicycles, and aggressive driving has been occasional riders, and then commuter consistently identified as deterrents to cyclist and regular recreational riders. regular cycling (Greig, 2001). It is worth There main groups here: people noting that concerns about safety are involved in competitive cycling, such as higher among non-cyclists than regular road-racing or technical mountain bike riders (Rissel et al, 2002), with non- riding, and touring cyclists, but these cyclists consistently overestimating the people level of risk involved. People with varying are other have groups separate of and specific levels barriers and motivations. The following table considers those of traffic cycling safety experience differently. perceive Based on factors that influence people who cycle qualitative research with women, Garrard for recreation and for transport. These (2003) suggests that this it is more to do influences are grouped by whether they with skills, self-confidence, experience are and individual, economic factors, social, and cultural or environmental factors. Sometimes the same variable route familiarity increase, traffic – when safety these concerns decrease. can have one dimension that is a barrier, Ta ble 1 : I n flu e n ce s on cyclin g Influences Individual factors Includes Specific factors Recreation Transport Age, gender, health status, Age, gender, health status, SES distance, SES Personal: Health, fitness, other people, Cost, motivation/initiation campaigns, fitness, Demographic events, convenience, incentives, information, skills, resources, environmental challenge, other social people, encouragement, support to address address time availability safety concerns, health, concerns, support safety to concerns, time availability/priority Fun, Personal: maintenance enjoyment, self- efficacy, achieve cycling Above, plus, establishing a goals, acquire skills, routine that works (eg safe World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 53 experience, community links route, carrying things, (eg cycling groups) change Sense of control over safety security), sense of control facilities, bike over safety Social/ cultural/ economic factors Family/social ‘time together’ Normative Values behaviour (eg encouraging Driver behaviour children to be active) Cost (relatively transport low, but requires bike and helmet) ‘Invisible infrastructure’ (eg traffic calming) Cost and convenience alternatives (eg cost of of petrol) Population density Destinations of interest Environmental Natural environment Easy factors access to pleasant Weather, geography surroundings, geography Built environment Cycling facilities (off-road paths), amenities On and off-road paths, urban design, end-of-trip facilities Greig (2001) identified a number of bicycle owners living 1.5 kilometres from predisposing the path (Merom et al, 2003). factors that negatively impact on cycling. These are important to identify, in order that strategies can be Au st r a lia n I n t e r ve n t ion s t o pr om ot e developed cyclin g that address them. These negative predisposing factors are the Seventeen Australian programs with a belief that cycling is dangerous, the component to increase cycling published perception that great effort is required, since the component have been included in Table reaction to compulsory helmet 1995 with an evaluation not 2 below. The program title and first being aware of improved cycle ways, or author and year of publication is given, the perception that cycling is something followed by a brief summary of the main you do before you start driving. The strategies used and results found. An fitness image of cyclists (for example, assessment of the level of evidence athletes or wearing lycra) can also be a provided by barrier to those people who do not according to the following hierarchy of currently cycle. evidence: wearing, limited secure storage, I the evaluation is given Evidence obtained from a of all The degree of effort required to get to a systematic cycle path is also related to whether a randomised control trials (RCT) cycle path is used. In a study in Western Sydney, those people who owned a II review Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed RCT bicycle and were living close to a cycle path were more likely to use it than World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 54 III-1 Evidence obtained well- data (Petticrew et al, 2005). allocation or some other method) There obtained certainly more programs seeking to promote cycling in Australia with than are reported here, although many of concurrent controls and allocation these are not being formally evaluated or not randomised (cohort studies), the results of evaluations that have been Case control studies or interrupted conducted have not been documented, or time series with a control group the documentation of these evaluations III-3 studies Evidence obtained from are not readily accessible to external comparative studies with historical agencies. The level of evidence of the control, two or more single arm effectiveness of the various strategies to studies or interrupted time series promote cycling provided by the available without a parallel control group published reports consistent with Evidence obtained from case series, either post-test or pre test and post test This hierarchy of study designs evidence”) is used by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, 2000) to indicate the increasing potential for bias in those studies on lower levels, and therefore the greater reliance on the conclusions from those higher rated studies. However, it is also important to recognise that this hierarchy disadvantages research study designs where the subject communities, of policies, interest or local phenomenon. It is very expensive to allocate government areas control conditions whole to local treatment and and community interventions are relatively rare in the health literature. It is also important to note that in some public health settings it may only be feasible, or politically and/or ethically acceptable conduct (Rychetnik Evaluation observational and Frommer, opportunities that relatively low, international this is more a of reflection the of the traditional bio- medical evidence hierarchy in assessing the types of interventions needed to promote cycling in a variety of settings. Almost all promotion shown of the program some degree identified cycling evaluations of have increase in cycling, suggesting that if they were to be implemented on a wider scale and with adequate resources they would lead to increases in population levels of regular cycling. is governments or other complex social randomly is previous reviews (Ogilvie et al, 2004). However, inadequacies (commonly referred to as “levels of to are from comparative public provide relevant and useful ‘real life’ designed pseudo-RCT (alternative III-2 Evidence IV from studies 2004). arise through policy or infrastructure changes D iscu ssion This review has highlighted the relatively low level of regular cycling for transport in Australia, and the marked gender disparity of riders. However, cycling is a very popular recreational activity (fourth most popular nationally), suggesting that under favourable conditions some of these riders could substitute short car trips for bicycle trips. This review has also highlighted the variety of personal, social and environmental influences on cycling, which are more or less influential depending on where on the continuum of cycling development a person might be. can create natural experiments that can World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 55 Canberra at 65 per cent (Australian Ach ie va ble cyclin g t a r ge t s In thinking about the factors that Bicycle Council, 2004). influence people to ride a bicycle, it is important to remember that even in those European cities where cycling is a Re com m e n da t ion s for r e se a r ch a n d common mode of transport, the highest pr a ct ice proportion of trips by bicycle is around This review has highlighted the relative 45 per cent of all trips (Anderson 2005). paucity There are some circumstances where studies concerned with the promotion of using a bicycle is not an option. First, cycling. Given the lack of evaluation there is a time/distance barrier for a data, there are many aspects of cycling journey, beyond which it is not an option that require research and evaluation. The to use a bicycle. While this point will vary main areas of work identified in our depending review are summarised below, but these on the level of cycling enthusiasm, between 30-60 