Column Capitals

Our study on architectural sculptures found in the Main Campus of Istanbul
University commenced with taking inventory of the pieces in 2005 and 2006. Column capitals and column shafts from the Byzantine and Ottoman periods constitute majority of the pieces along with various architectural sculptures such as fragment of slab and column bases. The study aims to identify and promote the stone works in the main campus and convey transformation of the area and immediate vicinity during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods.

Structures in the area did not survive due to extensive construction in the area since Byzantion through the Byzantine and Ottoman times as well as the Republican period. Therefore, it is not possible to determine the exact context of the architectural sculptures in the Main Campus of Istanbul University. Defi nition and dated of the stone works are considered in similar examples in technical and stylistic features. The pieces were evaluated according to the architectural development in the area.

Iraqi Kurdistan contains only two rock-cut tombs; Ashkawt-i Qizqapan and Ashkawt-i Kur w Kich (Kurdish: ئه شكوتي كوڕ و كچ). The latter means the Cave of the Boy and Girl and lies some distance from Ashkawt-i Qizqapan. It is more simplified and lacks many iconographies and the stunning art of the former.

TWO IMPORTANT QUESTIONS HAVE NEVER BEEN ANSWERED; WHEN PRECISELY WAS THE TOMB CARVED & WHO WERE THE PEOPLE BURIED THERE?

Two important questions have never been answered; when precisely was the tomb carved and who were the people who were buried there? The cliff of the mountain, which houses the tomb looks over a valley, where a small river passes through. Mr Hashim Hama Abdullah, Director of the Sulaymaniyah Museum, told me that one day he asked a local farmer about that valley. The farmer told him that several times when he was ploughing his field, human bones came out of the earth. No tombstones are/were present. Therefore, Hashim suggests that the whole area seems to be an ancient (but not Islamic) cemetery. It is a well-known tradition in the near East that people entomb their dead beside or around a shrine or a tomb of a religious scholar.

This work presents a contribution to the knowledge of the Byzantine style in Romanesque architecture in Puglia. For this purpose we have analyzed the Byzantine capitals and the capitals in the Byzantine tradition reused in the crypt of the Cathedral of Trani We have divided them into 11 groups, which include capitals of the imperial age, Byzantine of the sixth century and medieval of the IX-XI century of Constantinopolitan tradition. For the medieval period we have identified both regional workers who have acquired Byzantine forms but also Roman-imperial traditions, and local workers active above all in Trani and in the contiguous territory. The latter are less influenced by the Byzantine style and more free to adopt anti-classical solutions inspired by the Western Romanesque.


Con questo lavoro si presenta un contributo alla conoscenza dello stile bizantineggiante nell'architettura romanica in Puglia. A tale scapo abbiamo analizzato i capitelli bizantini e i capitelli  nella tradizione bizantina reimpiegati nella cripta del Duomo di Trani Li abbiamo suddiviso in 11 gruppi, che comprendono capitelli di età imperiale, bizantina di VI secolo  e medievali di IX-XI secolo di tradizione costantinopolitana. Per il periodo medievale abbiamo individuato  sia maestranze regionali che hanno acquisito forme bizantine ma anche tradizioni romano-imperiali, sia maestranze locali attive soprattutto a Trani e nel territorio contiguo. Queste ultime sono meno condizionate dallo stile bizantineggiante  e più libere di adottare soluzioni anticlassiche ispirate al Romanico occidentale

