Cinnabar

The archaeological data is showing the relatively common use of red pigments in Prehistory in southern Iberian Peninsula. The application of archaeometric techniques (XRF) has allowed the identification of cinnabar (HgS) in Chalcolithic period funerary contexts. In order to establish the provenance of this mercury ore, cinnabar pigments obtained from these Chalcolithic contexts have been analyzed by Lead Isotopes, as well as samples from cinnabar mineralizations located in Southern Iberian Peninsula.

"The megalithic tomb at Montelirio is off the scale in more ways than one. As well as being the largest example of its type known in Spain, the burial goods secreted in its subterranean chambers are unsurpassed in both quantity and quality. Leonardo García Sanjuán reveals what the dead of Montelirio can tell us about Copper Age society."

This article summarises the history of cinnabar, from its first uses in burials to modern oils on canvas. After a brief introduction on mercury and contamination issues, the article gets to the heart of the topic. First, mercury-based minerals significant for studying pigments, i.e. cinnabar, metacinnabar, hypercinnabar and calomel, are presented. Structural information and properties precede an overview of the geographic distribution of cinnabar deposits. The following section addresses the multiple uses of cinnabar, divided into funerary use, decorative use, lustre and Chinese lacquer production. The use of cinnabar for writing (ink), medicine and cosmetics is briefly described, and a shortlist of uncommon finds is further provided. The following section approaches inherent but less known topics such as cinnabar procurement, trade, production technology, application and alteration. An entire section is dedicated to calomel before concluding with an overview of the analytical methods for the characterisation and provenance investigation of cinnabar. Keywords Cinnabar-metacinnabar-hypercinnabar. Vermilion and pigment analysis. White mercury and calomel, corderoite and terlinguaite. Archaeometry and archaeology well as an overview of glass-based pigments (Cavallo and Riccardi 2021) are also presented. Furthermore, two papers on cosmetic (Pérez-Arantegui 2021) and bioactive (antibacterial) pigments (Knapp et al. 2021) provide insights into the variety and different uses of these materials.

Студията „Цинобърът – цвят на царе и богове“ на Росица Манова е ценно помагало за изследоваели и преподаватели в област на културното наследство. Тя е първият опит за поставяне на въпроси и формулиране на отговори, оставали дълго време на заден план, при материали, техники и технологии в култовата живопис.

Emeğin bakış açısından bir madencilik arkeolojisi yapmaya ihtiyacımız var. Bu şekilde yaşama ve eyleme hizmet eden bir arkeoloji pratiğini inşa edebiliriz. Madenciliğin derin tarihine dair bilgilerimiz bugüne ışık tutacak nitelikte. Arkeolojide emek bakış açısına sahip çalışmaların çeşitlenmesi ve artması bize sadece eski toplumların madencilik faaliyetlerini nasıl organize ettiğiyle ilgili bilgi sağlamakla kalmaz; ayrıca üretim araçları, ilişkileri ve koşulları hakkında bilgi verir. Anadolu’da toplumsal evrimi ve politik örgütlenmeyi anlamak için bu konuların malûmatçı olmayan, sorun odaklı yöntemlerle çalışılması iyi olabilir.