minutes is a of research and evaluation are not intended to be comprehensive. general limit for the majority of the • population. Implement and evaluate advocacy Second, certain commitments will impact strategies on the ability to use a bicycle. For commitment example, carrying heavy or bulky items cycling, and increase the profile of reduces the feasibility of cycling, as do everyday cycling among policy and other choices, such as walking to school with a child or taking an elderly relative to increase political will support and to decision makers; • Regular and systematic national and shopping which then intrudes on the state time/distance barrier. frequency and prevalence, such as Third, a certain proportion (10%) of the outlined in the Cycling Data and population will be physically unable to Indicator ride Bicycle Council, 2000); a bike because of a physical disability – between 5.2% (severe or profound core activity of Guidelines Document/evaluate cycling (Australian the effects of to ‘invisible’ infrastructure on cycling 15.3% (one or more activity limitations prevalence and safety, such as lower or speed limits and traffic calming; restrictions restriction) • assessment or participation restrictions), and this increases in older populations(AIHW, physical fitness 2003). or even Lack which reduces Document/evaluate the effects of offand on-road cycling infrastructure, of and its promotion; adequate physical activity affects almost half the population, • • Better access understanding the to of documents the / individual, time/distance able to be cycled. normative, and social factors that Finally, not having access to a bicycle is a facilitate or hinder cycling; critical determinant of cycling behaviour. • Better understanding and Approximately 40 per cent (39%) of documentation of the role of ‘road Sydney households have access to a rage’, bicycle (Transport Data Centre, 2003). ‘safety with Sydney having the lowest level of prevalence; bicycle ownership in Australia at 29 per cent, compared with bicycle ownership in • poor Research driver concerns’ to behaviour on explore and cycling whether increases in cycling leads to overall World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 56 increases • • in levels of physical subst it ut ion of short car t rips by cycling activity; and Clearinghouse role for the Australian Communities, 1998. Bicycle Anderson LB, Schnohr P, Schroll M, Hein Council (or similar) for European reports on cycling and evaluations of HO. strategies to promote cycling; and with physical activity during leisure Bicycle advocates/researchers need time, work, sports and cycling to to work. Archives of I nt ernal Medicine document better the effective From the published evaluation studies located, it is clear that there are very few high quality Australian evaluations as by biomedical research standards, although the number of such reports and publications have increased substantially in the last five years. Despite this lack of evidence, there has been a small but sustained increase in the prevalence of cycling over recent years, particularly in the inner state capital city areas. There are many examples of small projects that have increased cycling, conditions for examples from absence of or improved cycling, and other control the many countries. groups is The not necessarily an evaluation limitation, as the prevailing cycling trends are declines no change. The best available evidence indicates that the investment in cycling infrastructure AND promotion successfully encourages cycling. It is also clear from data on frequency of recreational cycling that a great many people want to ride bicycles. However, despite the multiple benefits of cycling across many sectors, political support and financial commitment to cycling are required to increase the prevalence of cycling. developm ent associated Cycle city. ‘Connect ing Cycling- Planning for Healt hy Federat ion Com m unit ies, of Bicycle Aust ralia bi- annual Conference,’ Brisbane October 5-8, 2005. Ashley B, Rissel C. Monit oring of cycling and act ive t ransport in t he Hawt horne Canal cat chm ent . HCAT Technical Report No.1 / 04, November 2004. Ashton-Graham C, John G, James B, Brög W, Grey-Smith H. Increasing cycling through 'soft' measures (TravelSmart) Perth, Western Australia. In: McClintock H, editor. Planning for cycling: principles, pract ice and solut ions for urban planners. Cambridge: Woodhead, Department for 2002. Planning and Infrastructure. Travel behaviour change program for t he cit y of Sout h Pert h under t he TravelSm art progr am : t echnical appendix. Perth: Government of Western Australia, 2003. Australian Cycling- Bicycle Bicycle Council. Aust ralia ownership, use and dem ographics ( draft ) . July 2004. Australian Bicycle Council. Cycling Data and Indicator Guidelines. Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care, 2000. Australian Institute of Welfare. Aust ralia’s Healt h nint h biennial Aust ralian healt h I nst it ut e Health 2004: r eport of of Healt h and t he t he and Welfare. Canberra: AIHW, 2004. Re fe r e n ce s ADONIS mortality Anderson T. Odense-Denmark’s National Con clu sion s defined All-cause 2000; 160: 1621-1628. strategies for promoting cycling. or Italy: walking. Project. of Analysis new insight and int o Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Disabilit y prevalence and t rends. World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 57 Canberra: AIHW, 2003. AIHW Cat no. Davis A. Act ive t ransport : a guide t o t he DIS34. developm ent Australian Institute of Health and of local init iat ives to prom ot e walking and cycling. London: Welfare: Mathers C, Vost T, Stevenson C. UK: Health Education Authority, 1999. The burden of disease and inj ury in Garrard J, Crawford S. Bicycle Vict oria – AIHW Aust ralia. Cat. No. PHE 17. part icipat ion in cycling event s 1994- Canberra: AIHW, 1999. 2004. Unpublished report. Melbourne: Australian Sports Commission. Exercise, Deakin University, 2005. Recreation and Sport Survey (ERASS). Garrard J, Rose G, Sing KL, Barton A. Canberra: Australian Sports Commission, Commuter 2005. Australia: are females more likely than (www.ausport.gov.au/scorsresearch/eras males s2003.asp.) separation from motor vehicle traffic? Austroads. Cycling The St rat egy cycling to use in routes Melbourne, with greater Aust ralian Nat ional (Personal Communication, March 2006) 2005- 2010. Sydney: Garrard J. Healthy revolutions: Austroads, Department of Transport and promoting cycling among women. Healt h Regional Services, 2005. Prom ot ion Journal of 2003; Aust ralia Baker S. Evaluat ion of t he Com m unit y 14(3):213-5. and Gill T, Taylor A. Physical act ivit y in Sout h Road Educat ion Schem e ( CARES facilit y) , Sydney Park. Sydney: City of Aust ralian Sydney, 2005. Australian Department of Health, 2005. Adelaide: adult s. South Bauman A, Owen N. Physical activity of Greig R. Cycling promotion in Western adults Australians: Australia. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of evidence and epidemiological potential strategies for health gain. Journal of Science, Medicine Aust ralia 2001; 12(3):250-3. Hu G, Qiao Q, Silventoinen K, Eriksson and Sport 1999;2:30-41. JG, Jousilahti P, LindstronJ, Valle TT, Bell C, Garrard J, Swinburn B. Active Nissinen transport to work in Australia: is it all Occupational commuting and leisure- downhill from here? Asia- Pacific Jour nal time physical activity in relation to of Public Healt h, (in press). risk for Type 2 diabetes in middle- Bicycle Victoria. aged Cycle I nst ead Vict or ian Pilot : final r eport . 2004. (http://www.bv.com.au/file/cycle_instea d_final_report_general.pdf, accessed 14 March 2006). Bicycle bicycle Victoria. Australia’s thoroughfare. BV busiest News June 2003. p. 10. Cooper B, Meiklejohn D. A new approach for travel Universities. behaviour Proceedings change of t he in 26 t h Aust ralasian Transport Research Forum , Wellington, New Zealand, 1-3 October, Toumilehto Finnish men and J. women. Diabet ologia 2003: 46(3): 322-329. Melbourne: Bicycle Victoria, A, Jacobsen PL. Safety in numbers: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling. I nj ury Prevent ion 2003; 9: 205-209. James B. Walking and cycling more: the TravelSmart evidence. Paper presented at the 14 t h Annual Aust ralian Healt h Prom ot ion Associat ion Conference ‘Made in t he Fut ure’, Sydney, 17-20 June, 2002. Kuiper G. The Cycling in t he Cit y Proj ect : City of World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 58 2003. sum m ary report . Sydney: Sydney, May 2005. Marfut H, Rose G, Meikeljohn D, Wills S, Sparks Barber H. Ride to work and beyond! underused tool for public health. Public Maximising Healt h the behaviour change L. Natural experiments: 2005; 119: an 751-757. impacts of an active transport event. Carlin JB. Taylor P. Nolan T. School Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport based 2005; 8(4): bicycle safety education and s219. bicycle injuries in children: a case-control Marshall G. Promoting cycling for health study. I nj ury Prevent ion 1998; 4(1):22- and fitness. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of 7. Aust ralia 2001; 12(3):258-60. Pucher J, Dijkstra L. Promoting safe Mason C. Healthy people, places and walking and cycling to improve public transport. Healt h Prom ot ion Journal of health: lessons from the Netherlands and Aust ralia 2000; 10(3): 190-196. Germany. Am erican McGinley F. Cycling in Melbourne 1997 – Healt h 2003; 93(9): 1509-1516. 1999: Final r eport t o VicRoads based on Rissel C, Campbell F, Ashley B, Jackson dat a from t he Vict orian Act ivit y & Travel L. Driver knowledge of road rules and Survey ( VATS) 1997-1999. Melbourne: attitudes Transport Journal of Prim ary Healt h 2002; 8(2): Research Centre, RMIT Journal towards cyclists. of Public Aust ralian University, 2003. 66-69. Merom D, Bauman, Vita P, Close G. An Roberts I, Owen H, Lumb P, MacDougall environmental intervention to promote C. Pedalling healt h: healt h benefit s of a walking and cycling-the impact of a m odal newly constructed Rail Trail in Western University of Adelaide, 1996. Sydney. Robinson Prevent ive 2003; Medicine shift . t ransport DL. Safety in Adelaide: numbers in 36(2): 235-242. Australia: more walkers and bicyclists, National Health and Medical Research safer Council. Prom ot ion How to review evidence: syst em at ic ident ificat ion and review of t he scient ific Canberra: lit erat ure. AusInfo, 2000. NSW walking Department of Transport. St r at egy for t he Great er Region. Met ropolit an Sydney, Journal bicycling. of Healt h 2005; Aust ralia 16(1): 47-51. Rose G, Ampt E. Travel blending: an Australian I nt egrat ed Transport and travel awareness initiative. Transport Res D 2001; 6: 95-110. Rychetnik L, Frommer M. A schem a for evaluat ing evidence on public healt h 1995. int ervent ions – Version 4. Melbourne, Ogilvie D, Egan M, Hamilton V, Petticrew National Public Health Partnership, 2004. M. Promoting walking and cycling as an Steindorf K, Schmidt M, Kropp S, Chang- alternative to using cars: systematic review. BMJ; Claude J. Case-control study of physical activity and breast cancer doi:10.1136/bmj.38216.714560.55 risk among premenopausal women in (published 22 September 2004). Germany. Paffenbarger RS, Hyde RT, Wing AL, Epidem iology 2003; 157(2): 121-130. Hsieh CC. mortality, Physical and activity, longevity all-cause of college alumni. N Engl J Med 1986;314(10): 605-13. Petticrew M, Cummins S, Ferrell C, Am erican Journal of Telfer B, Rissel C, Bindon J, Bosch T. Encouraging cycling cycling proficiency through training a pilot program among adults in central Sydney. Journal Findlay Z, Higgins C, Hoy C, Kearns A, World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 59 of Science and Medicine in Sport (in m Last updated November 17, 1999. press). Accessed October 15, 2003. Telfer B, Rissel C. Cycling t o work in VicRoads. Sydney: ownership, use and dem ographics 1997- Census analysis dat a of from j ourney- t o- work 1996 and 2001. Cycling in Melbourne: bicycle 1999. Melbourne: VicRoads, 2004. Area Wen LM, Orr N, Bindon J, Rissel C. Health Service, Health Promotion Unit, Promoting active transport in a workplace September 2003. setting: evaluation of a pilot study in Telfer B. Increase in cycling to work in Australia. Healt h Prom ot ion I nt ernat ional Sydney: 2005; 20(2): 123-133. Camperdown: Central analysis of Sydney journey-to-work Census data from 1996 and 2001. Healt h Zaccari V. Big Bike Day 2000 – 2004. 2003; Leichhardt: Leichhardt Municipal Council. Prom ot ion Journal of Aust ralia 2004. 14(3): 222-224. Transport Data Centre. Cycling in Sydney- Bicycle ownership and use. Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : Transport Data Centre, RTA, 2003. Chris Rissel USDHHS. Physical activity and health- a report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/sgr.ht Health Promotion Service Level 9 (north), King George V Missenden Road, Camperdown NSW 2050, Australia. Phone: (02) 9515-9055 Fax: (02) 9515-9056 Email: criss@email.cs.nsw.gov.au World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 60 Ta ble 2 : Au st r a lia n in t e r ve n t ion s t o pr om ot e cyclin g by se t t in g a n d in t e r ve n t ion t ype I n t e r ve n t ion t ype Se t t in g/ popu la t ion Edu ca t ion / sk ills Sch ool Bike Education program ( Carlin, Taylor and Nolan, 1998) Strategy: School based curriculum program with skills component. Results: Increase in injuries in the intervention group Evidence level: III-2 Unive r sit y W or k pla ce Com m un it y- w ide Adult skills group ( Telfer et al, in press) Strategy: 6 hours of group instruction, mostly learning cycling skills and ride practice Results: An 40% increase in weekly cycling time among those not-riding at baseline Evidence level: III-3 Monash Travel Smart ( Cooper and Meiklej ohn, 2003) Strategies: Travel behaviour change media promotion among students Results: Observed increases in cycling Evidence level: III-3 Health workforce intervention ( Wen et al, 2005) Strategies: Individual travel behaviour change interviews with a cohort of staff, plus general social marketing strategies Results: Reduced car use, but no change in cycling level Evidence level: III-3 Adelaide project (Rose and Ampt, 2001) Strategies: individual action program, known as Travel Blending®, involves participating households being sent a series of four kits, containing information booklets and travel diaries, over a nineweek period Results: a 10% reduction in car driver kilometres Evidence level: III-3 Event series data analysis ( Garrard and Crawford, 2005) Strategies: Secondary data analysis Results: Increase in event participation over time CARES program ( Baker , 2005) Strategy: Purpose built training venue for skills development, plus classroom component Results: Decrease in injuries in intervention group (12% v 22%) Evidence level: III-2 Socia l m a r k e t in g/ be h a viou r ch a n ge Ride to Work Day ( Marfut et al, 2005) Strategies: Ride to work event advertised widely through workplaces Results: 13% rode to work for World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 61 the first time, and a quarter of these people were still riding to work five months later Evidence level: III-3 Hawthorne Canal Project ( Ashley and Rissel, 2004) Strategies: Distribution and promotion of local cycling map illustrating key connections, plus organised community rides Results: Bicycle counters indicated an increase in use of highlighted route Evidence level: III-3 Bike event days ( Zaccar i, 2004) Strategies: Bike days organised by local council, including a family ride Results: Similar level of participation each year Evidence level: IV Cycle monitoring in Victoria ( Bicycle Vict oria, 2003) Strategies: Data analysis of bicycle counters at key strategic routes Results: Steady increase in bike counts Evidence level: III-3 Western Sydney Rail Trail Evaluation ( Merom et al, 2003) Strategies: Completion of new dedicated bicycle infrastructure, but minimal promotion Results: Small but statistically significant increase in use of facility Evidence level: III-2 I n fr a st r u ct u r e ‘I n visible in fr a st r u ct u r e ’ (eg traffic calming policies, fiscal policies such as congestion taxes, petrol prices) Evidence level: IV No Australian data World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 62 M u lt i- com pon e n t Cycling 100 ( Marshall, 2001) Strategies: Employees committed to replacing 4 car trips per week by bicycle and were given use of a free bicycle Results: Significant improvements in a range of health indicators Evidence level: III-3 Cycling in the city ( Kuiper, 2005) Strategies: Employees at three workplaces committed to riding to work on two days a week were given cycling skills training and social supportuse within the workplace. Results: Increase in employees regularly riding Evidence level: III-3 Cycle Instead program ( Greig, 2001) Strategies: Media and community intervention Results: Significant increase in the proportion of respondents who had cycled in the previous six months (28% vs 36%) plus bike counters showed an overall increase of 68.2% of cyclists. Evidence