The paper presents a homogeneous group of marble figured capitals, found among the material of the scaenae frons of the Theatre in Hierapolis; a monument investigated since 2004 by the author, in the frame of the Italian Archaeological Mission’s activities.
The elements belong to the Asiatic-Corinthian type and divided into column and pilaster capitals. They host, at the centre of each face, the relief of an Eros supporting a garland. The garland is held behind the Eros by means of a broad knotted vitta, replacing the fleuron, and runs diagonally below the volutes of the capital, reconnecting to that held by the figure carved on the adjacent face.
These capitals are part of a monument known for its vast relief cycles representing mythological and celebrative subjects, dating back to the Severan age: among these it’s worth mentioning the figured wind-blown capitals from the first storey, the Blattmasken capitals from the upper storeys and - for the strong formal similarities – the two well-known friezes with Erotes/geniuses holding garlands.
The model is not unusual in Hierapolis: it is also used in a smaller capital from the Theatre, in some capitals from the central propylaeum of the Antonine age Stoa-Basilica and in a more complex capital, of uncertain origin, preserved in the storehouse of the local museum. Particularly significant is the analogy with a group of capitals from the scaenae frons of the Theater in Perge (Pamphilia), whose close relationship with the Theatre in Hierapolis - both in the architectural solutions and the decorative models - has been recently highlighted.
Comparisons with Eros figured capitals from other areas of the Empire appear to be less appropriate; thus demonstrating an Asian matrix of this particular model which, deriving from the Hellenistic age, had its spread during  the Late-Antonine and Severan age.t"
Organization: ASMOSIA X INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE, Association for the Study of Marble & Other Stones In Antiquity; Sapienza University in Rome - Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità

ÖZET
Yunan dünyasında ele geçen palmiye sütun başlıkları kendine has formuyla dikkat çekmektedir. Bu başlık, genel olarak Kalathos, ters çan ya da çanak şeklinde bir formun etrafına palmiye yaprakları sarılmış şekilde görünmektedir. Anıtsal mimaride Arkaik dönemden Hellenistik döneme kadar oldukça seyrek olarak, Roma döneminde ise daha yaygın kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Yunan dünyasında Arkaik dönemde, Arkades (Girit), Phokaia ve Delphi’deki Klazomenai ile Massalia hazine binalarında kullanılanlar olmak üzere dört yerde karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu başlıklara benzeyen en erken örnekler ve en yaygın olanları Mısır’da karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Mısır palmiye sütun başlıklarının ilk taş örnekleri MÖ 3. binin ortalarında ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ancak en yoğun olarak MÖ 2. binin ortalarında kullanılmıştır. Üzerinde küçük bir abakusu olan bu başlıklarda, orta damarı oldukça belirgin olan yapraklar yukarıdan kavis yapacak şekilde bir eğimle