Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
www.ejso.com
Review
Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon*
Centre for Pancreaticobiliary Diseases, AMNCH, Tallaght, Dublin 24, Ireland
Accepted 20 July 2007
Available online 29 October 2007
Abstract
Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PET) are rare neoplasms of the pancreas accounting for less than 5% of all primary pancreatic
malignancies. Included in this group are insulinomas, gastrinomas, glucagonoma and somatostatinomas. Collectively these neoplasms
are classified as functional PETs. Where a PET is not associated with a clinical syndrome due to hormone oversecretion, it is referred
to as a non-functioning PET. Non-functioning PETs are pancreatic tumours with endocrine differentiation but lack a clinical syndrome
of hormone hypersecretion.
The incidence of these tumours varied between 15 and 53%. Presentation is related to the mass effect of the tumour with symptoms often
non-specific. Treatment is surgical excision with chemotherapy and hormonal therapy is controversial.
For functioning PETs, surgery remains the optimal therapy, however, long-term survival can be expected even in the presence of
metastases. With advances in medical management, radiolabelled somatostatin therapy, hepatic arterial chemoembolisation and radiofrequency ablation, symptoms may be controlled to optimize quality of life.
Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Neuroendocrine; Pancreas; Insulinoma; Gastrinoma
Introduction
Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PET) are rare
neoplasms of the pancreas accounting for less than 5% of
all primary pancreatic malignancies.1 It is important to
distinguish PET’s from the more common adenocarcinoma
because the prognosis for PET’s is superior, even in the
face of metastatic disease.2
During embryogenesis pancreatic islet cells develop as
cellular buds from intraobular ductless. This process is
generally complete by birth. As islet cells demonstrate
hormone coexpression in fetal life, it is thought that neuroendocrine tumours originate from multipotent cells in the
ductal epithelium that retain their ability to differentiate
toward the cell line found in the tumour.3 Originally
described by Nicholls in 1902 as tumours originating
from pancreatic islet cell lineage,4 these tumours are commonly associated with the clinical syndrome related to the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ353 1 896 3719; fax: þ353 1 896 3788.
E-mail address: profsurg@tcd.ie (K.C. Conlon).
0748-7983/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.ejso.2007.07.209
hormone secreted by the tumour. Included in this group are
insulinomas, gastrinomas, glucagonoma and somatostatinomas.5 Collectively these neoplasms are classified as functional PET’s. Where a PET is not associated with
a clinical syndrome due to hormone oversecretion it is
referred to as a non-functioning PET.
Clinically these two groups present differently- one due
to the effects of hormone overproduction and nonfunctional lesions generally due to mass effect or metastases. Although these tumours tend to be less aggressive than
their adenocarcinoma counterpart they frequently metastasize to the liver.6 At the time of diagnoses, excluding
insulinoma, 50e60% of PET’s have metastasized.7,8
Non-functioning PET’s are pancreatic tumours with
endocrine differentiation but lack a clinical syndrome of
hormone hypersecretion. Although these tumours are
hormonally ‘‘silent’’ they may produce a precursor hormone
that is functionally inert, or at an amount that is too small to
cause symptoms. Non-functioning tumours are slow growing and occur most commonly in the head of the pancreas.9
The incidence of non-functional tumours has varied
between 15 and 53%.10,11 This wide variation in incidence
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
325
may be explained by technical advances in imaging modalities that has enabled clinically silent intra-abdominal
lesions to be identified. Presentation is related to the mass
effect of the tumour with symptoms resembling those of
pancreatic adenocarcinoma- jaundice, abdominal pain,
weight loss or the appearance of an abdominal mass are
the most frequent symptoms. Patients with non-functioning
PET’s can present with advanced metastatic disease and
relatively few symptoms.
The prognosis of patients diagnosed with a PET is difficult to predict as the natural history of these tumours is
largely unknown. Studies of patients with gastrinomas,
where there is treatment for the symptoms of hypersecretion
and so long-term follow-up is possible, indicate that up to
40% of PET’s demonstrate an indolent growth pattern.12,13
Indeed, tumour related deaths occur in PET’s that demonstrate an aggressive growth pattern e aggressive treatment
should therefore be considered in these patients. One of
the difficulties that exists is the definition of malignant and
benign disease e PET are classified as malignant when
lymph nodes are involved, distant metastases are identified
or there is invasion into adjacent structures. Tumours therefore classified as benign may merely have had their natural
history interrupted by surgical resection. In a study by Hochwald et al. of 136 cases of PET, the mitotic rate and necrosis
shown to be of prognostic significance.14 No survival difference has been shown between functional and non-function
PET’s. Due to the lack of symptoms, non-functional tumours tend to present later with much larger lesions than
their functional counterpart (1.9 cm vs. 4 cm).15
The commonest genetic syndrome associated with PET
is the multiple endocrine neoplasia type one syndrome
(MEN 1), characterized by pancreatic, pituitary and parathyroid malignancies. Less frequently adrenal and carcinoid
neoplasms may also be associated with this syndrome.