level: III-3 Cycle Instead Shepparton ( Bicycle Vict oria, 2004) Strategies: Media and community campaign over two months Results: 39% increase in cycling after two months Evidence level: III-3 TravelSmart South Perth ( Jam es, 2002; Asht on- Graham , 2002; Depart m ent of I nfrast r uct ure, 2003) Strategies: In-depth interviews with households about travel behaviour change Results: 61% increase in cycle trips Evidence level: III-2 World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 63 Tr a ve l in I n n e r Cit y ve r su s Ur ba n Fr in ge of Ade la ide : Th e Role of N e igh bou r h ood D e sign A Solt a ni, A Alla n , S Som e n a h a lli, F Pr im e r a n o Obesity, greenhouse gas emissions, and Accordingly, for instance, a ‘‘Liveable oil dependence are major concerns of Neighbourhoods’’ approach (The Western sustainability in Australian society1. One Australian Planning Commission factor is the increasing share of private to planning has been proposed as a vehicle counter to urban sprawl. using contributes to these 1997) problems. Another factor is suburban There is considerable current interest in development, its the effects of urban design and land use trip characteristics on the transport choices contribution widely to criticized longer for average lengths and excessive dependence on made private vehicles at the expense of public underlying assumption is that residential transport neighbourhood characteristics have an and non-motorized modes. by important people everyday. influence on a The person's willingness to make a trip by transit, 1 Australia is now equal second with the UK, behind only the United States, when it comes to the proportion of obese people in the population Knox , S. (2003). "Planning as a Public Health Issue." Urban Policy and Research 2 1 (No. 4): 317–319.. Also, Australia has higher greenhouse gas emissions per capita than any other developed country. Turton, H. and C. Hamilton (August 2002). Updating per capita emissions for ndustrialised countries, The Australia Institute. ridesharing, bicycling, or walking - modes other than driving alone. Further, the amount and direction of other travel behaviour issues such as the frequency of travel, and the distance travelled should be a function of surrounding neighbourhood characteristics, thus that the combination characteristics and of neighbourhood travel demand World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 64 management a lower per capita travel was found to positive interactive effect in influencing apply in Australian cities in 1986, where travel patterns. higher-density cities had much more This study investigates travel pattern in travel than the smaller, less dense cities. both fringe They mentioned also that despite the households from four decisively selected shortening of the separation between suburbs to discover the potential impacts residential areas and activity centres, per of capita inner strategies city can and neighbourhood have urban design on travel travel increased greatly. They choices. For this purpose, an integrated concluded that travel convenience was database of land use characteristics and found to provide a better fit to the data travel activities was developed for a than did land use differences. sample of households in the studied areas. The database was established by Li, Fisher et al (Li, Fisher et al. 2005) adding examined site information, developed the relation between built through field observation, to the specific environment factors and walking activity 2005 Survey at both the neighbourhood level and the (HTS2005) dataset of the sample areas. resident level, in an older adult sample. The This study resulted that there was a Household Travel HTS2005 dataset includes information about individuals’ travel, and positive their perception on their neighbourhood environment factors and walking activity environment at individuals. for a number These data of were 321 then relation the between neighbourhood level. built At the resident level, perceptions of safety for analysed to explore the interactions that walking may exist between transport level of recreational service, related to high levels of walking activity. land use, urban design and characteristics, and individual pattern of Also travel. observed a number facilities significant between of nearby were positively interaction number of was street intersections and perceptions of safety Ba ck gr ou n d St u die s from traffic. In a similar study by Giles- There is an ongoing trend to examine Corti, how urban form and land use patterns Broomhall et al. 2005) it was found that impact upon travel. This question was the likelihood of using public open spaces raised more than twenty years ago and increased inspired many debates so far. Review access, but the effect was greater in the articles have also Broomhall with et al (Giles-Corti, increasing levels of been written model empirical results attractiveness, 2001); (Crane adjustment, those with very good access 2000);(Handy 1996). However, research to large, attractive open spaces were efforts 50% more likely to achieve high levels of summarising related (Stead Marshall and are modelling underway and to assessment improve adjusted and for distance, size. After to walking. The observational study also measure the impacts of these effects. showed that after matching open spaces Some for size and location, 70% of users Australian and tools that international examples are reviewed below: observed visited attractive public open Moriarty and Beed (Moriarty and Beed spaces. 1992) found that the expected relationship between higher density and World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 65 With analysing the influence of personal employment density of destination does characteristics and the attributes of the matter. residential environment on travel behaviour in Randstad Holland Region However, (Dieleman, Dijet et al. 2002) it was found significant contribution of urban form that both set of factors have a strong features in influencing travel behaviour. influence on modal choice and distance A study by Crane and Crepeau travelled. The of and Crepeau 1998) in US, found that residential environment their there is no evidence that street network characteristics retain impact on travel when personal factors impacts are held constant, as the results from the choice multivariate Portland, analyses demonstrate. not all upon for studies the decision non-work Oregon, found (Crane of mode travelling. Hess a (Hess In 2001) Those living in the suburbs and rural suggested that there is an expected regions have to travel longer distances to significant influence for parking charges work, either by car or public transport. on decisions to drive alone or to take For shopping trips, urban form plays a alternative substantial part in the distance travelled evidence that land use and proximity to by public transport. Those living in rural light rail can change the modal choice areas or suburbs travel longer distance decision. via public transport. In fact, the two sets Boarnet and Crane (Boarnet and Crane of factors are of about equal importance 2001) for modal choice and distance travelled, friendly although trip purpose modifies these developed areas, close to or in the city relationships considerably, especially for centre, may well be a result of their distances preferences travelled for shopping and modes. suggest But, that travel there the living no environment pattern for is in densely there. They basically welcome the opportunity that leisure. city life offers for reduced travels. That is Handy (Handy 1996) suggested that one of the reasons why they reside given motivation to walk, urban form is there. an external factor that can enable actual selection doesn’t seem to change the walk. hypothesis that neighbourhood design A traditional encourages walking walkable for design shopping I argue, matters. In however, fact, when this self- somebody purpose, however, the newly designed voluntarily prefers to live in a place that suburbs can do the same if they afford induces walking and bicycling in daily life retailing walkable (thus subsequently avoiding using car) is distance. In addition, Handy showed that a fair example of the importance and land use patterns affect the choice set consideration of neighbourhood design. formation of travel modes which are There will be no change if we assume realistic to the trip maker: land use that the residents have been unwillingly makes surrounded by neighbourhood facilities and a stores difference within in determining whether