Antimicrobials

Purpose This study aims to compare the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of different parts (tip, mid and base portion) of lemongrass leaves for application as a natural ingredient in the functional drink. Design/methodology/approach Lemongrass leaf powder was prepared from different parts of leaves and evaluated for nutritional composition. Additionally, the extracts of different portions of lemongrass leaves were analyzed for total phenolics, free radical scavenging activities, ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and antimicrobial activities for their application in food products. Findings Tip portion of lemongrass leaf anticipated significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of ash, protein, calcium, potassium and iron i.e. 6.2 mg/100 g, 18 mg/100 g, 340 ppm, 819 ppm and 32 ppm, respectively. Maximum (p < 0.05) phenolics (14.7 mg GAE/100 g), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydroxyl (86.3%) and FRAP (200 mmol/100 g) were observed in lemongrass leaf tip methanolic extracts. M...

Successful experiments with tri-sodium citrate as initial surfactant-cum-reducing agent followed by a secondary reducing agent i.e. sodium formaldehyde sulphoxylate (SFS) to silver nitrate were performed which established a clear large-scale method for the preparation of silver nano- powder of particle size of less than 50 nm. The citrate ions also create hydrophilic capping to in-situ generated zero-valent silver, thus leading to surfactant capped particles. Partial re-dispersion of such nano-powder in aqueous medium leads to colloidal silver which can be loaded in water friendly polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP). UV–Visible absorption band at about 275 and 400 nm of colloidal silver in water can be retained even after loading in polymer. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the colloidal solution showed a particle of the size b30 nm. Particle size distribution by dynamic light scattering technique (DLS) showed that the particles are in the range of 10– 40 nm. The elemental composition was studied by energy dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDS

Increasing multiple drug resistance of microorganisms to certain antibiotics is a major health problem of the current clinical practice. Therefore, development of novel broad
range antimicrobial agents and increasing efficiency of existing antibiotics are under great interest among scientists. Some psychotropic drugs not only reverse microbial antibiotic
resistance but also exhibit direct antimicrobial activity against several biological targets. In the present study, 16 different psychotropic drugs including sertraline, paroxetine,
aripiprazole, fluvoxamine, moclobemide, venlafaxine, mianserin, trazodone, mirtazapine, clomipramine,
alprazolam, escitalopram, citaloprame, fluoxetine, gabapentin and reboxetine have been examined for their antimicrobial properties against wide range of bacteria, yeast and fungi using disc-diffusion and micro-well dilution assays. The results revealed that except FOR gabapentin, venlafaxine, moclobemide and alprazolam,  the remaining drugs tested in this study showed various antimicrobial activities. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor group drugs including sertraline, paroxetine, fluvoxamine and fluoxetine displayed broad range
antibacterial activity compared to other psychotropic drugs. Among them, sertraline was also found to be effective against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Exploring antimicrobial activities will increase the use and application of these psychotropic drugs in clinical approaches. However, in vivo studies and clinical trials are strictly required to evaluate efficiencies of these chemicals for the treatment of systemic microbial infections.

Abstract A multidisciplinary approach is being used to identify and validate virulence factors and determinants of bacteria of the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc). Bcc is a group of problematic opportunistic pathogenic bacteria, particularly among cystic fibrosis patients, ...

The number of nosocomial infections related to
implants and medical devices increase alarmingly worldwide.
New strategies based on the design of antimicrobial coatings
are required to prevent such infections. Polyelectrolyte
“multilayer” films constitute a powerful tool for nanoscale
surface functionalization which allows addressing this issue. By
investigating films built up with poly(arginine) (PAR) of
various chain lengths (10, 30, 100, and 200 residues) and
hyaluronic acid (HA), we demonstrate that exclusively films
constructed with poly(arginine) composed of 30 residues
(PAR30) acquire a strong antimicrobial activity against Gram-
positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria associated
with infections of medical devices. This chain-size effect is extremely striking and is the first example reported where the length of
the polyelectrolytes played a key-role in the functionality of the films. Moreover, this unexpected functionality of nanolayered
polypeptide/polysaccharide PAR30/HA films occurs without adding any specific antimicrobial agent, such as antibiotics or
antimicrobial peptides. PAR30/HA film inhibits bacteria through a contact-killing mechanism due to the presence of mobile
PAR30 chains. These chains are assumed to diffuse toward the interface, where they interact with the bacteria with the consequence of killing them. This new coating with unique properties based on the association of a homopolypeptide of 30 residues with a polysaccharide constitutes a simple system to prevent implant-related infections with a reasonable production cost.