sarkarlar. Bu yapraklar aşağıda hepsi kurdele ile bağlanmış bir buket gibi görünmektedir. Başlığın bitiminde yani kurdelenin alt kısımda üçlü sarılan halkalar dikkat çekmektedir. Mısır Palmiye sütun başlıkları Yunan örneklerine göre daha zarif bir görünüm sergilemektedir. Mısır’da bu başlıklar, bazen diğer sütun çeşitleriyle karışık olarak bazen de kendi başına yapı girişlerinde, kutsal içerikli yapıların avlu ve stoalarında simgesel bir mimari eleman olarak kullanılmıştır. Yunan dünyasında ise palmiye ile ilgili sütun başlığı veya benzer tarzdaki ilk bilgiler, MÖ 7. yüzyıldan itibaren antik kaynaklardan alınmaktadır. Günümüze ulaşmayan bu eserler, mimaride kullanılan bir elemandan çok, tek başına duran bir sütun başlığı veya sütun gövdeli üst kısmı palmiye ağacı şeklinde simgesel anlamlar yüklenerek kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Ele geçen ilk somut örnekler, Girit-Arkades’te bulunan ve kendine özgü formuyla dikkat çeken palmiye başlığı, Yunan dünyasındaki taştan yapılmış sütun başlıkları arasındaki en erken örnektir. Kalathosu andıran gövdenin üst bölümü konveks şeklinde olup, 26 yapraklı başlığın aşağıdan yukarıya doğru sarkan yaprak uçları genişleyerek şekil almıştır. Bu düzenin altında yaprakları toplar şeklinde görülen sarmal bir halka bulunmaktadır. Yaprakların ortasından dikey olarak inen merkezi damar şeklinde görülen sarmal bir halka bulunmaktadır. Devşirme malzeme olarak kullanılan bu abakuslu başlık küçük olması sebebiyle, muhtemelen ya bir adak ya da cenaze töreninde simgesel bir amaç için kullanılmıştır. Başlığın Mısır ve Girit etkisi hakkında birtakım tartışmalar bulunmaktadır. Diğer örnekler, Delphi’deki Massalia (Marsilya) ve Klazomenai (Urla) hazine binalarında kullanılan palmiye başlıkları Phokaia’daki örneğe benzemektedir. Klazomenai başlığı, Massalia başlığına göre yaprak sayısı daha fazla ve bu sebeple de daha büyük yapılmıştır. Massalia’nın Phokaia’nın kolonisi olması ve Klazomenai’nin denizden Phokaia’ya yakın olmasının özellikle bu konu açısından aralarında yakın bir ilişkinin olması gerekmektedir. Bu başlıklarda, diğer palmiye tipi başlıklardan ayıran en önemli özellik, merkezi (orta) damarının ortadan kalkmış olmasıdır. Başlıkların in antis planlı hazine binalarının ön tarafında kullanıldıkları tahmin edilmektedir. Bu başlıkların Arkades ve Phokaia örneklerinden sonra yapıldığı tahmin edilmektedir. Phokaia palmiye başlığının yapraklarındaki merkezi damarın belirginliğiyle dikkat çekmektedir. Bu yönüyle özellikle Mısır ve Arkades örneklerine çok benzemektedir. 12 kıvrım yapan yaprağa sahiptir. Başlık, Athena tapınağının ilk yapım evresinde, pronaosta, muhtemelen Tanrıça Athena ile bağlantılı zaferi simgeleyen mimari bir eleman olarak kullanılmıştır. Gözenekli tüf taşından yapılan başlık abakussuz kullanılmıştır. MÖ 6. yüzyılın başlarında yapılan Phokaia palmiye başlığı, bu tarihle, Hellen dünyasındaki mimaride kullanılan en erken taş palmiye başlık olarak değerlendirilmelidir. Phokaia başlığı, MÖ 7. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Phokaia’nın Naukratis’le (Mısır) yaptığı yoğun ticari ilişkiler sonucunda gelmiş olabileceği görüşü önem kazanmaktadır.


ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Das Palmenkapitell in Phokaia und seine Herkunft
In der griechischen Welt ist das Palmenkapitell mit seiner eigentümlichen Form
recht auffälig. Es tritt zumeist Kalathos-förmig, also eher in einer Glocken- oder
Schalenform nach oben auf und ist von Palmenblättern umgeben. In der monumentalen Architektur ist es von der archaischen bis zur hellenistischen Zeit selten anzutreffen, wogegen es sich in der römischen Zeit eher bemerkbar macht, in der es ziemlich weitverbreitet gewesen war. Das Palmenkapitell tritt in der hellenistischen Welt während der archaischen Zeit in vier Orten wie Arkades (Kreta), Phokaia (Foça) und in den Schatzhäusern Clazomenai (Urla) und Massalia (Marseille) in Delphi auf. Die frühesten Beispiele, die den genannten Besipielen am meisten ähneln sowie die, die weiter verbreitet waren, tauchen in Ägypten auf. Den ersten äyptischen Beispielen der Palmenkapitelle aus Stein begegnen wir Mitte 3000 v.Chr. Jedoch wurden diese größtenteils Mitte 2000 v. Chr. verwendet. Auf diesen Palmenkapitellen mit kleinem Abakus, hängen die Blätter von oben mit recht flagranter mittlerer Ader bogenförmig herunter. Weiter unten bilden alle Blätter zusammen einen Strauß, umgebunden mit einer Schleife. Im Schlusstein des Kapitells, also im unteren Teil dieser Schleife, fallen Ringe im Dreier-Wickel auf. Im Vergleich zu ihren hellenisten Beispielen treten die äyptischen Palmenkapitelle mit mehr Eleganz hervor. In Ägypten wurden diese Kapitelle teils mit verschiedenen Arten von Säulen gemischt, teils einzeln an Eingängen oder teilweise in Höfen oder Stoas von Sakralbauten als symbolisches architektonisches Element benutzt. In der griechischen Welt sind die ersten Angaben oder weitere Einblicke über das Palmenkapitell ab dem 7. Jahrhundert. v.Chr. aus antiken Quellen zu entnehmen. Es hat sich herausgestellt, dass diese Werke, die leider unsere Zeit nicht Kapitell oder als ein Schaft in Palmenform verwendet wurden, denen wiederum eine symbolisierende Bedeuteung beigemessen wurde. Das erste konkrete Beispiel, das in Kreta-Arkades aufgefundene Palmenkapitell mit seiner eigentümlichen
Form, stellt das früheste Beispiel für die Steinkapitelle der griechischen Welt
dar. Der obere Teil des Schafts in Konvexform, der uns an ein Kalathos erinnert,
erhielt seine Form durch die 26 Blätter am Kapitell, indem die Blattspitzen von
unten nach oben sich aufbreitend hochsteigen und wieder herunterhängen. Ein
spiralförmiger Ring, der sich unmittelbar unter dieser Ordnung befindet, fügt diese
Blätter zusammen. Dadurch dass dieses Kapitell mit Abakus recht klein war und
als Einsammelmaterial benutzt wurde, ist es anzunehmen, dass es entweder als
Gelübde oder als Symbol bei einer Beerdigung diente. Der äyptische oder kretanische Einfluss steht wiederum zur Debatte. Die anderen Beispiele wie die Kapitelle in den Schatzhäusern Massalia (Marseille) und Clazomenai (Urla) in Delphi, sehen sich mit dem in Phokaia recht ähnlich aus. Das Clazomenai-Palmenkapitell erscheint durch die Mehrzahl seiner Blätter größer als das Massalia-Kapitell. Dadurch dass Massalia eines der Kolonien von Phokaia war und dass Clazomenai und Phokaia sich über den Seeweg näher lagen, weist wiederum auf die Ähnlichkeit und auf eine enge Beziehung hin. Die genannten Kapitelle unterscheiden sich von weiteren Arten der Palmenkapitelle größtenteils durch die aufgehobene mittlere Blattader. Man vermutet, dass diese Kapitelle am Eingang der Schatzhäuser im in antis–Plan angewendet worden sind, wobei auch die Wahrscheinlichkeit besteht, dass die Palmenkapitelle in Phokaia und Arkades die Vorgänger dieser Kapitelle gewesen sind. Des Weiteren fallen die flagranten mittleren Blattadern des Phokaia- Palmenkapitells recht deutlich auf, was die Ähnlichkeit mit seinen Beispielen in Ägypten und Arkades hervorhebt. Das Phokaia-Kapitell hat 12 Palmenblätter. Es wurde in der ersten Bauphase des Athena Tempels als symbolisierendes architektonisches Element am Pronaos angewendet, was vermutlich einen Triumph Athenas andeutet. Das Kapitell aus Tuffstein mit Poren wurde ohne Abakus verwendet.  Das Phokaia Palmenkapitell, das in den Anfängen des 6. Jahrhundert v.Chr. erstellt wurde, sollte mit seiner Datierung als das früheste Beispiel in der griechischen Architektur für Palmenkapitelle aus Stein bewertet werden. Die Annahme, dass das Phokaia-Palmenkapitell ab der zweiten Hälfte des 7. Jahrhunderts v.Chr. unter dem Einfluss des regen Handels zwischen Phokaia und Naucratis (Ägypten) sich bemerkbar machte, ist von großer Bedeutung.