residents perceived walking as instead an option available to them. Frank and neighbourhood. Pivo (Frank and Pivo 1994) found that Brunton and Brindle (Brunton and Brindle while residential density of trip origin is 1999) in an important factor in choosing a mode, metropolitan of choosing deliberately the a study of the Melbourne area, concluded that regional accessibility to activities was World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 66 significant factors in car use, while other with less diversity within it. Also the urban form factors have relatively little method of analysis can be criticised due effect. to its simple assumption on link between If a broader range of factors is considered, the relationship between exogenous factors. density and car using becomes weaker. They criticized the use of urban planning It sounds that the relationship between for addressing car dependency problems urban form and travel behaviour is more because of its frail role. They concluded complex that rather than take the normative surface. The methodological obstacles, position that a particular urban form has made it difficult to study the causal must be encouraged if desired travel relationship. While some scholars have outcomes are to be achieved, a given city argued that the relationship is marginal, may be able to adapt to achieve the others suggest finding better ways to desired study on urban form-travel interactions accessibility level in several ways. Policy may then be able to be based on setting accessibility target rather than levels of density for than it may seem on the (Handy 1996). The policies that the research by Brunton and Brindle (Brunton and development or revision of the existing Brindle situation have to be supported with considered aggregated attributes and measures of land use and relevant travel, directing from particular areas and land uses. The study 1999) for emerge empirical work the to new be more finer reliable. The critique of these studies has characteristics of neighbourhoods (such suggested that a number of issues must as provisions for various forms of travel, be taken into account when drawing any neighbourhood conclusions failing to consider character the and its for policy (Stead and conduciveness for non-motorised forms Marshall 2001). These issues include the of travel), the socio-demographics of the strength population (such as the difference in transferability of findings, the scale of travel analysis, patterns of individuals and of the and evidence, the the causality of households), and the type of travel being relationships. Therefore, the degree to undertaken. which urban form might affect travel behaviour can be lower than literature The study by Giles-Corti and Donovan has indicated (where they have not (Giles-Corti and Donovan 2002) in Perth, considered socio-economics). Meanwhile, found that the influence of the built this environment on physical activity levels, planning/design was marginal to individual social factors significant role to play in helping to and individual’s characteristics. Despite achieve more sustainable travel patterns. this, and Planning policies can influence transport recreational facilities determined whether supply as well as the distribution of land or not they were used. Thus, in this way, uses, and so provide a way of influencing it travel demand and/or modal choice. access can open support achievement physical to of and spaces enhance appropriate activity the levels behaviour. does not mean does that not urban have a of One M e t h odology limitation of this study is choosing a Some of methodological improvements specific area which was homogeneous have been made in this study: using World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 67 discrete choice models individual behaviour; capturing disaggregated urban form; important to explain using GIS incorporating factors for elements of other such as taken in CCD level. For those measures with a regional accessibility to impact, work such as throughout the metropolitan region, a Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ)-as defined in 1999 household/individual preferences and Metropolitan Adelaide Household Survey attitudes; incorporating the (Government of South Australia 1999) region has been applied as spatial unit. In case, overall and also structure surrounded the of city neighbourhood by where a CCD was not compatible with regional accessibility; jobs distribution TAZ, and suggested public transport infrastructure measures. a weighting by system Primerano was used (Primerano 2004). Using GIS facilitates work with more precision and efficiency. In case, It is tried approach: to in opertionalising, take terms a a of disaggregated urban Census form Collecting GIS maps were not up to dated or apparent, an on-screen digitising method used to enter new features or edit District (CCD)-as defined in (Australian current spatial features. The role of GIS Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2001)- is for preparing data for modelling process suggested as spatial unit of analysis. is depicted on Figure 1. Thus all local urban form measures were Analysis Basic Data Urban Digital Data GIS Database /Analyst Transport Network and Level of Service Discrete Choice Modelling Travel Survey Data Figu r e 1 : The r ole of GI S for pr e pa r in g da t a for m ode lin g pr oce ss The original survey consisted of 1500 response rate for a survey administered addresses but only 321 valid addresses. to the general population is typically 10– The response rate is about 21% based on 40% (Sommer and Sommer 1997). A the valid returned questionnaire only. comparison of sample characteristics to This response rate is considered quite population characteristics, based on the well for a survey of this length, since the World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 68 2001 Australian Census, showed a populations are younger, which now reasonable distribution. forms the age group of 0-35, the highest age group in terms of For modelling purpose, a set of discrete population but the age group over 65 choice the models was developed for lowest. This demographic modelling individual mode choices. The difference models were all discriminated by travel transport demand market over the purpose and the geographic location of time. • trip makers. has had its toll on The areas of Norwood and Unley are characterized with relatively low car Ca se St u dy Ar e a s ownership compared to Golden Grove The study area includes four residential and Para Hills suburban areas. It is suburbs Adelaide: interesting that Para Hills has the of metropolitan Norwood, Unley, Golden Grove and Para highest figure of vehicle ownership Hills. These four suburbs are different in per terms of their physical attributes which is household. Also it has the highest assumed considerable percentage of households with three difference in travel behaviour of their vehicles or more. On the other hand residents. Norwood (1853) and Unley it has the lowest income average and (1871) as typical traditionally designed highest proportion of households with neighbourhoods have a mix of land uses, income residential, office, shopping, civic uses, primarily and entertainment, within easy walking ownership does not depend only on distance of home. On the other hand, income level. to make a suburban developed areas: Golden Grove ƒ household: lower 1.6 vehicles than shows $500. that per This vehicle All four suburbs are served properly (1980s — 90s) and Para Hills (1974) lack by public metro-ticket bus as the heterogeneous land uses. The density of only public mean. Meanwhile, public population and activities of these suburbs transport share in the studied areas are lower than those of Norwood and is not significant. Unley. The styles of housing area mostly • The average commuting distance is developments of separate houses with different for each suburb. While the back yards, land-escaped gardens and residents of Norwood, Unley and Para parking some Hills should travel about 16, 14 and developments made by South Australian 18km, the Golden Grove workers Housing Trust to accommodate different should commute significantly longer: social groups especially in Golden Grove 23km. spaces, however, • (Bosman 2004). The home rent throughout the four suburbs is similar: about $200 per The locations of case study areas within week metropolitan Adelaide are depicted on housing average price for Unley is figure 2. Some travel characteristics of highest followed by Norwood and the four suburbs are provided in table 1. Golden