Cannabinoids

The active ingredient of marijuana is(−)-Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol(Δ 9 -THC).Δ 9 -THC and other natural and synthetic cannabinoids such as CP-55, 940 inhibit spontaneous activity and produce catalepsy in animals in a receptor-mediated fashion. Tolerance develops to the motor ...

This article is organized as follows. The background section describes the case of newly legalized recreational marijuana. It introduces Portland, Oregon as a hub of ethical consumerism and environmental mobilization; outlines the status of recreational marijuana in Oregon and in the United States; highlights environmental issues related to the cannabis production; and describes an uptick in ethical consumerism of other recreational drugs in the United States. Next, the theoretical framework organizes extant research on political consumerism and suggests how this study may contribute to knowledge on emerging industries, the role of stigmas in framing, and power dynamics at the retail level of analysis. Following, the methodology section describes the three methods used in this study: qualitative analysis of internet research, networking, and semi­structured interviews; quantitative analysis of data collected at a random sample of 64 dispensaries; and spatial and statistical analysis relating the dispensary findings to socio­demographic indicators. The findings section offers what the author believes to be the first account of ethical consumerism in the licit recreational marijuana sector. It demonstrates that there is, indeed, a nascent “political consumerism movement” in the licit, recreational marijuana sector. The movement is largely industry­driven and is marked by an absence of third sector actors (such as environmental NGOs, fair trade certification organizations, and agricultural justice advocates). Mobilization efforts are challenged by two distinct stigmas: cannabis cultivation as a “natural” (and thus necessarily environmentally­friendly) process, and the marijuana industry as a “criminal” enterprise (which may deter potential allies). Interestingly, the distribution of “ethical” pot is quite consistent across neighborhoods of different socio­economic compositions­­in contrast to most ethically­oriented products. The paper closes with a discussion of these findings, their implications, and suggestions for further research.

Serotonin, acting in the peripheral nervous system, can exacerbate sleep-related apnea, and systemically administered serotonin antagonists reduce sleep-disordered respiration in rats and bulldogs. Because cannabinoid receptor agonists are known to inhibit the excitatory effects of serotonin on nodose ganglion cells, we examined the effects of endogenous (oleamide) and exogenous (delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol; delta9THC) cannabimimetic agents on sleep-related apnea. Sleep architecture, respiratory pattern, and apnea expression in rats were assessed by polysomnography. A repeated measures, within-subjects, fully nested crossover design was used in which each animal was recorded on exactly 12 occasions. Eleven adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were instrumented for chronic polysomnography. Animals were recorded following intraperitoneal injection of various doses of delta9THC, oleamide, and serotonin, alone and in combination. Our data show that delta9THC and oleamide each stabilized respi...

Abstract: Cannabis is a federally controlled substance, it’s very familiar to many but its neurobiological substrates are not well-characterized. In the brain, most areas prevalently having cannabinoid receptors have been associated with behavioral control and cognitive effects due to cannabinoids. Study over the last several decades suggested cannabinoids (CBs) exert copious oftentimes opposite effects on countless neuronal receptors and processes. In fact, owing to this plethora of effects, it’s still cryptic how CBs trigger neuronal circuits. Cannabis use has been revealed to cause cognitive deficits from basic motor coordination to more complex executive functions, for example, the aptitude to plan, organize, make choices, solve glitches, remember, and control emotions as well as behavior. Numerous factors like age of onset and duration of cannabis use regulate the severity of the difficulties. People with the cannabis-linked deficiency in executive functions have been found to ...

Cannabinoids and opioids interact in a number of ways that could be therapeutically beneficial. The CB1 re- ceptors are implicated with the endocannabinoid-mediated modulation of stress, pain, visceral sensation, synaptic plasticity in the thalamus via GABAergic signaling. Thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) is a thin sheet of GABAergic neurons surrounding anterolateral surface of the thalamus. In our immunohistochem- ical study we demonstrated expression of CB1 immunoreactive neurons in a light microscope during a nor- mal condition and after the acute stress in the rats. We found higher expression of CB 1 immunoreactivity in stressed animals compared with control group. Opioids and cannabinoids have been shown to have analgesic properties and they are considered as drug tar- gets for the treatment of numerous neurological disorders, pain and stress. Key words: Thalamic reticular nucleus, CB 1 receptors, immobilization stress, rat

The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as "designer drugs," or "new psychoactive substances" (NPS), is increasing at an alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e., "bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., "spice") are two types of NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low recreational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desirable effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS, there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we provide a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action and neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabino...

The drug design has several branches of development, such as irrational selection, rational search and newer layering, computer subtraction, biological mapping of biological objects, simulation of the target and the drug.
One way or another, the share of rational search and human intellectual activity in the process of developing the design of preparations is, as before, great. Biomolecular mapping and mathematical models are not able to replace the accumulated experience in the design, and as a result, the drug design develops new theoretical methods. One of these methods is to regulate the activity and strength of the drug, through the use of radicals with more or less complementary interaction forces.
The degree of conformity of the chemical compound drug and the target is measured by several quantities: This is the geometric correspondence of the placement of the necessary chemical radicals. This is a quantitative match and a qualitative match. As well as compliance with the degree of mobility, the dynamic behavior of the molecule. Regulation of the activity of a substance is an important parameter that allows you to create drugs with convenient dosage or high safety.
To achieve high safety performance, a method of reducing the energy of the bond between the drug and the target is used. This approach makes it possible to establish a low ceiling of maximum activity. Even in case of overdose. these drugs show low activity, which eliminates the development of critical side effects. .. ...