Objectives: This study aimed to assess the knowledge of the residents in Greater Lagro, Quezon City, Philippines on antimicrobials and the development of antimicrobial resistance. Methodology: A questionnaire-based survey was conducted on 340 residents in Greater Lagro, Quezon City, Philippines, whereby their knowledge regarding antimicrobial use and the development of antimicrobial resistance was assessed by using a five point Likert scale, whose responses ranged from " no knowledge " to " very knowledgeable. " Findings: The study showed that the community residents were partly knowledgeable on antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance. Conclusion: The lack of knowledge on antimicrobials and the development of antimicrobial resistance is a fundamental public health problem that could lead to ineffective treatment as well as antimicrobial resistance.

The alarming increase of resistance against multiple currently available antibiotics is leading to a rapid lose of treatment options against infectious diseases. Since the antibiotic resistance is partially due to a misuse or abuse of the antibiotics, this situation can be reverted when improving their use. One strategy is the optimization of the antimicrobial dosing regimens. In fact, inappropriate drug choice and sub-optimal dosing are two major factors that should be considered because they lead to the emergence of drug resistance and consequently, poorer clinical outcomes. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis in combination with Monte Carlo simulation allows to optimize dosing regimens of the antibiotic agents in order to conserve their therapeutic value. Therefore, the aim of this review is to explain the basis of the PK/PD analysis and associated techniques, and provide a brief revision of the applications of PK/PD analysis from a therapeutic point-of-view. The establishment and reevaluation of clinical breakpoints is the sticking point in antibiotic therapy as the clinical use of the antibiotics depends on them. Two methodologies are described to establish the PK/PD breakpoints, which are a big part of the clinical breakpoint setting machine. Furthermore, the main subpopulations of patients with altered characteristics that can condition the PK/PD behavior (such as critically ill, elderly, pediatric or obese patients) and therefore, the outcome of the antibiotic therapy, are reviewed. Finally, some recommendations are provided from a PK/PD point of view to enhance the efficacy of prophylaxis protocols used in surgery.

The study assessed adherence rates and associated factors in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) patients registered on the Chronic Medicines Dispensing and Distribution (CCMDD) programme in the public Primary Health Care (PHC) set in South Africa (SA) and the role a pharmacist could be played in ARV adherence. Data were collected from 100 HIV-infected patients during a descriptive cross-sectional study using a standardized-questionnaire and face-to-face-exit interviews. Pill-counts technique was performed and adherence-rate of 95% considered acceptable. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22.0. Univariate factors associated with poor-adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) were assessed using ANOVA and a p ≤ 0.05 is considered statistically significant. Of 100 HIV-infected, 74 were females and 26 males with mean-age (± SD) of 38.98 (± 9.24) years enrolled on HAART for more than 36 months. Of these, 26 and 36 were on WHO stages 2 and 3 respectively. Adherence-rates computed from 76 patients revealed 43 (56.6%) having poor adherence-rate and 33 (43.4%) with acceptable adherence rate. Of the demographic factors analyzed age and educational background had an influence on adherence rates with p = 0.087 and 0.097 respectively. Other factors associated with acceptable adherence were: WHO staging (p = 0.016), recent CD4 count (p = 0.07), adverse effects (p = 0.073), stigma (p = 0.027). Of the different areas with waiting times, reception and pharmacy were statistically significant with p = 0.095 and 0.042 respectively.

The antimicrobial activity of different solvent extracts (hydro alcoholic extracts of methanol) of different parts of Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl was evaluated for its antimicrobial potential.  The in vitro antimicrobial activity was evaluated by agar well diffusion method. Extraction was done by individual cold percolation method. The antimicrobial activity was tested against five Gram positive bacteria, five Gram negative bacteria and four fungi.  The MIC and MBC was also determined, including five antibiotics. All the parts possessed antimicrobial activity but to a different level.  The extracts showed better antifungal activity than antibacterial activity and Gram negative bacteria were more susceptible than Gram positive bacteria. The peel showed lowest MIC and MBC values indicating the therapeutic value of agro waste material.