""Zusammenfassung

Diese erste umfassende Untersuchung zu 69 korinthischen Marmorkapitellen des Thermen-Gymnasiums von Constantia und des Forumbereichs von Kourion bestätigt und präzisiert die bereits epigraphisch belegte Restaurierung der Thermen nach dem Erdbeben von 342. Sie belegt zudem eine weitere Bauphase des Forums von Kourion während des 4. Jahrhunderts, wohl vor dem Erdbeben von 365.
Das bis auf hellenistische Zeit zurückgehende, mehrfach restaurierte Thermen-Gymnasium, dessen Thermen symmetrisch angelegten Komplexen ähnelt, die wie das Bad am Humeitepe von Milet eine innere Gabelung des Weges aufweisen, wurde gemäss V. Karageorghis nach den Erdbebenzerstörungen der Jahre 332 und 342 als Thermen nochmals wiederhergestellt. Dies geschah nach T.B. Mitford aufgrund eines epigraphischen Belegs unter Constantius II./Constans. Die korinthischen Kapitelle der Palästra gehörten nach Karageorghis dem 3. Jahrhundert an und seien vom nahen Theater überführt worden. 
Die ursprüngliche Nutzung des severischen Forums von Kourion und der angrenzenden Thermenanlage endete nach D. Christou mit dem Erdbeben von 365. Die korinthischen Kapitelle des Forums gehörten der severischen Zeit an, wie auch die letzte Bauphase der Thermen. Ob die dortigen korinthischen Kapitelle der Thermenzeit oder einer frühchristlichen Umnutzung angehörten, lässt Christou jedoch offen.
Von den 46 aufgenommenen östlichen Kapitellen aus der Palästra der Salaminer Thermen und den 23 des Forumbereichs von Kourion ist die älteste die Gymnasium-Gruppe Kat.-Nr. 2 mit sechs Kapitellen, die der trajanischen Zeit angehören. Sie können denen des Trajaneums von Pergamon gegenüber gestellt werden. Hadrianisch datierte Kapitelle des pergamenischen Asklepieions stehen dagegen den severischen Stücken Freyberger 1990 Nr. 302, 304-305 bereits sehr nahe.
Die severische Zeit und das 3. Jahrhundert ist m. E. in Gestalt der insgesamt 14 Kapitelle der Gruppen Kat.-Nr. 7, 9, 21, 22 und vielleicht der Gruppen Nr. 4, 5, 6, 12, 14 vertreten. Alle Kapitelle stellen hinsichtlich der Anzahl der Blattzacken bzw. der Augenbildung geringfügige Varianten der severischen Formen Freyberger 1990 Nr. 302, 304-305 und 308 dar oder entsprechen diesen. Dazu zählen wenige Frühformen der von mir an anderer Stelle als spätantik gedeuteten Form Freyberger Nr. 303.
Das 4. Jahrhundert ist durch reduzierte Varianten der severischen Form Freyberger 1990 Nr. 308 repräsentiert. Dazu gehören die 21 Kapitelle der Gruppen 3, 10 und 17 aus dem “Gymnasium” und aus Kourion, die einen weichzackigen Blattstil zeigen, der demjenigen von J. Kramer, R. Kautzsch und B. Brenk vorgestellten Kapitellen des 4. Jahrhunderts aus Antalya und Ägypten entspricht. Diese Kapitelle begegnen in Zypern in originalen Bauzusammenhängen offenbar nur bei Gebäuden profaner Nutzung. Schon E. Kitzinger hat ein Kapitell dieses Stils aus Constantia vorgestellt und es ebenfalls in das 4. Jahrhundert datiert. Zur Baugeschichte der Palästra der Thermen wurden allerdings keine Schlussfolgerungen gezogen. Möglicherweise stammt der Blattstil dieser Kapitelle aufgrund dreier ägyptischer Parallelen aus dem Land am Nil. Dann wären sie ein weiterer unter zahlreichen anderen Belegen in Zypern für den anhaltenden Einfluss Ägyptens bzw. Alexandrias während der Kaiserzeit.