Inherited patterns are consistent with autosomal dominant
distribution and the gene has been traced to chromosome
11q13. This MEN 1 gene is a tumour suppressor gene
and in genotypic studies of families with MEN 1 is 99%
accurate in detecting MEN abnormalities.10 Multiple
endocrine neoplasia is most commonly associated with gastrinomas and seen in 20e30% of patients with ZollingerEllison syndrome (ZES).16
It is important to diagnose MEN-1 in association with
ZES as tumours tend to be multifocal, less aggressive and
located submucosaly in the duodenum. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours also occur in von Hippel Lindau syndrome
and von Recklinghausen disease.
Figure 1. Multi detector CT image demonstrating a neuroendocrine tumour
in the head of the pancreas.
Figure 2. Venous phase image outlining the portal and superior mesenteric
veins (indicated by blue arrows).
Localization/imaging
Transabdominal ultrasound is a cheap and widely available imaging modality. It has a sensitivity in detecting
PET’s ranging from 9 to 64%.17,18 The use of endoscopic
ultrasound has further improved the accuracy of preoperative ultrasound. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) allows high
definition imaging of the walls of the stomach and duodenum and its adjacent structures, enabling lesions as small
as 0.5 cm to be detected (Fig. 1).19 In addition, a tissue
diagnosis may be made by fine needle aspiration cytology
which is very useful in the case of non-functional PET’s
enables. Endoscopic ultrasound is best at detecting lesions
in the head of the pancreas and less so for more distal lesions.20e22 The sensitivity for detecting pancreatic gastrinomas has been shown to be 85%, but only 43% for
duodenal gastrinomas.23 As the majority of gastrinomas
are located in the duodenum, this is a significant limitation.
Also approximately 50% of the duodenal gastrinomas
localized with endoscopic ultrasound will be seen at endoscopy and not by ultrasound.24 Operator expertise is an
important factor in the sensitivity of EUS.25 As the endoscope is difficult to maneuver and PET’s tend to be small,
326
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
Figure 3. Arterial phase demonstrating the hepatic artery.
unless in the hands of an experienced operator the test may
be futile.
Multi-detector Computerized Tomography is the investigation of choice and is infact the initial test performed due
its widespread availability (Fig. 2). The generation of the
scanner is important. Gouya et al. demonstrated that multidetector-CT was superior to single phase sequential CT
(sensitivity 94% vs. 24%).26 Multidetector CT enables
multiphasic thin slices to be acquired in a single breath
hold. A dual phase image in both arterial and portal phases
is used to detect pancreatic neoplasms and also to show
peripancreatic vascular anatomy. Following a bolus of
non-ionic contrast, thin slice images are obtained at 45 s
and 70 s for arterial and portal phased respectively (Figs. 3
and 4).27 A negative oral contrast agent such as water
allows optimum visualization of the duodenum, improving
the detection of duodenal gastrinomas.28,29
In addition, Magnet Resonance Imaging (MRI) has been
increasingly used in pancreas imaging. Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours typically have a low signal density on
T1-weighted images and high signal density on T2
weighted images. The use of gadolinium as a contrast agent
is more sensitive for detecting vascular lesions than the
standard iodinated contrast agents.30,31 As with most imaging modalities, size of the lesion predicts the sensitivity of
pick-up. Tumours less than 1 cm were not detected by MRI
with gadolinium and only 50% of tumours between 1 and
2 cm will be identified.32
Two studies unique to the localization of insulinomas and
gastrinomas are percutaneous transhepatic portal venous
sampling (PTPVS) and arterial stimulation with venous
sampling (ASVS). These tests have been proposed as the
most sensitive preoperative localisation investigation.33e35
Percutaneous-transhepatic portal venous sampling involves
the placement of a catheter trans-hepatically in the portal
vein and sequential manipulation into the splenic, superior
mesenteric and portal vein for venous sampling. Intraarterial calcium is a potent stimulator of insulin production
from islet b cells. A catheter advanced from the femoral artery and placed selectively in the splenic, superior mesenteric and gastroduodenal arteries with infusion of calcium
gluconate followed by venous sampling from the hepatic
vein. Generally the pancreatic body and tail are supplied
by the splenic artery, the head by the gastroduodenal artery
and the uncinate process by branches of the superior mesenteric artery. A two fold increase in hormone level confirms
the diagnosis.36 Insulinomas will be accurately localized using this technique with a sensitivity of greater than 90%. Due
to its invasive nature, it may be appropriate to use this technique where all non-invasive tests are negative, but an insulinoma is strongly suspected.
Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (SRS) also has a role
in the preoperative localization of the primary disease as
well as metastases.37,38 Many PET’s have an abundance
of somatostain subtype 2 receptors. These are present in
100% of gastrinomas but only 62% of insulinomas.39 A
somatostatin analogue 111In-DTPA-D-Phel 1 octreotide is
administered and binds to all tissue expressing a significant
concentration of somatostatin subtype 2 receptors. Scintigraphy is good for detecting hepatic and bone metastases
from non-insulinoma PET’s,40 unfortunately it gives no information on tumour size or surgical resectability.
Laparoscopic intraoperative ultrasound is a new technique that in a study by Grover et al. was successful in localizing insulinomas in 86% of cases and when combined
with CT scanning localized the lesion in 93% of patients.41
This technique is not only beneficial in locating the primary
tumour that may be small and multifocal when associated
with MEN syndrome, but in also detecting occult metastases.42 Failure of this method may occur with nodular and
cystic lesions of the pancreas which occurs with increasing
age making localization more difficult.43
Insulinoma
Figure 4. Endoscopic ultrasound image demonstrating hypoechoic tumour.
Insulinomas are PET’s arising from the insulin producing islet b cells, and are the commonest type of PET.
Although they have a malignant potential the majority of
insulinomas are benign (90%). They are generally found
within the pancreatic parenchyma (Figs. 5 and 6) equally
distributed throughout the gland, with only 3% being found
in ectopic locations. The duodenal mucosa is the
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
327
Table 1
Diagnostic criteria for insulinoma post fasting
Plasma glucose
Plasma insulin
Plasma C-peptide
Plasma proinsulin
Plasma sulphonylurea
Plasma b-hydroxybutyrate
Change in glucose with 1 mg glucagons
Figure 5. Benign insulinoma in the body of the pancreas resected following
splenic preserving distal pancreatectomy.
commonest location for ectopic insulinomas. Usually they
are solitary lesions, however if multiple lesions are identified, MEN 1 syndrome should be considered.
Presentation of insulinomas is with symptoms of
hypoglycemia due to uncontrolled insulin productionconfusion, behavioral changes, blurred vision, fatigue,
seizures, coma and even death. Whipples’ triad of hypoglycemic symptoms in the presence of low plasma glucose levels
and resolution of symptoms following glucose
administration suggest hyperinsulinemia. It should be noted
however, that an insulinoma is an uncommon cause of
hypoglycemia. The commonest cause of hypoglycemia is
the administration of antidiabetic drugs-sulphonylureas and
exogenous insulin.44 It is therefore mandatory to ensure
that hyperinsulinemia is secondary to endogenous insulin
production (Table 1). Commercially available insulin
contains no C-peptide-if measurement of C-peptide is low
then exogenous insulin administration must be suspected.45
Sulphonylureas produce glucose and C-peptide levels
similar to those found with insulinomas, plasma levels of
2.5 mmol/L
6 munits/ml
0.2 nmol/L
0.5 nmol/L
Negative
<2.7 mmol/L
25 mg/dl at 30 min
sulphonylureas should therefore be assessed in the diagnosis
of insulinomas. Following admission to hospital a supervised
fast is conducted with blood assessed every 6 h for glucose,
insulin and C-peptide, or when symptoms occur. The
following are diagnostic for insulinoma: blood glucose
2.5 mmol/l, insulin 6 munits/ml, C-peptide 0.2 nmol/l
and a negative sulphonylurea screen. Nesidiobiosis is
another uncommon cause of hypoglycemia as a result of
diffuse islet cell hyperplasia.
Once the biochemical diagnosis has been made, localization is important to plan treatment options. As insulinomas
are equally distributed throughout the pancreas, a blind resection would fail to remove the tumour in 50% of cases and is
therefore not recommended. If preoperative investigations
fail to demonstrate a lesion that has been biochemically confirmed, intraoperative ultrasound improves localization.46
When intraoperative ultrasound is combined with surgeon palpation and full mobilization of the pancreas, >95% of insulinomas can be localized.47 When all modalities of localisation
fail including intra-operative venous sampling, and given the
low grade of malignancy (10%), so called ‘‘blind resection’’
should not be performed. Close follow up is recommended until the lesion is located. Once localized, surgical resection is the
treatment of choice as it offers the best chance at a cure (Figs. 5
and 6). Procedures employed include enucleation, distal pancreatectomy and pancreaticoduodenectomy procedure. As the
majority of these tumours are benign, enucleation of the lesion
may be feasible when preoperative scans and intraoperative ultrasonography demonstrate that the tumour is separate from
the pancreatic duct by 2e3 mm and surrounding vascular
structures. It is also recommended that these tumours be managed in specialized centres.48 Surgical techniques can be performed open or laparoscopically. Although the conversion rate
is 14%, this most likely represents the learning curve for this
procedure.49 Malignant insulinomas invade locally and metastasise to regional lymph node and the liver. Outcome depends
on the stage of the disease. Malignant insulinomas are
generally solitary and larger than their benign counterparts4 cm or more on average.50 The presence or absence of liver
metastases is a predictor of survival and also dictates treatment
options.51
Gastrinoma
Figure 6. Insulinoma resected from the body of the pancreas.