This paper provides an introduction to the sanitization and bio-decontamination of pharmaceutical facilities. Pharmaceutical facilities are made up of a series of rooms called cleanrooms. Cleanrooms are also found in many healthcare facilities. Cleanrooms and zones are typically classified according to their use (the main activity within each room or zone) and are confirmed by the cleanliness of the air by the measurement of particles. Cleanrooms are used in several industries, including the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and in the electronics industry. For pharmaceutical cleanrooms, air cleanliness is either based on EU GMP guidance for aseptically filled products, and
the EU GMP alphabetic notations are adopted; or by using the International Standard ISO14644, where numerical classes are adopted. The cleanliness of the air is controlled by an HVAC system (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning).

Pharmaceutical Microbiology: Essentials for Quality Assurance and Quality Control presents that latest information on protecting pharmaceutical and healthcare products from spoilage by microorganisms, and protecting patients and consumers. With both sterile and non-sterile products, the effects can range from discoloration to the potential for fatality.

The book provides an overview of the function of the pharmaceutical microbiologist and what they need to know, from regulatory filing and GMP, to laboratory design and management, and compendia tests and risk assessment tools and techniques. These key aspects are discussed through a series of dedicated chapters, with topics covering auditing, validation, data analysis, bioburden, toxins, microbial identification, culture media, and contamination control.

Resumo: As plantas medicinais constituem uma alternativa no tratamento primário da saúde, através de seus
compostos bioativos vegetais e óleos essenciais que apresentam potencial multifuncional contra microrganismos
patogênicos. O uso conjugado com drogas sintéticas pode resultar em interações indesejáveisprejudiciais ao
organismo, através de mudanças no mecanismo de ação, que além de promover reações adversas às respostas
farmacológicas esperadas, tem como principal consequência a multirresistência dos microorganismos. Este
trabalho teve como objetivo verificar na literatura científica relatos sobre os principais produtos naturais mais
comumente utilizados que possuem atividade antimicrobiana, que podem ser aplicados na substituição de
fármacos sintéticos, frente à patógenos de interesse humano. Realizou-se um levantamento bibliográfico em
diversas bases de dados, na busca de testes clínicos, in vitro e in vivo e relatos de casos que demonstrassem a
ação antimicrobiana de produtos naturais. Relacionada às doenças infecciosas de fator preocupante a saúde
pública, as espécies patogênicas mais citadas na literatura foram a E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus e C. albicans.
Das espécies de plantas frequentes no consumo da população, foram selecionadas seis (Matricaria
chamomomilla, Ocimum gratissimum, Punica granatum L., Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum e
Uncaria tumentosa) das mais utilizadas, além da Própolis, ambas apresentaram atividade antimicrobiana positiva,
com ação inibitória similar ou superior aos antibióticos. Nesta perspectiva, estudos detalhados sobre o
mecanismo de ação dos produtos naturais sob o organismo humano, visam avanços na prevenção e tratamento de
diversas doenças. Palavras-chave: Antibióticos. Fitoterapia. Interação medicamentosa.
Abstract: Medicinal plants are an alternative in the primary health treatment, through its bioactive plant
compounds and essential oils that have multifunctional potential against pathogenic microorganisms. The
combined use of natural and synthetic drugs can result in undesirable interactions that are detrimental to the
organism, through changes in the mechanism of action, which in addition to promoting adverse reactions to the
expected pharmacological responses, has as main consequence the multiresistance of microorganisms. This work
aimed to verify in the scientific literature reports on the main natural products most commonly used that have
antimicrobial activity, which can be applied in the substitution of synthetic drugs, against pathogens of human
interest. A bibliographic survey was carried out in several databases, searching for clinical, in vitro and in vivo
tests and case reports that demonstrated the antimicrobial action of natural products. Related to infectious
diseases of concern to public health, the pathogenic species most cited in the literature were E. coli, P.
aeruginosa, S. aureus and C. albicans. Of the plant species that were common to the population, six (Matricaria
chamomomilla, Ocimum gratissimum, Punica granatum L., Rosmarinus officinalis, Syzygium aromaticum and
Uncaria tumentosa) were selected from the most used, besides Propolis, both showed positive antimicrobial
activity similar to or higher than antibiotics. In this perspective, detailed studies on the mechanism of action of
natural products under the human body, aim at advances in the prevention and treatment of various diseases.
Keywords: Antibiotics. Phytotherapy. Drug interaction.