The study "Cinnabar - the Colour of Kings and Gods" by Rositsa Manova, Ph.D., is a
valuable resource for researchers and teachers in the field of cultural heritage. It is the first
attempt at asking questions and formulating answers that have remained in the background for
a long time regarding the use of materials, techniques and technologies in cult painting.
Colour systems in the art and mythology of the ancient peoples, in contrast to today's
perception, are less emotionally oriented, but are always semantically loaded. Just like signs,
colours are semantically neutral, they acquire a symbolic meaning, i.e., their meaning is
specified in context of a given tradition. To some extent the meaning of each colour is
universal. However, the specific observations and analyses have revealed that in different
peoples, despite the common emotional base, each colour acquires a different, sometimes
even the opposite semantics. Still, the mechanisms of semanticizing of the colour signs, the
coloronyms, are the same. Of course, it is not only signs but also meanings that can migrate
from one traditional system to another if it contains the premises needed for their
comprehension. The author is aware of this peculiarity of signs and based on it she studies one
of the basic (and most ancient) colours - cinnabar. "Due to its unique qualities, beauty and
intensity, cinnabar has become a sacred colour of many peoples. It embraces the beliefs in the
afterlife and the divine beginning of life. Probably this is where the idea of its royal character
comes from.” Of course, it could be emphasized that the association with blood as a carrier of
life has played an important part in the semanticizing of this coloronym (this is done by an
appropriate addition of the important association with the sun and fire, which are always red).
Gold itself is also considered as red as the sun and fire. That is why it is necessarily included
in the symbolic system of the colour, i.e., it stands in for it in metal code. Not only the Turks,
but all peoples mark the cardinal directions (as well as the seasons) additionally by a specific
colour, as K. Levi-Strauss successfully notes.
The study is structured very well: it starts with the preliminary “technological” data on
cinnabar and its names in different cultures and continues with a focused study of the
semantics of the colour in different peoples. This is especially helpful for the purposes of the
publication because it provides detailed information, i.e., arguments of the researcher’s
thought. Especially valuable are the analyzes of the Revival painters’ manuals (ερμηνεία), as
in them the technology of painting of that time is clearly understood, and it correlates
cinnabar with relevant parts of the body or of clothing. One of the varieties of this colour is
purple, which since ancient times is considered royal. For the Thracians it had the same
meaning - let’s just remember that the bones of Rhesus were transported from Troas to
Amphipolis in a purple cloak, and in such were wrapped the bones of Macedonian rulers, as
the burials show. The author rightly devotes much attention to the technology of obtaining
cinnabar, its distribution and application techniques in the ancient cultures. The information
here is extensive and important for future research on other colours, too.
The specific analysis of the colour system of the Thracian tombs must also be recognized.
The author even offers a program for technological study of some of them, which would be
very useful, and the already done research proves the importance of the exact sciences in the
interdisciplinary study of Thracian past. Manova's statement about the semantic value of
"decoration" of the tombs is methodologically correct and therefore is useful for training:
"The decoration of the cult tombs and facilities is subject to certain ideas and functions,
symbols and signs that complement each other in certain dependencies. It should not be seen
as a stand-alone artistic element, independent of the environment in which it is located, but as
part of the spirituality and government of the Thracians".

Resumen: Este artículo examina la evidencia sobre el intercambio de obsidiana y cinabrio, recursos altamente codiciados que viajaron en la prehistoria del Perú, desde la sierra centro-sur a la zona de la sociedad Paracas. La evidencia del intercambio de estos materiales se compara con evidencia de intercambio cultural entre la costa sur y la sierra centro-sur, material cerámico descubierto de excavaciones en el sitio arqueológico Atalla, ubicado en la región de Huancavelica, Perú. El artículo sostiene que la sierra centro-sur era parte integral de las redes de intercambio de obsidiana y cinabrio de la costa sur. En particular, el sitio de Atalla, un centro ceremonial regional conectado a las redes de interacción del Horizonte Temprano, estaba conectado económicamente con la costa sur y participaba en la esfera de interacción regional de la sierra centro-sur, pero mantuvo conexiones culturales muy fuertes con el centro de Chavín de Huántar También se sugiere que la naturaleza de las interacciones entre la sociedad de Paracas y las de la sierra centro-sur varió según la región; la interacción entre Paracas y Atalla parece concentrarse principalmente en el intercambio económico y no cultural, mientras que sitios como Campanayuq Rumi, de la región de Ayacucho, demuestran evidencia de la influencia cultural de Paracas. Se exploran algunos posibles mecanismos que podrían explicar la variabilidad observada en los patrones de intercambio. Palabras clave: interacción, intercambio de larga distancia, obsidiana, cinabrio, abastecimiento geoquímico, Paracas, período del Horizonte Temprano, Chavín