Gastrinomas are the second commonest PET, occurring
only half as often as insulinomas. They are most
frequently diagnosed in the 5th and 6th decades of life
328
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
with a slight female preponderance. At the time of
diagnosis 50e60% of patients will have evidence of
metastases.52 In 1955 Zollinger-Ellison described a syndrome in a patient with upper jejeunal ulceration, gastric
acid hypersecretion and a tumour of the non-b cells of
the pancreas. Gastrin has been identified as the causative
agent. Patients typically present with symptoms of peptic
ulcer disease in 90% of cases, and a small ulcer is found
in 75% of patients in the 1st part of the duodenum.
Diarrhoea occurs in approximately 40% of patients
as a result of gastric acid hypersecretion. The excess acid
within the intestine lowers intraluminal pH with resultant
damage to the mucosal lining and malabsorption. The
average time to diagnosis may be as long as 5 years.53
Following localisation techniques, described previously,
90% of gastrinomas54 will be located in a well defined area
known as the ‘‘Gastrinoma Triangle’’ e junction of the
pancreatic body and neck, the junction of the 2nd and 3rd
portion of the duodenum and the junction of the cystic
duct and common bile duct (Fig. 7). As many gastrinomas
will have metastasized at the time of diagnosis, imaging
modalities should be directed at the liver as well as the pancreas and duodenum.
The symptoms of acid hypersecretion can be effectively
controlled by proton pump inhibitors in virtually all
patients with ZollingereEllison syndrome. Total gastrectomy and parietal cell vagotomy are therefore generally not
currently indicated for acid control. The dose of proton
pump inhibitor needed to control symptoms is generally
higher than the usual peptic ulcer disease patient. In a study
by Norton and colleagues, a mean of 80 mg of omeprazole
was required to control acid symptoms.55 The long term
effects of prolonged proton pump inhibitor therapy is
however not fully known. The development of carcinoid
tumours in the stomach is rare but has been reported in
Figure 7. Gastrinoma triangle: junction of the pancreatic body and neck,
the junction of the 2nd and 3rd portion of the duodenum and the junction
of the cystic duct and common bile duct.
patients with ZES. In these patients a surgical approach
may be warranted.
As adequate medical therapy now exists to control the
symptoms of acid hypersecretion, debate now centers
around the need for a surgical approach to the primary
tumour. In our opinion, as surgical resection offers the
only potential cure it should be considered in all patients
with localized disease who are fit for surgical resection.
Norton et al have reported a significant increased survival
(98% fifteen year survival) following gastrinoma resection.56 It should also be noted however, the 15 year survival for unresected gastrinomas was 74%. The majority
of non-MEN 1 associated gastrinomas are solitary and
identifiable at laparotomy and are therefore ameniable
to enucleation or resection if locally invasive. Following
resection only 3% developed hepatic metastases after
a 6-year follow-up period compared to 23% without resection.57 The long-term survival and low mortality and
morbidity associated with surgical exploration58 support
its routine use. The role of surgical exploration in gastrinomas associated with MEN 1 is more controversial. Following surgical exploration, only 16% of patients with
MEN 1/ZES were disease free immediately after surgery,
and only 6% were disease free at 5 years.59 A cure of
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome in patients with MEN 1 rarely
occurs.
Glucagonoma
Becker et al. was the first to identify a skin disorder associated with a pancreatic neoplasm in 1942.60 The classical presentation is with the ‘‘4D’s’’ of diabetes, dermatitis,
Figure 8. Necrolytic migratory erythema.
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
deep vein thrombosis and depression. Glucagon has many
important effects on glucose, fat and protein metabolism.
It stimulates gluconeogenesis and inhibits glycolysis within
the liver. In muscle it stimulates muscle breakdown and the
flow of gluconeogenic amino acids alanine and glutamine
from muscle to the liver. Thus in hyperglucagonemia, diabetes mellitus develops at the expense of tissue glycogen
stores in muscle and fat.
The pathognomic rash is known as necrolytic migratory
erythema (Fig. 8) and may appear before other symptoms
of hyperglucagonemia. It is the presenting feature in 70%
of patients with glucagonoma.61 This characteristic rash consists of erythema with superficial areas of epidermal necrosis.
This progresses to epidermal shedding, bullae formation and
crusted erosions. Following treatment and normalization of
glucagons levels, this rash generally resolves.
At the time of presentation the tumours are generally
quiet large (>4 cm) and up to 50% of patients with a glucagonoma will have evidence of distant disease62 most commonly the liver. As the lesions are relatively larger than
other PET’s, localization within the gland is generally not
an issue-the tail of the gland being the commonest location.