Background and purpose:Evidence indicates that the endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), increases food intake when injected into the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcS), thereby potentially activating hypothalamic nuclei involved in food intake regulation. We aimed to evaluate potential orexigenic effects of the endocannabinoid anandamide and of AA5HT, a fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, and OMDM-1, an inhibitor of anandamide uptake, injected in the NAcS, as well as the effect of these treatments on activation of hypothalamic nuclei.Evidence indicates that the endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), increases food intake when injected into the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcS), thereby potentially activating hypothalamic nuclei involved in food intake regulation. We aimed to evaluate potential orexigenic effects of the endocannabinoid anandamide and of AA5HT, a fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, and OMDM-1, an inhibitor of anandamide uptake, injected in the NAcS, as well as the effect of these treatments on activation of hypothalamic nuclei.Experimental approach:Drugs were given into the NAcS of rats and food intake quantified during the next 4 h. In other groups, after the same treatments the brains were processed for c-Fos immunohistochemistry with focus on hypothalamic nuclei. Additional groups were used to quantify endocannabinoid levels in the nucleus accumbens and the hypothalamus after AA5HT and OMDM-1 intra-NAcS injections.Drugs were given into the NAcS of rats and food intake quantified during the next 4 h. In other groups, after the same treatments the brains were processed for c-Fos immunohistochemistry with focus on hypothalamic nuclei. Additional groups were used to quantify endocannabinoid levels in the nucleus accumbens and the hypothalamus after AA5HT and OMDM-1 intra-NAcS injections.Key resultsOur results indicate that the above treatments stimulate food intake during 4 h post-injection. They also increase c-Fos immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei. The CB1 antagonist, AM251, blocked these effects. Finally, we found elevated levels of 2-AG, but not anandamide, after intra-NAcS injections of AA5HT.Our results indicate that the above treatments stimulate food intake during 4 h post-injection. They also increase c-Fos immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei. The CB1 antagonist, AM251, blocked these effects. Finally, we found elevated levels of 2-AG, but not anandamide, after intra-NAcS injections of AA5HT.Conclusions and implications:These data support the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in feeding behavior at the level of the NAcS and hypothalamus. In addition, this is the first experimental demonstration that the pharmacological inhibition of endocannabinoid inactivation in the NAcS stimulates food intake, suggesting that the endocannabinoid degrading proteins can be a target for treating eating disorders.British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 151, 1109–1116; doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707313These data support the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in feeding behavior at the level of the NAcS and hypothalamus. In addition, this is the first experimental demonstration that the pharmacological inhibition of endocannabinoid inactivation in the NAcS stimulates food intake, suggesting that the endocannabinoid degrading proteins can be a target for treating eating disorders.British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 151, 1109–1116; doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707313

This essay is  a comprehensive review on recent studies that related directly with cannabis essential oils. Five journal articles with various of application fields, different locations, in-dept analysis of cannabis chemical compounds, and comparison between hemp and marijuana are compared, and critically analyzed. Each individual journal article was summarized and evaluated to identify strength, weakness, and opportunity for further study. The results show that the trend of cannabis research is not only targeted to medical or few compounds like CBD or THC anymore, but rather than broader range of applications and more focused on terpenes and terpenoids that give different effects to multiple applications. This results study will lead new researchers to the current trend and perhaps, breakthrough of new utilization of cannabis plants.