Andererseits ist das 4. Jahrhundert erkennbar in Nachfolgern von mittelkaiserzeitlichen Skulpturen. Dazu gehören die von J. Kramer im Zusammenhang mit zwei Kölner Skulpturen vorgestellten östlichen Kapitelle mit starrzackigem Blattwerk, zu denen wiederum das Kapitell Freyberger Nr. 303 zählt. In Constantia und Kourion begegnen diese Formen in den Gruppen Nr. 11, 15, 18-20 mit insgesamt 20 Kapitellen.
Das 5. Jahrhundert erscheint in der Piscina an der südöstlichen Ecke der Palästra in Gestalt zweier Kalksteinkapitelle einer Form, die auch in der Kampanopetra-Basilika begegnet. Die Kapitelle zeigen eine abgeschächte Version des „großgezackten Akanthus mit Augen“. Sie können aufgrund fehlender exakter hauptstädtischer Parallelen als eine regionale (nicht unbedingt zypriotische) Variante angesehen und stehen typologisch zwischen den “Lederblattkapitellen” und den “Leierkapitellen” der Gruppen 4 und 6 nach R. Kautzsch.
Die Kapitelle von Constantia und Kourion zeigen ein recht einheitliches Erscheinungsbild. Sie ähneln darin einer Reihe von spätantiken Kapitellensembles. Die zwei zypriotischen Ensembles bestehen aus einem großen Anteil von zeitnah im 4. Jahrhundert hergestellten Serien und älteren Spolien. Kapitelle der severischen Zeit sind entgegen bisheriger Auffassungen kaum vertreten.
Die Erdbeben von 332 und 342 haben das alte Salamis heftig beeinträchtigt. Die epigraphische Überlieferung belegt eine umfangreiche Restaurierung der Stadt und auch der Thermen des ehemaligen Thermen-Gymnasiums unter Constantius II./Constans. Die Herstellung einiger Kapitelle der Palästra, darunter diejenigen der Serie Nr. 10, dürfte in die Zeit nach 342 fallen. Dass die Thermen noch im 5. Jahrhundert zumindest teilweise als Bad genutzt wurde, belegen (neben epigraphischen Zeugnissen) zwei Kalksteinkapitelle von der Piscina an der südöstlichen Ecke der Palästra.
Die 23 aufgenommenen Kapitelle von Kourion demonstrieren eine noch einheitlichere spätantike Gestaltung, da deutlich ältere Typen wie die der Gymnasium Gruppe 2 fehlen. Die Untersuchung der Kapitelle belegt eine weitere, nachseverische Bauphase. Diese dürfte der ersten Hälfte des 4. Jahrhunderts angehören. Die gleichartige chronologische Verteilung der Kapitelle aus dem Thermenareal von Kourion legt eine gleichzeitige Bauphase der Thermen nahe, falls die Kapitelle der Thermenzeit angehörten. Falls sie der von Christou festgestellten nachthermenzeitlichen frühchristlichen Umnutzung zuzurechnen sind, datiert zumindest ihre Verwendung nach 365 n. Chr. In diesem Fall könnten sie aus dem Erdbebenschutt des spätantiken Forums stammen.
Die Beispiele Constantia und Kourion erlauben es anzunehmen, dass öffentliche (Platz-) Anlagen anderer städtischer Zentren Zyperns eine ähnliche Restaurierung im 4. Jahrhundert erfuhren.
""