Here are a number of facts about these together. In Para Hills, the housing areas extracted from HTS2005: price is slightly lower. • Compared to other two suburbs, the Para Hills and Golden Grove • in average. Grove which In are contrast, similar Norwood and Unley residents have higher trip generation (for Norwood World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 69 • and Unley were 3.7% and 3.5% Norwood has the highest share of which are higher than those of Para short trips with length of less than 1 Hills and Golden Grove: 3.3%). The km travel behaviour among the four case Grove has the longest trips for work suburbs is markedly different, as the (19.5 km) and non-work purposes two outer suburbs are more car- (16.3 (approximately 10%). Golden km). dependent; Figu r e 2 : The Loca t ion of Fou r Ca se St u die d Su bu r bs a n d Th e ir La n d Use Pa t t e r n Ta ble 1 : Tr a ve l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics for t h e Re side n t s of Fou r Ca se St u die d Ar e a s Pa r a Golde n H ills Gr ove 76 88 91 61 60 81 76 commuting 15 11 2 4 non-work 31 28 11 9 3 7 5 6 6 12 6 9 Va r ia ble N a m e N or w ood Un le y Car use share for commuting (percent) 78 Car travel use share for non-work (percent) Walk/bicycle share for (percent) Walk/bicycle share for (percent) Public bus share for commuting (percent) Public bus share for non-work (percent) Average travel time for daily trips (min) 14 16 23 21 Average commuting distance (km) 6.7 5.8 14.6 19.5 Average travel distance for non-work 5.0 5.4 11.1 16.3 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.3 (km) Trip frequency per adult per day World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 70 composite measures of the suitability of M e a su r in g u r ba n for m A set of comparative spatial indicators local streets for walking and cycling: PEF were and CEF - was introduced for this study- developed to quantify environment characteristics. measures together all physical character of built These represent a represent the quality of the built the environment in terms of physical activity residential options (sidewalks, bike lanes), safety neighbourhood and are assumed to be (low relatively independent from each other. street Density was measured using three single (appearance, building setback, variety in indicators: residential gross traffic, safe lighting), for walking/cycling, and attractiveness density; housing styles, landscape). The values employment density and retail density. for these two measures were obtained The land use entropy index (LUM) is used through a field observation survey (which 2 as a measure of land use mix . Regional was undertaken for 110 streets). accessibility to workplaces was calculated percentage using a gravity-based formula. Proximity covered by metropolitan public bus route indices for shopping centres and schools buffers was also calculated to consider were calculated as the median distance the between them and all residential units services. The covered area is the area within a neighbourhood area weighted by within 0.2 km of local bus routes, where the number of dwelling units. To consider pedestrian connections to transit areas the are available from the surrounding area. permeability of each residential of availability neighbourhood of public The area transport neighbourhood, four different indicators were developed: the proportion of culde-sacs; street space allocation as a proportion of the total centreline distances of streets in each area; the route directness index was calculated by dividing the direct distance between an origin and destination by the actual network distance between them and the average 2 of urban block area. The Mean land use entropy was computed as: s − ∑ ( pi ) ln( pi ) i =1 ln(s ) p is i where the proportions of each of the s land use types which s is the number of land uses. Cervero , R., and K. Kockelman (1997). "Travel Demand and the 3Ds: Density, Diversity, and DesignTravel demand and 3D's: density; diversity and design." Transportation Research D V ol. 2 (No. 3.). The number of seven categories considered for this study: residential; commercial; recreational; industrial; governmental; community services and open spaces. World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 71 Ta ble 2 : Ur ba n For m M e a su r e s for Fou r St u dy Ar e a s Va r ia ble N a m e N or w ood Un le y Pa r a Golde n H ills Gr ove Residential Density (persons/ha) 53.8 43.8 30.2 47.2 Employment Density (jobs/ha) 22.1 19.9 6.3 7.6 Retail Density (Percentage of Floor .03 .03 .001 .003 Land use mix entropy .63 .72 .48 .38 Accessibility to Workplaces 872.6 754.0 1619.2 1633.9 Closeness to Shopping Complex (km) .873 .754 1.619 1.634 Closeness to Schools (km) 1.051 .876 1.588 1.778 Proportion of cul-de-sacs .35 .48 .51 .62 Route directness 1.22 1.37 1.53 1.61 Space) Median block area (ha) 1.9 1.8 5.3 7.2 Pedestrian Environment Factor (PEF) 7.15 6.88 5.4 5.28 Cyclist Environment Factor (CEF) 6.14 5.84 5.09 4.72 Bus Coverage (percent) .60 .64 .53 .73 Street Space Allocation 137 9 137 0 135 1 107 6 The aggregated results for four suburbs Golden show that Norwood and Unley have walking/cycling activities. better environment for inducing non- Para Hills has the lowest share of non- motorised travel modes. In addition to motorised travel, which shows that the providing various public facilities in these built form is really poor in encouraging suburbs, sustainable smooth and continuous Grove are travel. less There encouraging are several sidewalks and on-street bike lanes have disadvantages such as lack of sense of been provided in Norwood, and also safety/security after dark; single-zoning; Unley lack of community sense; lack of local experienced some practice of traffic calming. Within two outer suburbs facilities and a hilly topography. Golden Grove has successful landscapes, The primary results from the figures architecture illustrated Meanwhile traffic and both calming green outer and spaces. suburbs need development of on table 1 and table 2, reinforce the view that bringing origin and destinations closer together is pedestrian/cyclist infrastructure at local associated to increase walking and daily scale. While Golden Grove has similar non-work activity frequencies. The extent advantages to Unley and Norwood in to which this association is casual is the terms of suitability for walking/cycling, matter that will be discussed in follow the walking and cycling trends in Golden modelling debates. However, the fact Grove remains that inner city residents exhibit is lesser. Although there are relatively good infrastructure; facilities higher levels of non-motorised activities. and landscape for pedestrian and cyclists in Golden Grove, the question remains M oda l Ch oice m ode llin g why these residents do not? In fact, Multinominal homogeneous developed and used to evaluate the land use patterns in logit models World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 were 72 effects of urban form/design variables on modes by dividing the distance travelled modal by the speed of the mode alternative for choice. models The estimate multinomial the logit likelihood of every trip which is explained earlier. choosing a mode of travel by a household member. These models use socio- Re su lt s demographics of the sample households The (and individuals) as exogenous variables values of Alternative Specific Constants along urban (ASCs), Alternative Specific Attributes form/design. For analysis, the individual (ASAs), values of attribute coefficients is considered as the unit of analysis to and their significance are detailed in with the measures of achieve more accurate outcomes. Five mode alternatives were modelled: • Metro-ticket public bus (C5): households that have at least one vehicle available; Walking (C2): to all except those aged over 76 and it is designated as being also available to individuals whose trip distance is less than the maximum distance biked by an individual in the sample. 