Even in the presence of metastases, prolonged survival may
be expected63 and treatment with somatostatin analogues
may benefit symptoms.64
VIPoma
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) acts on the intestinal
lumen to stimulate the secretion of fluids and electrolytes
into the intestine. This combines to result in a profuse
watery diarrhea with loss of water, sodium, chloride and
potassium from the body. This syndrome was initially noted
in 195765 and further characterised by Verner and Morrisson, this syndrome now bears their name.66 The first step
in the management of these patients is the correction of
dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities. Octreotide can
stop diarrhoea, facilitating the correction of electrolyte
disturbance.67 As with other PET’s, complete resection is
the only chance for complete cure. Even in the presence
of metastatic disease, debulking may assist in the post
operative management of VIP hypersecretion.
Somatostatinoma
Somatostatin is produced by the delta cells of the pancreas
and functions in a paracrine fashion to inhibit the secretion of
insulin and glucagon from pancreatic islet cells. Also, it inhibits cholecystkinin mediated release of pancreatic enzymes.
With these functions in mind, hypersecretion of somatostatin
presents with diabetes, malabsorption, steatorrhoea, and cholelithiasis due to reduced gallbladder contractility. These
symptoms are relatively non-specific and thus the majority
of somatostatinomas are diagnosed incidentally68 and confirmed with a fasting somatostatin level >14 mol/L. Metastases are frequently found at presentation.69
329
Treatment for metastatic disease
Surgery offers the only curative treatment by excising
the primary tumour and all lymph node metastases. In a retrospective analysis by Kazanijian et al.70 a 5 year survival
of 77% was noted in patients with PET’s. The presence
of lymph node metastases did not adversely affect prognosis. The survival following curative resection for ZES may
be as high as 86%.59 The surgical procedures performed
vary from enucleation, distal pancreatectomy and pancreaticoduodenectomy. As long term survival can be expected,
even in the presence of lymph node metastases, quality-oflife post surgical resection needs to be considered.
However as >60% of non-insulinoma pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours will have metastasized at the time
of presentation,71,72 in the majority of cases treatment
will be palliative. Even when the tumour is unresectable,
intervention may reduce tumour burden and control
symptoms due to obstruction or hormone over secretion.
Medical management of islet cell carcinomas using
streptozocin based regimens may have response rates
of up to 30e70%. Somatostatin analogues may improve
symptoms by reducing the amount of circulating active
peptide hormones,73 however the disease may eventually
become refractory to such treatment. Alternative interventions include hepatic artery embolisation and chemoembolisation. Hepatic metastases receive the majority of
their blood supply from the hepatic artery, with normal
hepatic tissue receiving its blood from the portal system,
thus enabling more targeted therapy. By selective cannulation of the hepatic artery, chemotherapeutic agents can
be delivered to the metastatic lesion prior to embolisation of the vessel. Many of the studies on hepatic artery
embolisation use mixed carcinoid and PET’s with carcinoid having an inherent better prognosis. However in
a study by Gupta et al. of 54 patients with pancreatic
islet cell tumours, the addition of intra-arterial chemotherapy to hepatic artery embolisation improved
outcome.74
Conclusion
Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours, although uncommon, as a group pose may dilemmas in diagnosis (especially in non-functional PET’s), localization and
treatment. Surgery remains the only potential curative
treatment; however long-term survival can be expected
even in the presence of metastases. With advances in medical management, radiolabelled somatostatin therapy, hepatic arterial chemoembolisation and radiofrequency
ablation, symptoms may be controlled to optimize quality
of life.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest.
330
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
Investigations
Multidetector, dual phase CT,
Endoscopic ultrasound ± FNA cytology
Localised disease
Metastatic disease
Surgery
Staging Laparoscopy + Intraoperative Ultrasound
• Enucleation (where possible)
• Distal, splenic preserving pancreatectomy
• Pancreaticoduodenectomy
• Duodenotomy (gastrinoma)
Liver only
Diffuse
Observation
Chemotherapy
Somatostatin
Isolated
Observation
Hepatic resection
Hepatic artery embolisation
Diffuse
Observation
Chemotherapy systemic
Intra-arterial chemoembolisation
Appendix
WHO classification of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms
Site
Pancreas
Well differenciated
Well differenciated
Well differenciated
Poorly differenciated
, Endocrine tumour
, (Benign behaviour)
, Endocrine tumour
, (Uncertain behaviour)
, endocrine carcinoma
, (Low grade malignant)
, endocrine carcinoma
, (High grade malignant)
Confined to pancreas
<2 cm
Confined to pancreas
2 cm
Small cell carcinoma
Necrosis common
<2 mitoses per 10 HPF
>2 mitoses per 10 HPF
<2% Ki-67 positive cells
No vascular invasion
>2% Ki-67 positive cells
or vascular invasion
Well to moderately differentiated
Gross local invasion and/or
metastases
Mitotic rate often higher
(2e10 per 10 HPF)
Ki-67 index >5%
>10 mitoses per 10 HPF
>15% Ki-67 positive cells
Prominent vascular and/or
perineural invasion
Stomach
Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Well to moderately differentiated Small cell carcinoma
1 cm. No vascular invasion
>1 cm or vascular invasion
Invasion to muscularis propria or
beyond or metastases
Duodenum, upper
Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Well to moderately differentiated Small cell carcinoma
jejunum
1 cm. No vascular invasion
>1 cm or vascular invasion
Invasion to muscularis propria or
beyond or metastases
Ileum, colon, rectum Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Confined to mucosa-submucosa, Well to moderately differentiated Small cell carcinoma
1 cm (small intestine)
>1 cm (small intestine)
Invasion to muscularis propria or
beyond or metastases
2 cm (large intestine).