Many plant species are used in the different parts of the world since ancient time to control various pathogenic bacteria. This work was designed to assess the antibacterial activities of aqueous and methanol extracts of Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum chinense fruits against eight pathogenic bacterial strains. The plant extracts were assessed for the presence of large classes of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, phytosterols, phenol, carbohydrate, protein, reducing sugar and capsaicin. The aqueous and methanol extracts of three varieties of capsicum fruits showed wide antibacterial activities against the different human pathogenic bacteria. From this result it is concluded that capsicum fruits may serve as natural bactericidal agents for the treatment of various infectious diseases caused by different Gram positive and Gram negative human pathogenic bacteria.

The air-dried leaves of Dillenia philippinensis, commonly known as “katmon” afforded betulinic acid (1) and 3-oxoolean-12-en-30-oic acid (2) by silica gel chromato-graphy. Their structures were elucidated by extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited moderate activity against the fungus Candida albicans and slight activity against the bacteria E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and B. subtilis. Compound 2 exhibited slight activity against T. mentagrophytes, while 1 was inactive against this fungus. Both compounds were inactive against A. niger.

Antibiotics  provide  the  main  basis  for  the  therapy  of microbial  (bacterial  and
fungal)  infections.  Since  the  discovery  of  these  antibiotics  and  their  uses  as
chemotherapeutic  agents  there  was  a  belief  in  the  medical  fraternity  that  this
would  lead  to  the  eventual  eradication  of  infectious  diseases.  There  is  a
continuous  and  urgent  need  to  discover  new  antimicrobial  compounds  with
diverse  chemical  structures  and  novel  mechanisms  of  action  because  there  has
been  an  alarming  increase  in  the  incidence  of  new  and  re-emerging  infectious
diseases. Another big concern is the development of resistance to the antibiotics
in  current  clinical  use.  In  recent  years,  drug  resistance  to  human  pathogenic
bacteria  has  been  commonly  reported  from  all  over  the  world.  In  the  present
scenario  of  emergence  of  multiple  drug  resistance  to  human  pathogenic
organisms, this has necessitated a search for new antimicrobial substances from
other  sources  including  plants.  Higher  plants  produce  hundreds  to  thousands  of
diverse  chemical  compounds  with  different  biological  activities.  The
antimicrobial compounds produced by plants are active against plant and human
pathogenic microorganisms. It is expected that plant extracts showing target sites
other than those used by antibiotics will be active against drug-resistant microbial
pathogens.

Chitosan a natural polymer available and easy to produce in countless parts of the world; is a material that can significantly improve the standard of living in developing countries where the industry is often surpassing the need to protect the environment and/or where the environment protection is strongly dependent on limited financial resources available to those in charge of environmental protection. Its physicochemical properties such as its poor solubility in water or in organic solvents limit its utilization for a specific application. A smart way is to impart new properties to chitosan is its chemical modification of chain, generally by grafting of functional groups without disturbing the initial skeleton in order to keep the original properties intact. In this way the modified chitosan offers huge relevance in terms of its modified derivatives. The present review is dedicated to the advancements in the chitosan based derivatives and their special attention in food industry as the packaging material is also addresse

La recherche des conservateurs antimicrobiens d’origine végétale est un objectif indispensable à
l’heure où le monde s’alarme de la dangerosité que présentent certains conservateurs antimicrobiens
actuels. Dans ce sens, nous avons élus deux plantes endémiques du Maroc : le laurier noble (Laurus
nobilis L.) et le thym satureioides (thymus satureioides C.), connues pour leurs propriétés
antimicrobiennes.
En effet, les huiles essentielles (HE) de ces plantes ont été extraites par hydrodistillation des feuilles
pour le laurier noble et des tiges feuillées pour le thym satureioides et analysées par GC/FID. La
teneur moyenne en HE du laurier noble était de 1,7% et du thym satureioides 1,01% par rapport à la
matière sèche. Pour le laurier noble, 45 composés ont été identifiés avec une prédominance de
l’Eucalyptol (30,52 %) ; et pour le thym satureioides, 52 composés ont été identifiés dont 5 étaient
quantitativement majoritaires : Thymol (28,66 %), Bornéol (21,16 %), Alpha-Terpinéol (12,33 %),
Béta-Caryophyllène (6,39%) et Carvone (5,49%). L’étude de l’activité antimicrobienne à l’aide de
l’aromatogramme et la CMI/CMB a montré que le spectre d’action de l’HE du laurier noble ne
couvrait pas les 5 souches microbiennes testées (3 bactéries et 2 champignons) et recommandées par la
Pharmacopée Européenne, notamment, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, tandis que l’HE du thym a montré
un spectre d’activité complet, raison pour laquelle, nous l’avons qualifiée pour subir le challenge test.
Les résultats de cette essai ont montré que l’utilisation de cette HE tant qu’agent conservateur
antimicrobien d’une solution de bain de bouche était en conformité avec les critères d’acceptation.
A la lumière de ces résultats, l’HE de Thymus satureioides C. pourrait être utilisée comme un
conservateur naturel substituant les conservateurs antimicrobiens conventionnels, présumés dangereux
et cancérigènes. Des applications dans l’industrie pharma-cosmétique et/ou alimentaire sont désormais
possibles.