FROM THE MOUNTAIN TO THE SEA: EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE SOUTH-CENTRAL HIGHLANDS AND THE SOUTH COAST DURING THE EARLY HORIZON PERIOD
Abstract: This article reviews the evidence of the exchange of obsidian and cinnabar, highly coveted resources that traveled in prehistoric Peru from the south-central highlands to the Paracas culture area. The evidence for exchange of these materials is compared with evidence of cultural exchange between the coast and the south-central highlands, focusing on ceramic materials uncovered from excavations at the archaeological site Atalla, located in the region of Huancavelica, Peru. The article argues that the south-central highlands were integral to the obsidian and cinnabar exchange networks of the south coast. In particular, the site of Atalla, a regional ceremonial center connected to the Early Horizon interaction networks, was connected economically to the south coast and participated in the regional interaction sphere of the south-central highlands, but also maintained very strong cultural connections with the center of Chavín de Huántar. It is also suggested that the nature of the interactions between the Paracas society and those of the south-central highlands varied depending on the region; the interaction between Paracas and Atalla seems to have concentrated mainly on economic and non-cultural exchange, whereas sites such as Campanayuq Rumi from the Ayacucho region demonstrate evidence of Paracas cultural influence. Some possible mechanisms which might explain the observed variability in exchange patterns are explored.

The funerary rites of particular members of the pre-Hispanic Mayan society included the pigmentation of the corpse with a red color. In order to understand this ritual, it is first necessary to identify the constituents of the pigment mixture and then, based on its properties, analyze the possible form and moment of application. In the present approach, 1 H-NMR analysis was carried to detect organic components in the funerary pigments of Xcambó, a small Maya settlement in the Yucatan Peninsula. The comparison of the spectra belonging to the pigment found in the bone remains of seven individuals, and those from natural materials, led to the identification of beeswax and an abietane resin as constituents of the pigment, thus conferring it agglutinant and aromatic properties, respectively. The 1 H-NMR analysis also allowed to rule out the presence of copal, a resin found in the pigment cover from paramount chiefs from the Mayan society. Additionally, a protocol for the extraction of the organic fraction from the bone segment without visible signs of analysis was developed, thus broadening the techniques available to investigate these valuable samples.

Paper published in the proceedings of the International Joint Workshop "Crossing Gazes on the Landscape from East and West"「風景への眼差しの交叉─東アジアと西ヨーロッパ」of the
Institute of Art History, Free University of Berlin,
and the International Institute of Language and Culture Studies + Graduate School of Core Ethics and Frontier Science, Ritsumeikan University
November 23, 2015, at Art Research Center Multipurpose Studio, Ritsumeikan University Kinugasa Campus and Oukoku Bunko in Kyoto

This work has as main object the study of heavy stone tools from "Poggio di Spaccasasso" mine (Alberese-GR). Precisely, through the development of an analytical form created ad hoc, the stone tools have been carefully cataloged, taking into consideration typological, typometric, lithological, technological and functional parameters. In this way, through the identification of types connected to the various phases of the mining activity, an attempt was made to better characterize the extraction process of cinnabar that took place on the hill and that seems to have had a considerable importance in the production and marketing of this mineral.

Cinnabar and vermilion have respectively natural and synthetic origins. Vermilion can be manufactured either by the dry process or the wet process, but the latter is a very recent procedure. In art technological research, a frequent question arises: how can we determine the origin of mercury sulphide pigments? To answer this, a protocol combining archaeological experimentation and physicochemical analyses has been begun. Research on ancient recipes and the discovery of mediaeval sublimation apparatus led us to reconstruct vermilion made with the ancient dry process and to compare it to mechanically cleaned natural cinnabar using SEM-EDX and XRD. Different archaeological samples of very varied contexts were also compared in order to evaluate the results.

Monografía sobre las propiedades físico-químicas del mercurio y sus reacciones básicas más características, con un especial énfasis en la parte experimental y en las fotografías de los diferentes procesos en los que participa este metal. De la misma manera se estudia el cinabrio como principal mena y las reacciones del sulfuro de mercurio (II) como compuesto de mercurio de importancia histórica.

Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress (1-7 September, Burgos, Spain): Volume 6/Session B 36 edited by Elisa Guerra Doce and Corina Liesau von Lettow-Vorbeck, Archaeopress 2016, avaible to buy in print and download in PDF format for free via Archaeopress Open Access. For more information regarding publishing in Open Access with Archaeopress, please visit their website. Direct link to Open Access version: http://archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/displayProductDetail.asp?id={44910EE6-2E5C-495E-BF06-5F5C40E2452D} Direct link to Print version: http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/displayProductDetail.asp?id={F10C7661-7CA6-4747-80B5-3EA1FEDE07B3} Link to publishing information: http://archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/defaultAll.asp?displayPage=Publish

Cinnabar (HgS) identification by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM-EDX) in several ceramic sam-ples of different productions originating from various deposits in the Community of Madrid (Spain), is proposed a possible use of the mineral applied to ceramic technology in Roman times, once its pres-ence by post-depositional contamination has been ruled out.

Blackening of cinnabar or vermilion has always been a dilemma. The hexagonal mercury sulfide pigment, often of mineral origin, has an intense red color. For long, cinnabar has generated large interest among mural painters, artists, and alchemists in antiquity as well as nowadays conservation scientists and restorers, who are anxious to restore the color of paintings seriously affected by blackening of the pigment, often qualified as dramatic and irreversible. However, if particular attention has been given to the study of such phenomenon since the beginning of the 20 th Century, conservation of this color still presents numerous difficulties. Light has for long time been considered the cause of the color change. The Romans recognized this color change and utilized the pigment for inside painting away from direct sun light. The principal factors to cause or accelerate this specific alteration are solar radiation, atmospheric agents and associated pollutants, relative humidity as well as soluble salts and organic compounds. Yet, no viable solution of preventive conservation at excavations or restoration of altered vermilion has been proposed. Lately, research has shown that blackening is associated with an amorphous phase, forming as a coating on the exposed grains, and not due to transformation of cinnabar into the black cubic sulfide phase. This study aims at isolating the factors responsible of blackening in order to evaluate the most significant effects on the preventive conservation of the pigment. In this perspective, artificial weathering (aging) experiments were carried out by exposing modern and archaeological samples to direct sun light, or in the shade, with distinct conditioning. All were covered with optical filters transmitting only certain frequencies of light spectrum to determine the wavelengths the most detrimental on the stability of pigment and which conditions mostly favor the alteration. Progress of alteration was monitored and analyzed prior and after irradiation, using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, particle-induced X-ray emission spectroscopy, and colorimetric methods. Data obtained show that the different wavelengths transmitted have different effects on cinnabar. The chromatic change can be accelerated also by higher relative humidity and by certain atmospheric pollutants, which may induce formation of gypsum by sulfate attack of calcium-rich phases present. This study, while providing a better understanding of the mechanism of alteration process of pigment under external conditions, allows for a cost-effective method of preventive conservation during excavation wherever cinnabar is being used as pigment in wall paintings.

EnglishThe Trets plain is located in the south-east of France, on the eastern border of Bouches-du-Rhone department. The entire plain contains a large number of Neolithic sites. La Bastidonne was discovered in the 1870s by Joseph Maneille, after the ploughing of a small vineyard located on the plateau at an altitude of 270 m, which brought to light abundant archaeological artifacts (lithic and pottery, now mostly lost), including several fragments of decorated stelae (fifteen according to the oldest publications, of which eleven are currently kept at the Musee d'archeologie nationale of Saint-Germain-en-Laye). This discovery follows that of eight Provencal stelae of la Puagere (Senas, Bouches-du-Rhone) in 1838. At la Bastidonne, the fragments were found mixed with the remains of possible cremations (ashes and burnt "human" bones). However, there has always been confusion as to their exact position as the author of the discovery considered that they had come from a &quo...