>2 cm (large intestine) or
No vascular invasion
vascular invasion
Appendix
Non-functioning
Enteroglucagon-producing
Well to moderately differentiated Small cell carcinoma
Confined to appendiceal wall
Confined to subserosa
Invasion to mesoappendix or
beyond or metastases
2 cm. No vascular invasion
>2 cm or vascular invasion
References
1. Moldow RE, Connolly RR. Epidemiology of pancreatic cancer in
Connecticut. Gastroenterology 1968;55:677–86.
2. Danforth DN, Gorden P, Brennan MF. Metastatic insulin-secreting
carcinoma of the pancreas: clinical course and the role of surgery.
Surgery 1984;96:1027–37.
3. Heitz PU, Kasper M, Polak JM, Kloppel G. Pancreatic endocrine
tumours: immunocytochemical analysis of 125 tumors. Hum Pathol
1982;13:263–71.
4. Nicholls AG. Simple adenoma of the pancreas arising from an island
of langerhans. J Med Res 1902;8:385.
5. Larsson L. Endocrine pancreatic tumours. Hum Pathol 1978;9:401.
6. Chen H, Hardacre JM, Uzar A, Cameron JL, Chot MA. Isolated liver
metastases from neuroendocrine tumors: does surgical resection prolong survival? J Am Coll Surg 1998;187:88.
7. Kloppel G, Heitz PU. Pancreatic endocrine tumours. Pathol Res Pract
1988;183:155.
8. Capella C, Heitz PU, Hofler H, Solcia E, Kloppel G. Revised classification of neuroendocrine tumours of the lung, pancreas and gut. Virchows Archiv 1995;425:547.
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
9. Thompson NW, Eckhauser FE. Malignant islet cell tumors of the pancreas. World J Surg 1984;8:940–51.
10. Thompson GB, Van Heerden JA, Grant CS, Carney A, Ilstrup DM. Islet cell carcinomas of the pancreas: a twenty year experience. Surgery
1988;104:1011–7.
11. Grant CS. Surgical management of malignant islet cell tumours. World
J Surg 1993;17:498–503.
12. Weber HC, Venzon DJ, Lin JT. Determinants of metastatic rate and
survival in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: a prospective
long-term study. Gastroenterology 1995;108. 1673e1649.
13. Yu F, Vernon DJ, Serrano J. Prospective study of the clinical course,
prognostic factors and survival in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:615–30.
14. Hochwald SN, Lee S, Conlon KC, et al. Prognostic factors in pancreatic
endocrine neoplasms: an analysis of 136 cases with a proposal for lowgrade and intermediate-grade groups. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:2633–42.
15. Phan GQ, Yeo CJ, Ruben RH. Surgical experience with pancreatic and
per pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours: review of 125 patients. J Gastrointest Surg 1998;2:473–82.
16. Roy P, Venzon DJ, Shojamanesh H. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: clinical presentation in 261 patients. Medicine 2000;79:379–411.
17. Gorman B, Charboneau JW, James EM, Reading CC, Galiber AK,
Grant CS. Benign pancreatic insulinoma: preoperative and intraoperative sonographic localization. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003;181:987–92.
18. Galiber AK, Reading CC, Charboneau JW, Sheedy PF, James EM,
Gorman B. Localization of pancreatic insulinoma: comparison of pre- and
intraoperative US with CT and angiography. Radiology 1988;166:405–8.
19. Vilmann P, Hancke S, Henriksen FW, Jacobsen GK. Endoscopicallyguided fine needle aspiration biopsy of malignant lesions in the upper
gastrointestinal tract. Endoscopy 1993;25:523–7.
20. Anderson MA, Carpenter S, Thompson NW. Endoscopic ultrasound is
highly accurate and directs management in patients with neuroendocrine tumours of the pancreas. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:2271–7.
21. De Angelis C, Carucci P, Repici A, Rizzetto M. Endosonography in
decision making and management of gastrointestinal endocrine tumors. Eur J Ultrasound 1999;10:139–50.
22. McLean AM, Fairclough PD. Endoscopic ultrasound in the localization of pancreatic islet cell tumours. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol
Metab 2005;19:177–93.