0.56 (compared to the model with no are all above the threshold values of that all ASCs and the coefficient estimates of attributes are all significant. The coefficients of the alternative specific are significant. Model coefficients show records taken from HTS2005 database to travel factors and their ability to improve the explanatory power of behavioural models. Driving alone (C3) was taken as the referent alternative here. All analysis was done by LIMDEP ver. 7.0 (Greene 1998). The sample data contains 1,027 trip undertaken by individuals who resided in one of the four case study areas. One alternative specific attributes is calculated for non-chosen alternatives: travel time. Travel time is calculated using travel distance assuming constant average speed 3 for different Living farther from Adelaide CBD leads to a lower propensity to make non-work trips by non-motorised The following values are applied: Car=46.4 , modes. In addition, living farther from CBD, is associated with longer kilometres travelled for work purpose; they need to travel longer, or they may travel longer than they need? One reason is that employment centralised 3 values are the importance and strengths of urban Cycling (C1): available to individuals represent ρ2 attributes are all the expected sign and available individuals; • Appendix 1. The adjusted including ±1.96 (95 percent confidence) showing Driving alone(C3): available to adult members with a driver’s licence from • models, coefficients). The t-statistics in the model Shared-ride (C4): available to all individuals; • choice good with values ranged from 0.36 to available to all individuals; • modal despite has in remained metropolitan the overall quite Adelaide trend to (female) or 11 suburbanisation of jobs:”… 39 per cent of (male), Public Bus=23 km/h (Primerano, F. all jobs held by females in 1991 were still (2004). located in the CBD and inner suburbs, Walk= 4.25 , Bicycle=8 Development Measures for Planning. Transport of Transport Accessibility and Systems Urban Centre. Adelaide, University of South Australia. compared with 33 per cent for males (Forster 1999), p. 59).” In other words, the CBD is the largest employment World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 73 centre, with one third of Adelaide's jobs, recreation and open spaces; within the and the studied suburbs, the farther the shopping professional, office and service works. strong employment centre the less likely an individual catch Other employment centres of smaller public transport to there; Also within the scale also exist in the south, north and two northwest parts suburbs, the farther One education/training centre or schools, the lower the likelihood of walking/cycling to and as expected; employment is Adelaide. outer advantage of inner suburbs: Norwood Unley of in better centres access in CBD. to Baker the Within the two inner suburbs, higher increasing number of employees in CBD network density is associated positively is contributing to the continuing demand with the choice of walking/cycling. In for terraces and town housing in inner addition, where street space allocation is Adelaide. higher, it is less likely an individual to be (Baker 1997) suggested that driven by a household member or drive a In addition, when job is located at least 2 vehicle with passenger to work. Within kilometres far from home, the likelihood the two outer suburbs, individuals tend of walking/cycling to is decreased. On to walk/cycle to non-work destinations contrast, to where the neighbourhood designed as workplace increases the propensity to permeable. On the other hand, within the walk/cycle to job. In fact, in Adelaide, two inner suburbs, where urban block is the number higher of accessibility the larger the likelihood of catching public resident labour force is relatively low, jobs relative to transport is lower. As part of non-work thus workers may find it difficult to find a trips are taken by non-motorised means job near their residential location. This (15%-25% in studied areas), the impact low job ratio may result in a large of these variables may thus be a mixture average commute distance and time and of some local urban fabric factors to ease related to this, lower shares of non- the movement through the area. motorised modes. However, this finding or Within the two inner suburbs, individuals residential relocation may serve as a residing in single-family houses are less means for households to travel shorter, likely to walk, but higher shared-ride but it often functions as a last option choice to work. On contrast, within the when two recommend other insufficient. that employment strategies The have reason for proven this outer suburbs, living in flats/apartments increases the likelihood reluctance to relocate is that substantial of costs are involved in changing jobs and destinations. There was no clear casual particularly the place of residence, not relationship only for the worker but also his/her densities on modal choice in studied family. areas; As expected, where land use mixing is Travel time has a negative coefficient higher, the more likely an individual to with choosing a mode for both work and be driven by a household member or non-work trips. In fact, the higher the drive a vehicle with passenger to non- values of this attribute the lower the work utility, thus, the greater the travel time destinations such as shopping; walking/cycling between to non-work residential/retail World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 74 the lower the benefit to the user. This (Rosenbloom and Burns 1993) showed finding is consistent with Crane and that both mothers and fathers make a Crepeau significant number of trips solely for (Crane and Crepeau 1998) showing the importance of travel time as children, a cost factor in a behavioural model. majority of these trips for children up to Furthermore, time plays a central role 17 years old. with mothers making the when deciding whether to engage in an activity. A theoretical treatment of the Con clu sion s time constraint problem can be found in Fu r t h e r I n ve st iga t ion e.g. and I m plica t ion s for The This study is a primary step in Australian main consequence of the time constraint context with applying a disaggregated for the modelling of non-work trips is approach; that making a trip of one kind reduces analysis is possible and is encouraged. the time to make a trip of another kind. The Jara-Diaz (Jara-Diaz 1998). considerable results practical would means help to additional to identify incorporate built Among the social factors, it was found environment aspects in local demand that women in all four suburbs, are more travel likely to drive alone for work trips but understanding of the connection between also more likely to choose shared-ride urban form and travel choice behaviour. choice for non-work activities. Females This study also may serve to assist other are more likely to walk in inner suburbs practitioners in Adelaide in their efforts to but less likely to ride a forecasting systems, to better bike. address the issue of induce travel, and to Retired/unemployed individuals tend to present better solutions for sustainability use public transport. Young adults and concerns. part time/casual workers are likely to get mode. The results showed that urban form not Individuals certified as driver are less only makes more alternatives also makes likely transport. a shift in modal choice. It is important to Individuals of low income households in say that improving access to more travel inner suburbs tend to walk/cycle to work. choices does not routinely result to less Individuals of high income families in car use. As pointed earlier, some people outer suburbs are less likely to catch take their own transport due to their public non-work attitudes and perceptions. They drive destinations, but those with low income because they believe in it and they want tend it regardless of cost, time and other to work to with shared-ride catch transport to catch public for public transport to. Individuals of low income households in constraints. In a unique study that inner suburbs tend to walk/cycle to non- looked at the association between land work middle-aged use, transportation and attitudes , it was individuals (36-55 years old) are more found that personal attitudes is a strong likely to drive with a passenger or be predictor of travel behaviour, perhaps driven by a member of the household. stronger than land use characteristics The presence of children has potential (Kitamura, impact, as many non work car trips are While this research did not consider generated by children’s needs, whether it individuals’ attitudes directly, the findings is for school, recreational activities, or suggest medical influence travel decisions. destinations. concerns. The The study by Mokhtarian that attitudes et al. may 1997). potential What this World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 75 research suggests is making more It would be interesting to see whether alternatives and improvement in more physical changes like the construction of sustainable travel modes is a necessary sidewalks or improvement