Despite the increase in popularity of hand sanitizers (HS) in Nigeria, there is a dearth of literature on the efficacies of these products. This study assessed the efficacies of four popular brands of HS in Nigeria against some clinically important bacterial pathogens. Using the well variant of the agar dilution
method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility and the broth dilution method to determine minimum inhibitory concentration, the activities of the HS (HSF, HSM, HDT, and HSK) were evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumonia. Each of the products displayed varying activities against the test organisms. HSM had the highest inhibitory effect against all the test organisms, while HSF was the least effective. S. aureus was the most susceptible organism, with the highest susceptibility to HSM (12.0 mm). P. aeruginosa was the most resistant organism, with the highest resistance to HSM (9.0 mm). Each of the HS was bacteriostatic against all of the test bacteria and none displayed bactericidal activity. HSM and HDT reduced the mean colonyforming unit (cfu) counts of bacteria on the hands of subjects by 72% and 62%, respectively. A onetailed t-test showed that HSM was more effective than HDT in this regard. None of the products could reduce bacterial counts by 99.9%, as the manufacturers claim. Such claims need to be verified to ensure that these products contain the correct quantities of active ingredients, and sellers need to store such products according to the manufacturers’ instructions.

A  new  and  novel  approach  for  the  green  synthesis  of  silver
nanoparticles  is  the  need  of  the  hour.  Use  of  plant  parts  for  the
synthesis of silver nanoparticles is ecofriendly, economic and cost
effective. In the present paper, silver nanoparticles were synthesized
using  aqueous  stem  extract  of Cassia  roxburghii DC  as  a  reducing
agent.  The  biosynthesized  AgNPs  were  characterized  by  various
spectral analysis like UV–Vis, FTIR, XRD, TEM and Zeta potential
measurement. UV–vis spectra showed maxima absorption peak at
432  nm.  XRD  and  TEM  analysis  revealed  AgNPs  to  be  facecentered, cubic structures spherical in shape with an average particle
size of 32-35 nm.
The synergistic antibacterial activity was evaluated against two Gram
positive,  two  Gram  negative  bacteria  and  four  fungi  with  fifteen
commercial antibiotics alone and antibiotics plus synthesized AgNPs.
Antioxidant  activity  of  AgNPs  was  evaluated  by  ABTS  and  FRAP
assay.  The  AgNPs  showed  synergistic  antibacterial  activity  even
better than some antibiotics and also good  antioxidant activity. The
results suggest that Cassia roxburghii stem could be exploited for the
fabrication  of  AgNPs  with  potential  therapeutic  application  in
nanomedicine especially against multi drug resistant microorganisms
which  are  cost  effective  and  ecofriendly  and  simple.  They  can  be
definitely used in cosmetics, medical and pharmaceutical applications

Background: Until now, very few studies have investigated the susceptibility profile of biocides to nosocomial pathogens and none reported in the Saudi Arabia. Hence, the aim of this study was to detect the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of a range of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria: Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae against three common hospital disinfectants: chlorhexidine, benzalkonium chloride and cetrimide. Methods: The in vitro susceptibility tests of the three biocides were studied against 21 MDR A. baumannii, 11 MDR P. aeruginosa and 3 MDR K. pneumoniae strains, isolated from various clinical specimens in the Qassim region, Saudi Arabia. The susceptibility testing was performed by broth microdilution method following Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Results : Among 35 isolates tested, there was no reduced susceptibility observed in A. baumannii and K. pneumoniae, however, two isolates of P. aeruginosa were showed reduced susceptibility (> 512 µg/mL) against benzalkonium chloride and cetrimide. Conclusion :Our observations imply that reduced susceptibility was observed with quaternary ammonium compounds against P. aeruginosa and no apparent relationship exists between specific disinfectants and their multidrug resistance character in A. baumannii and K. pneumoniae. Further studies are required to confirm these results in terms of biocides resistance.