23. Zimmer T, Stolzel U, Bader M. Endoscopic ultrasonography and
somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in the preoperative localisation of
insulinomas and gastrinomas. Gut 1996;39:562–8.
24. Cadiot G, Lebtahi R, Sarda L. Preoperative detection of duodenal gastrinomas and peripancreatic lymph nodes by somostatin receptor scintigraphy. Gastroenterology 1996;111:845–54.
25. Mertz H, Gautam S. The learning curve for EUS-guided FNA of pancreatic cancer. Gastrointest Endosc 2004;59:33–7.
26. Gouya H, Vignaux O, Augui J, Dousset B, Palazzo L, Louvel A. CT,
endoscopic sonography, and a combined protocol for preoperative
evaluation of pancreatic insulinomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003;
181:987–92.
27. Brizi MG, Natale L, Manfredi R, Sallustico G, Vecchioli A, Marano P.
High resolution spiral computed tomography of the pancreas. Rays
2001;26:111–5.
28. Van Hoe L, Gryspeerdt S, Marchal G, Baert AL, Merters L. Helical
CT for the preoperative localization of islet cell tumours the pancreas:
value of arterial and parenchymal phase images. Am J Roentgenol
1995;165:1437.
29. Fidler JL, Johnson CD. Imaging of neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas. Intl J Gastrointestinal Cancer 2001;30:73.
30. Smelka RC, Cumming MJ, Shoenut JP, Magro CM, Yaffe CS,
Kroeker MA. Islet cell tumours: comparison of dynamic contrastenhanced CT and MR imaging with dynamic gadolinium enhancement
and fat suppression. Radiology 1993;186:799–802.
31. Muller MF, Meyenberger C, Bertschinger P, Schaer R, Marincek B.
Pancreatic tumors: evaluation with endoscopic US, CT and MR imaging. Radiology 1994;190:745–51.
331
32. Boukhman MP, Karam JM, Shaver J, Siperstein AE, DeLorimer AA,
Clark OH. Localization of insulinomas. Arch Surg 1999;134:818–23.
33. Lo CY, Chan FL, Tam SC, Cheng PW, Fan ST, Lam KS. Value of intraarterial calcium stimulated venous sampling for regionalization of
pancreatic insulinomas. Surgery 2000;128:903–9.
34. Doppman JL, Miller DL, Chang R, Shawker TH, Gorden P, Norton JA.
Insulinomas: localization with selective intraarterial injection of calcium. Radiology 1991;178:237–41.
35. Aoki T, Sakon M, Ohzato H, Kishimoto S, Oshima S, Yamada T. Evaluation of preoperative and intraoperative arterial stimulation and
venous sampling for diagnosis and surgical resection of insulinoma.
Surgery 1999;126:968–73.
36. Doppman JL, Chang R, Fraker DL, Norton JA, Alexander HR,
Miller DL. Localization of insulinomas to regions of the pancreas
by intra-arterial stimulation with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:
269–73.
37. van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW, Krenning EP, Kwekkeboom DJ.
Octreoscan radioceptor imaging. Endocrine 2003;20:307–11.
38. Oberg K, Kvols L, Caplin M, et al. Consensus report on the use of
somatostatin analogs for the management of neuroendocrine tumors of
the gastropancreatic system. Ann Oncol 2004;15:966–73.
39. Knenning EP, Kwekkeboom DJ, Oei HY, et al. Somatostatin receptor
scintigraphy in gastropancreatic tumors: an overview of European
results. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994;733:416.
40. Scherubl H, Boder M, Fett U, et al. Somatostatin receptor imaging of
neuroendocrine gastropancreatic tumors (comment). Gastroenterology
1993;105:1705.
41. Grover AC, Skarulis M, Alexander R, et al. A prospective evaluation
of laparoscopic exploration with intraoperative ultrasound as a technique for localizing sporadic insulinomas. Surgery 2005;138:1003–8.
42. Glaser KS, Tschmelitsch J, Klinger A, Klinger P, Bodner P. ‘‘Is there
a role for laparoscopic ultrasonography (LUS)?’’. Surg Laparosc
Endosc 1995;5:370–5.
43. Rosiere A. Neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas- benefits of new
technologies. Surg Endosc 2005;19:1004–5.
44. Marks V, Teale JD. Hypoglycemia: factitous and felonious. Endocrinol Met Clin North Am 1999;28:579–601.
45. Scarlett JA, Mako ME, Rubenstein AH, Blix PM, Goldman J,
Horwitz DL. Factitious hypoglycemia. Diagnosis by measurement of
serum C-peptide immunoreactivity and insulin binding antibodies.
N Engl J Med 1977;297:1029–32.
46. Grant CS. Insulinoma. Surg Oncol Clin North Am 1998;7:819–44.
47. Buttger TC, Junginger T. Is preoperative radiographic localization of
islet cell tumours in patients with insulinoma necessary? World J
Surg 1993;17:427.