This paper focuses on the characterization of materials from fragmented pieces of an imperial lacquer plate in the Luozhuang Han tomb, which dates to the early Western Han Dynasty. Various non-invasive and minimally invasive techniques were performed including optical and electron microscopy, XRF, Raman spectromicroscopy, FTIR, XRD and THM-Py-GC/MS. The lacquerware pieces consist of a five-layer structure, which includes (from top): a red pigmented layer, two lacquer finish layers, a ground layer and a canvas/wood foundation layer. The red layer consists of ground cinnabar mixed with urushi. The lacquer finish layers are made of urushi mixed with perilla or tallow tree oil without any pigment. The ground layer is a mixture of organic materials including urushi, tree oil and amorphous carbon (possibly burned ashes) and inorganic fillers such as quartz, albite and potassium feldspar. Urushi was also identified in the canvas/wood foundation layer. The canvas though highly degraded is probably made of hemp (bast fibers). The identification of high concentration of drying oil indicates an intentional addition of oil into the urushi to retard the rate of hardening and to increase gloss.

Gracias al reconocimiento otorgado a Almadén y sus minas por parte de EuChemS, Europa va a señalar en su mapa una región que ha vivido por y para el Mercurio. Este metal tiene mucha historia e interés, tanto en el sector químico como en muchos otros, y ha dado vida a momentos y monumen-tos espectaculares que te recomendamos que conozcas y visites. Para que cuando vengas a Almadén puedas disfrutar plenamente de este enclave fantástico, te recomendamos que leas este artículo, donde queremos que pasees previamente por su historia y conozcas por qué y para qué está ahí el mercurio y que comprendas cómo ha sido fundamental en esta región y en su vida, el tener este metal en sus tierras. Inicialmente en esta contribución se describe qué significa este reconocimiento y cómo y cuándo se otorgó. De igual forma se presentan unas fantásticas contribuciones de cuatro expertos que nos permiten vivir y entender mejor una historia que se debe conocer y en la que la química y otras ciencias fundamentales han estado y estarán siempre presentes.

The potential of laser cleaning for paintings as an alternative to traditional cleaning methods has been recognized, and studies using industrial laser equipment have shown some potential. Irradiation at a wavelength of 248 nm has shown to be the most promising for natural resin varnish and overpaint removal, because it is strongly absorbed by triterpenoid varnish functional groups and associated degradation products (Georgiou 1998). However, it has been suggested that a minimal varnish thickness should remain intact to prevent any radiation from being absorbed by the underlying layers. This is because some painting materials have also shown sensitivity to laser radiation (Bordalo 2006). Research into the mechanisms of alterations which may occur due to laser radiation on resins, pigments and oils and its long-term effects has been scarce, and dispersed in its approach because of the multitude of different materials present in the paint layers (Chappé 2003, Sobott 2003, Melessanaki 2006). Thus, the systematic study of laser radiation interaction with paint materials is still important. The aim of this study was to advance the understanding of the effects that KrF excimer laser irradiation has on pigmented oil paint layers.

Detailed infrared (FTIR) and Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopic investigations were performed on raw pigment materials and painted ceramic fragments from the excavation of Szombathely-Oladi plató. In the raw yellow and red pigments we can identify limonite and hematite as colouring minerals, respectively. A special raw red pigment was found to be of purified hematite. On the ceramic fragments decorated with red, however, the paint-layer proved to be made of cinnabar (HgS) mixed with high-purity kaolin. The use of cinnabar in the Late Neolithic period was firstly established on painted ceramics belonging to the Early Lengyel Culture.

The cultural use of pigments in human societies is associated with ritual activities and the creation of social memory. Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey, 7100–5950 cal BC) provides a unique case study for the exploration of links between pigments in burials, demographic data and colourants in contemporary architectural contexts. This study presents the first combined analysis of funerary and architectural evidence of pigment use in Neolithic Anatolia and discusses the possible social processes underlying the observed statistical patterns. Results reveal that pigments were either applied directly to the deceased or included in the grave as a burial association. The most commonly used pigment was red ochre. Cinnabar was mainly applied to males and blue/green pigment was associated with females. A correlation was found between the number of buried individuals and the number of painted layers in the buildings. Mortuary practices seem to have followed specific selection processes independent...