Non-narcotic opioids and cannabinoids as potential analgesic agents. It is known that cannabinoids and opioids have a central analgesic effect. it is also known that they are active and with local application. For example, ointments based on marijuana are active as well as ointment on the basis of rapidly degrading endogenous endorphins and enkephalins. Such drugs alleviate pain in inflammatory processes, chronic pain, and hypothetically can be effective in cases of injury. But for the full activity of these forms of drugs are not sufficiently active. Overcoming chronic pain is an unresolved issue, despite the development of numerous drugs, various groups and types of actions and other efforts. In this paper, it is proposed to consider in more detail the possibilities of the drug design in this area, with examples of opioids and cannabinoids, in order to achieve new results at a new level of quality and safety: Local application provides a precise influence on the process, standard application affects the entire chain of passage of the pain signal, from the point of origin to the point of recognition and perception. If we use drugs that do not cross the blood-brain barrier, but are active opiates or cannabinoids, we can probably get something in between. The brain and spinal cord will not receive even one-hundredth of the drugs, but the peripheral nervous system is almost open to substances that do not pass through the lipid barrier. In this case, we do not need to worry about the drug not to defund into the bloodstream, for fear of a narcotic effect. We can increase the dose, make a subcutaneous injection, inject the drug intravenously or orally as a tablet form. Without fear of narcotic effects, addiction. Tolerance and dependence can manifest at the peripheral level, but this is in no way compared to the syndrome of drug opiate withdrawal. Nature has many examples of substances that somehow do not pass the barriers of bioavailability. These are biolabile substances, surface-active substances, substances not absorbed by the digestive system, quaternary ammonium salts that do not cross the blood-brain barrier. There are few natural cannabinoids and opiates among such substances, these are exclusively endogenous cannabinoids and opioids, they are biolabile, and this is a small window of opportunity. But chemical compounds of a similar nature are also scarce, these are topical preparations such as Loperamide (which is not absorbed in the digestive tract) and Quaternary bases of morphine derivatives (acting as laxatives, because they are alkylated in the responsible part of the molecule). The figure shows examples of a fundamentally new approach to drug design of quaternary bases from this area. These are quaternary bases which probably retain their functionality and activity, but when transformed into tertiary or secondary bases, they are inactivated. For these examples of substances, activity is possible only in the form of quaternary bases. This is a very important quality. because it eliminates the narcotic activity of catabolites. Also, such substances are characterized by high safety against overdose. As the drug is known, the design of opiates requires a very high-quality and subtle approach; otherwise, overdose and respiratory arrest are possible, even at medium dosages. But substances that do not pass through the blood-brain barrier do not require this complex adjustment during design, this requirement is absent, since even metabolites are not narcotic.

Cannabis is a federally controlled substance, it's very familiar to many but its neurobiological substrates are not well-characterized. In the brain, most areas prevalently having cannabinoid receptors have been associated with behavioral control and cognitive effects due to cannabinoids. Study over the last several decades suggested cannabinoids (CBs) exert copious oftentimes opposite effects on countless neuronal receptors and processes. In fact, owing to this plethora of effects, it's still cryptic how CBs trigger neuronal circuits. Cannabis use has been revealed to cause cognitive deficits from basic motor coordination to more complex executive functions, for example, the aptitude to plan, organize, make choices, solve glitches, remember, and control emotions as well as behavior. Numerous factors like age of onset and duration of cannabis use regulate the severity of the difficulties. People with the cannabis-linked deficiency in executive functions have been found to have trouble learning and applying the skills requisite for fruitful recovery, setting them at amplified risk for deterioration to cannabis use. Exploring the impacts of cannabis on the brain is imperative. Therefore the intention of this study was to analyze the neuropsychological effects and the impact of CBs on the dynamics of neural circuits, and its potential as the drug of addiction.

Cannabis is one of the most commonly abused drugs worldwide. There is a distinct clinical correlation between cannabis abuse and mental disorders. However, it is essential to establish cannabis intake in the abusers in order to establish causality between cannabis and psychiatric illness. The limitations of current detection methods using commercial cassettes prompted us to standardize the method of extraction and detection of cannabinoids in the urine samples of cannabis abusers attending a de-addiction centre in south India. In this study, diagnostic tests on 102 male patients suspected with cannabis abuse were done. Liquid-liquid extraction of cannabinoids from urine was done and screened by Duquenois-Levine, fast blue B salt and p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde (p-DMAB) tests. All the results were confirmed by high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). Samples were considered positive for cannabis based on the positive indication in colour test and by detection of 11-nor-del...

A clinical study to investigate the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral tetrahydrocannabinol was performed. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject, inpatient study compared the effects of THC-containing hemp oils in liquid and capsule form to dronabinol (synthetic THC) in doses used for appetite stimulation. The National Institute on Drug Abuse Institutional Review Board approved the protocol and each participant provided informed consent. Detection times and concentrations of THC, 11-hydroxy-Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) in plasma were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry [limits of quantification (LOQ)=0.5, 0.5, and 1.0 ng/mL, respectively] after oral THC administration. Six volunteers ingested liquid hemp oil (0.39 and 14.8 mg THC/d), hemp oil in capsules (0.47 mg THC/d), dronabinol capsules (7.5 mg THC/d), and placebo. Plasma specimens were collected during and after each dosing condition. THC and 11-OH-THC concentrations were low and never exceeded 6.1 ng/mL. Analytes were detectable 1.5 hour after initiating dosing with the 7.5 mg THC/d regimen and 4.5 hour after starting the 14.8 mg THC/d sessions. THCCOOH was detected 1.5 hour after the first dose, except for the 0.47 mg THC/d session, which required 4.5 hour for concentrations to reach the LOQ. THCCOOH concentrations peaked at 3.1 ng/mL during dosing with the low-dose hemp oils. Plasma THC and 11-OH-THC concentrations were negative for all participants at all doses within 15.5 hours after the last THC dose. Plasma THCCOOH persisted for at least 39.5 hours after the end of dosing and at much higher concentrations (up to 43.0 ng/mL). This study demonstrated that subjects who used high THC content hemp oil (347 mug/mL) as a dietary supplement had THC and metabolites in plasma in quantities comparable to those of patients using dronabinol for appetite stimulation. There was a significant correlation between body mass index and Cmax and body mass index and number of specimens positive for THC and 11-OH-THC.