48. Ramage JK, Davies AH, Ardill J, Bax N, Caplin M, Grossman A.
Guidelines for the management of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (including carcinoid) tumours. Gut 2005;54(Suppl 4):1–16. iv.
49. Mabrut JY, Fernandez-Cruz L, Azagra JS, et al. Laparoscopic pancreatic resection: results of a multicentre European study of 127 patients.
Surgery 2005;137:597–605.
50. Danforth DN, Gorden P, Brennan MF. Metastatic insulin-secreting
carcinoma of the pancreas: clinical course and the role of surgery.
Surgery 1988;104:1027–37.
51. Thompson GB, van Heerden JA, Grant CS, Carney JA, Iistrup DM. Islet cell carcinomas of the pancreas: a twenty year experience. Surgery
1988;96:1011–7.
52. Jensen RT. Pancreatic endocrine tumors: recent advances. Ann Oncol
1999;10(Suppl):6.
53. Roy PK, Venzon DJ, Shojamanesh H, et al. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.
Clinical presentation in 261 patients. Medicine 2000;79:379.
54. Howard TJ, Stabile BE, Zinner MJ, Chang S, Bhagavan BS, Passaro E.
Anatomic distribution of pancreatic endocrine tumors. Am J Surg
1990;159:258.
55. Fishbeyn VA, Norton JA, Benya RV, et al. Assessment and prediction
of long-term cure in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: the best
approach. (comment). Ann Intl Med 1993;119:199.
332
H.L. O’Grady, K.C. Conlon / EJSO 34 (2008) 324e332
56. Norton JA, Fraker DL, Alexander HR, et al. Surgery increases survival
in Patients with Gastrinoma. Ann Surg 2006;244:410–9.
57. Norton JA, Doppman JL, Jensen RT. Curative resection in ZollingerEllison syndrome: results of a 10-year prospective study. Ann Surg
1992;215:8–18.
58. Norton JA. Gastrinoma: advances in localization and treatment. Surg
Oncol Clin North Am 1998;7:845–8610.
59. Norton JA, Fraker DL, Alexander HR, et al. Surgery to cure the
Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome. N Engl J Med 1999;341:635–44.
60. Becker SW, Khan D, Rothman S. Cutaneous manifestations of
internal malignant tumours. Arch Dermatol Syphilol 1942;45:1069–80.
61. Werners RA, Fatourechi V, Wynne AG, Kvols LK, Lloyd RV. The glucagonoma syndrome. Clinical and pathologic features in 21 patients.
Medicine 1996;75:53–63.
62. Stacpoole PW. The glucagonoma syndrome: clinical features, diagnosis and treatment. Endocr Rev 1981;2:347.
63. Nightingale KJ, Davies MG, Kingsworth AN. Glucagonoma syndrome:
survival 24 years following diagnosis. Digest Surg 1999;16:68–71.
64. Altimari AF, Bhoopalam N, O’Dorsio T, Lange CL, Sandberg L,
Prinz RA. Use of a somatostatin analogue (SMS 201e995) in the glucagonoma syndrome. Surgery 1986;100:989–96.
65. Priest WM, Alexander MK. Islet-cell tumour of the pancreas with peptic ulceration, diarrhea, and hypokalaemia. Lancet 1957;2:1145.
66. Verner JV, Morrison AB. Islet-cell tumour and a syndrome of refractory watery diarrhea and hypokalaemia. Am J Med 1958;25:374.
67. Maton PN, O’Drisio TM, Howe BA, et al. Effect of long-acting
somatostatin analogue (SMS 201e995) in a patient with pancreatic
cholera. N Engl J Med 1985;17:312.
68. Kazanijian KK, Reber HA, Hines OJ. Resection of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Results of 70 cases. Arch Surg 2006;141:
765–70.
69. Norton JA. Somatostatinoma and rare pancreatic endocrine tumours.
In: Clarke OH, Duh QY, editors. Textbook of endocrine surgery.
Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1997, p. 626.
70. Mozell E, Stenzel P, Woltering EA, Rosch J, O’Doriso TM. Functional
endocrine tumors of the pancreas: clinical presentation, diagnosis, and
treatment. Curr Prob Surg 1990;27:303–86.
71. Perry RR, Vinik A. Clinical review 72. Diagnosis and management of
functioning islet cell tumours. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:
2273–8.
72. Gribril F, Doppman JL, Jensen RT. Recent advances in the treatment
of metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Semin Gastrointestin
Dis 1995;6:114–21.
73. Arnold R, Trautmann ME, Creutzfedt W. Somatostatin analogue
octreotide and inhibition of tumour growth in metastatic endocrine
gastroenteropancreatic tumours. Gut 1996;38:430–80.
74. Gupta S, Johnson MM, Murthy R, et al. Hepatic arterial embolization
and chemoembolization for the treatment of patients with metastatic
neuroendocrine tumours. Variables affecting response rates and survival. Cancer 2005;104:1590–602.