to bike lanes condition which should be given high in an established suburb such as Para attention in policy and planning. Hills are associated with changes in walking/cycling, after accounting for Walking and cycling are fringe modes socio-economics. and represent rare behaviours in studied environments that offer areas. opportunities for walking/cycling Even among the inner city Does move to better households, and considering all utilitarian associated and leisure travel, over a 24-hour period, walking/cycling? In this topic, recently, only 6% cycled and 23%walked. So on going longitudinal panel studies have discussing urban been started in Western Australia, which enable is surveying people travel behaviour prior the form/design, potential to induce for or with increase in walking/cycling should be taken with to caution. As Sallis and Owen (Sallis and (University of Western Australia Owen 1999) discuss, “Interventions in An important question remains is that if built environment do not directly change increases behaviour. substantial enough to justify the cost of Interventions modify the and after in a residential modal 2004); are not factors that control behaviour, and those improvements changes to infrastructure especially in established improved behaviour” (p. 135). I mean we suburbs? Since in new developments don’t expect to have a dramatically shift such as part of Golden Grove, zoning and in the subdivision rules can be modified to allow design. proximity to shops, parks and public are modal expected choice modifications in just to lead through community in shifting moving walking/cycling urban services, but in established suburbs it is form/design matters remains valid and challenging. We could refer to other here suggests that one need to live in a environmental/health benefits as well as quality social impacts. However, the design theory that neighbourhood with a close proximity-less than 200m as now in Norwood for instance, to public facilities Only four suburbs have been studied and to a modest survey response rate has been have a significant impact on walking/cycling. The fact that residents obtained, of Norwood and Unley spend more time necessarily generalisable unless they are being actively in their neighbourhood replicated may also be resulted from stronger sense populations with different socioeconomic of community and higher neighbourhood attributes. A low variation between urban cohesion which are explaining by many form variables in geographical areas, due non-physical urban to small sample size, plus lesser variation spending within suburbs makes the urban form more time out-doors, in turn, cause an measures less insensate to detect the increase in social communication and effect of urban form on travel choices. social cohesion over time, and perhaps Information was collected only about the as a result reinforce increased physical urban form of the sample sites. Such activity. kind of information should be gathered design factors features. not sole Intuitively, so in theses other results contexts are and not for from the characteristics of destinations of World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 76 daily commuting. Similarly, data on the Forster, destination Continuity of midday travel, trip C. (1999). and Australian Change. Cities: Melbourne, chaining, or other related topics were not Oxford University Press. included, because the attraction of those Frank, L. and G. Pivo (1994). "The trips made outside of the origin suburbs impacts of mixed use and density on the are important as well. utilization of three modes of travel: the single occupant vehicle, transit Transportation and Research References: walking." Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Record 1466: 44-52. (2001). Giles-Corti, B., M. H. Broomhall, et al. Census of Population and Housing: Journey to Work datasheets. (2005). Australia. Important Is Distance To, Attractiveness, Baker, E. gender (1997). effects Department Gentrication in of Environmental North Adelaide. Geographical Studies, and and University of and "Increasing Size of Public Walking Open How Space?" American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28(2S2): 1817–1842. Giles-Corti, B. and R. J. Donovan (2002). Adelaide. "The Boarnet, M. G. and R. Crane (2001). social Travel by design. The influence of urban determinants of physical activity." Social form on travel, Oxford University Press. Science & Medicine 54: 1793–1812. Bosman for Government of South Australia (1999). Australian Metropolitan Adelaide Household Travel , C. (2004). Journal everyone." "Homes of relative influence and of physical individual, environment Studies(80). Survey (MAHTS). Adelaide, Department Brunton, P. and R. Brindle (1999). The of Transport and Planning. relationship between urban form and Greene , W. H. (1998). LIMDEP Version travel behaviour. ARRB Research Report. 7.0 Australia., ARRB. Econometric Software, Inc. Cervero , R., and K. Kockelman (1997). Handy, S. (1996). "Understanding the "Travel Demand and the 3Ds: Density, link between urban form and non work Diversity, and DesignTravel demand and travel behaviour." Journal of Planning 3D's: Education and Research 15: 183-198. density; diversity and design." : User's Hess, Crane, R. (2000). "The influence of urban parking form on travel: An interpretive review." Evidence Journal of Planning Literature 15(1): 3- Transportation Research Record 1753: 22. 35-42. Crane, R. and R. Crepeau (1998). "Does Jara-Diaz , S. R. (1998). Time and Neighbourhood Design Influence Travel? income A Behavioural Analysis of Travel Diary microeconomic activity-based theoretical GIS Data." Transport Research Digest 3(4): 225-238. E. on (2001). Sydney, Transportation Research D Vol. 2(No. 3.). and D. Manual. commuter from in travel travel "Effect of free mode choice: diary data." choice: towards a framework. Theoretical Foundations of Travel Choice Modelling. T. Garling, T. Dieleman, F. M., M. Dijet, et al. (2002). Laitila and K. Westin. Oxford, Pergamon: "Urban 1-30. Form and Travel Behaviour: and Kitamura, R., P. L. Mokhtarian, et al. Studies (1997). "A micro-analysis of land use and Micro-level Household Attributes Residential Context." Urban 39(3): 507–527. travel in five neighbourhoods in the San World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 77 Francisco Bay Area." Transportation 24: Stead, D. and S. Marshall (2001). "The 125-158. Relationships between Urban Form and Knox , S. (2003). "Planning as a Public Travel Patterns. An International Review Health Issue." Urban Policy and Research and Evaluation." EJTIR 1(2). 21(No. 4): 317–319. The Li, F. K., J. Fisher, et al. (2005). Western Commission Australian (1997). Planning the Liveable Community Design "Multilevel modelling of built environment Neighbourhoods characteristics related to neighbourhood Code. Perth, Department for Planning walking and Infrastructure, WA. of Turton, H. and C. Hamilton (August Epidemiology and Community Health 59: 2002). Updating per capita emissions for 558-564. industrialised activity in Moriarty, older P. Journal adults." and C. Beed (1992). countries, The Australia Institute. Explanation of personal travel increases University of Western Australia in The RESIDE (RESIDential Environments) Australian cities. Australasian Transport Research Forum, Canberra. Project. Primerano, F. (2004). Development of Health. 2006. Perth, School of (2004). Population Accessibility Measures for Transport and Urban Planning. Transport Systems Centre. Adelaide, University of South Australia. Rosenbloom, S. and E. Burns (1993). "Why working women the drive Implications of travel programs." Transportation alone: reduction Research Record 1459: 39-45. Sallis, J. F. and N. Owen (1999). Physical Activity and Behavioural Medicine: Addr e ss for cor r e spon de n ce : Ali Soltani Ali.Solt a n i@post gr a ds.u n isa .e du .a u Dr Andrew Allan Senior Lecturer, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia Dr Sekhar Somenahalli Lecturer, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia Thousand Oaks. California, Sage. Sommer, B. and R. Sommer (1997). A Practical Guide to Behavioral Research: Tools and Techniques. New York, NY., Dr Frank Primerano Senior Transport Analyst, Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure, Government of South Australia Oxford University Press. World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 78 World Transport Policy & Practice Eco-Logica Ltd. ISSN 1352-7614 World Transport Policy & Practice___________________________________________________ Volume 13.1 September 2006 79