Dès 1917, dans l'article où il décrit ses premières observations et propose le nom de bactériophage, Félix d'Hérelle rapporte une première utilisation de ces virus pour traiter des infections bactériennes, donnant ainsi naissance à la pha-gothérapie. Le développement de cette application a montré qu'il était possible de mettre en place des traitements ciblant spécifiquement les bactéries, tels que ceux basés sur l'utilisation d'antibiotiques. Ces derniers, de par leur très grande effica-cité et simplicité d'utilisation, ont provoqué le quasi-abandon de la phagothérapie. Aujourd'hui, un nombre croissant de bactéries pathogènes pour l'homme présente des phénotypes de résistance à plusieurs familles d'antibiotiques. Les infections causées par ces bactéries imposent l'utilisation de molécules au spectre d'activité toujours plus large et placent certains patients en situation d'impasse thérapeu-tique. Cet état de fait a relancé les recherches pour permettre le déploiement de la phagothérapie afin de traiter des patients mais aussi des animaux et des plantes. En fait, les domaines d'applications thérapeutiques des bactériophages s'élargissent au fur et à mesure que les agents antibactériens de nature chimique sont remis en cause, voire interdits. Cette revue revient sur les principes fondamentaux des applications thérapeutiques des bactériophages et expose les données récentes dans les domaines pour lesquels une exploitation commerciale est en cours ou sur le point d'émerger.

Abstract. In the 1917 article in which Félix d'Hérelle describes his first observations and proposes the name of bacteriophage, he also reports the first use of these viruses to treat bacterial infections, thus giving birth to phage therapy. Soon after antibiotics supplanted bacteriophages. Today, bacteria resistant to multiple antibiotics become a growing public health issue worldwide. This situation has revived research aiming at developing the antibacterial activity of bacteriophages to treat patients as well as diseases in animals and plants. In fact, the areas of applications of bacteriophages as antibacterial are widening as current solutions of chemical nature are questioned. This review summarizes the basic principles of therapeutic applications of bacteriophages and presents recent data in areas where commercial exploitation is occurring or about to emerge.

All stakeholders within the livestock industry face a considerable challenge in achieving a balance between economic viability, environmental responsibility and social acceptability; and thus maintaining sustainable food production. This is exacerbated by information about farming practices and management systems that accentuate consumer concerns and lead to confusion as to the roles of productivity, efficiency and animal health in modern agriculture. The suggestions that intensive farms or large-scale herds have negative effects on cattle health; that we can assess cattle welfare by applying anthropomorphic philosophies; and that extensive systems are inherently beneficial to the environment, appear to be intuitively correct. Yet these suppositions are not as simple as they are often presented in mass media articles aimed at the consumer and lead to a multitude of other questions. Although it is tempting to try and overcome these issues by providing factual information, we cannot overcome negative publicity simply by supplying data and statistics. As an industry, we need to combine improved communication mechanisms with a better understanding of how consumer food-buying decisions are made to ensure future social acceptability and sustainability.

Hospital and community-acquired infections are a serious problem worldwide often leading to increased deaths,
costs and other problems. Hand hygiene has been promoted as the most important way to prevent these
infections. The use of hand sanitizers is one of the ways to address the barriers to effective hand hygiene. In this
study, we evaluated the antibacterial efficacy of some popular hand sanitizers sold in Ilorin. The well-variant of
the agar diffusion test was used to evaluate the efficacy of the products against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Hygel alone inhibited all the test
organisms with zones of inhibition ranging between 14.3mm and 28.0mm while Dettol was only effective
against P. aeruginosa (14.5mm). The other products (SKP and Samcleans) were not active against any of the test
organisms. Hygel and Dettol were bacteriostatic at 100% concentration (MIC) and none was bactericidal. In vivo
tests to determine the efficacy of these two in reducing bacterial counts from hands of subjects showed mean
percentage cfu reduction of 89.9% for Hygel and 73.8% for Dettol. There was no significant difference in the
efficacy of the two products in this regard. Despite the claims of efficacy and 99.9% bacterial count reduction by
hand sanitizer manufacturers, there still exists a need for verification of these claims by regulatory bodies and for
the enforcement of good quality control measures.