A "Szombathelyi-Oladi plató" ásatása során napvilágra kerülő festékrögöket és festett kerámiatöredékeket vizsgálatuk infravörös (FTIR) és Raman-spektroszkópiai (FT-Raman) módszerekkel. A sárga és a piros festékrögökben limonitot, illetve hematitot azonosítottunk. Az egyik jellegzetes vörös festékrög tisztított hematit-tömbnek bizonyult. A díszített kerámiákon - meglepő módon - vörös festékként nagy tisztaságú kaolinnal kevert cinnabaritot (HgS) mutattunk ki. A fehér festékréteg tiszta, homogén kalcitnak bizonyult.

Th e Carre r Paris site is located in Cerdanyola del Vallès (Barcelona, Spain). It is a Chalcolithic hypogeum dated between 3800-4100 BP with more than 60 individuals distributed in four burial levels. We study the remains of Individual 5 from burial level II. It is an adult skeleton, preserved in anatomical position and buried with Campaniform pottery. During the excavation, we identifi ed red pigment on the mandibular symphysis region of the individual 5. In this work we present the preservation state and conservation methodology to restore the individual 5 cranium and mandible. At the same time, we present the results of the pigment composition analyzed by non destructive methods. Th ese analyses were conducted directly on the pigments and the bone surface with environment electronic microscopy (ESEM-EDS) X-ray micro-diff raction (μ-DRX) before the conservation treatments. Th e objective of the analysis was to characterize the pigments, the bone and the clays to apply the best methodology to conserve the pieces. Th e combination of both techniques allows us to analyze the area of interest without removing samples. These analyses were performed directly, without aff ecting the bone and pigments and assuring the integral preservation of the objects. Th e results reach us new data on the use of pigment in funerary rituals during the Chalcolithic.

Textile production is among the most fundamental and more complex technologies in human prehistory, but is under-investigated due to the perishable nature of fibrous materials. Here we report a discovery of five textile fragments from a prehistoric (fourth-third millennium cal BC) burial deposit located in a small cave at Peñacalera in Sierra Morena hills, near Córdoba, Southern Spain. These textiles accompanied a set of human remains as grave goods, together with other organic elements such as fragments of wood and cork, and some pottery vessels. They were characterized and dated using digital microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy and Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. Two of the fragments described here are the oldest examples of loom-woven textiles in the Iberian Peninsula, dating from the second half of the fourth millennium cal BC. This correlates chronologically with the first appearance of loom weights in the archaeological record of this region. The more recently dated textile is the earliest preserved cloth intentionally coloured with cinnabar in the western Mediterranean. The Peñacalera finds are a key reference for understanding the development of textile technologies during the Neolithic and Copper Age in western Europe and beyond.

We investigated mercury (Hg) in human bone from archaeological sites in the Iberian Peninsula where the cultural use of cinnabar (HgS) as a pigment, offering or preservative in burial practices has been documented from the 4th to 2nd millennia cal B.C. (Late Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age). Previous analyses have shown high levels of total mercury (THg) in human bone at numerous Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in this region, but the question remains if this mercury entered the bones via diagenetic processes in the soil, especially where cinnabar powder and paint was found associated with the burials, or if it entered the bone via biogenic pathways from exposure to mercury from using cinnabar in life. We analyzed the humerus, femur, and tibia from a total of 30 individual burials from four Neolithic to Bronze Age sites in Iberia and found low to high values of THg in these bones, with the humerus showing significantly more THg concentrations than other skeletal elements when the THg was greater than 1 ppm. This pattern of Hg deposition in skeletal material from different sites and ages strongly suggests a biogenic origin for the mercury. In addition, absence of detectable Hg in bones with high to low values of THg using SEM EDS analysis further discounts diagenetic intrusion of Hg or cinnabar particles into the bone from the soil. It is likely that greater stress and bone remodeling rates from use of heavy tools and other activities in life are responsible for higher THg in the humerus than other skeletal elements, but additional research is needed to verify this.