In January 2009 the police delivered a large pilaster capital and two monumental leaf tips to the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. The pieces had been confiscated together and show the same patina as well as the same style. They probably belonged to the same large building and date from the fifth or sixth century AD. The pilaster capital is made of marble from Docimium, will have been part of a wall revetment and was most likely employed in a secular building. The monumental leaf tips appear to consist of marble from Proconnesus. The combination of columns from Proconnesus with wall revetment from Docimium was common in early Byzantine Constantinople.

The aim of this article is to examine the construction techniques of the irregular column capitals which are located at the junction of portico and courtyard arcades (revak) of six Ottoman mosques. The porticos height of the closed-courtyard mosques built during the Ottoman period regarding is mostly equal. However, in six cases, the porticos of the mosques are higher than their side porticos, which led alternative solutions to keep the continuity of the arcade surrounding the courtyard. The first phase of this study focuses on the construction techniques and materials of the column capitals in Ottoman architecture and the second phase deals with irregular capitals including their characteristics (sizes, materials, and relations with other building elements). For this purpose, detailed drawings were prepared through the site examinations and the literature review. As a result, despite that their size and shape vary depending on construction period, the relationship between last prayer hall and courtyard, structural aspects, and visual concern, their construction techniques, materials, and components show similar properties.

This paper focuses on some architectural elements from the polyadic Sanctuary of Apollo at Hierapolis in Phrygia, as a part of the research activities carried out by MAIER – the Italian Archaeological Mission at Hierapolis. A group of six Ionic capitals is distinguished by the unusual composition, which combines the decorated hypotrachelion with a fluted baluster and the presence of a bead-and-reel motif along the edge of the volutes. A series of comparisons shows that these original solutions depend on retrospective trends, as the reference to the most famous monuments of Classical Greece (the Erechtheion) and to the traditional forms of Microasiatic architecture (Artemisia of Ephesos and Sardis). Furthermore, the specific features of the hypotrachelion reveal a creative interaction between the architectural models of Rome and the local traditions of province of Asia. These Ionic capitals appear as the result of a complex artistic experimentation, realized at Hierapolis during the Hadrianic period; the chronology is also confirmed by the analysis of the decorative patterns.

Ayasuluk Hill, located in an area dominating Selcuk plains, is an important residential area of Ephesus Most of the Ayasuluk Hill Korinthian Capitals, the subject of the research, were brought from Hellenistic and Roman Period Ephesus for construction activities. These capitals were used in and around St. Jean Church as well as surrounding buildings and were spoliated again in Ayasuluk Castle and in surrounding structures in the 2nd and 3rd stages. Many spoliated architectural elements unearthed during the ongoing excavations and restoration works since early XX cc. are in the storage Ayasuluk Hill. Corinthian capitals constitute the biggest proportion of these elements. Ayasuluk Hill Corinthian capitals stand out with their outstanding features with their different style and composition developments. Most of the capitals are believed to be the works of Ephesus workshop, yet i some of these capitals the influence of Aphrodisias and Pergamon Workshops can be observed. Ayasuluk Hill Corinthian capitals, with the greatest number of Corinthian capitals outside of Ephesus city center, constitute a significant group among Western Anatolia Corinthian capitals.

In the Augustan Age, a new aesthetic preference was propagated in the Roman Empire – the surface of white marble was valued as it symbolised the strength and superiority of the ‘new age’. Soon, an immense trade in high quality marble over land and sea developed to meet the emergent demand. While the development and scale of this trade is well studied, the repercussions that the new aesthetic preference had on the local architectural traditions in areas where no marble was close at hand is not commonly considered. In this contribution, two developments are traced, taking the Corinthian capital as the leitmotif. First, in the short period between c. 40 and 10 BC, patrons would choose imitation of marble in plaster to meet up with the demands of the new standard and to demonstrate their adherence to the Empire. In the second line of development, a different path was taken – a conscious use of local materials which went hand in hand with the development of a new type of capital, the so-called ‘Nabataean blocked-out’ capital. This combination turned into a new vernacular tradition across large parts of the eastern Mediterranean. Both developments were local responses to a new ‘global’ trend and can therefore be viewed as a phenomenon of glocalisation in the Roman Period.

This paper examines several marble capitals recovered in the excavations carried out by the University of Pennsylvania in the early 1900s in the round church in Beth-Shean with a twofold aim. First, it will be shown that the capitals originally used as dating evidence are, in fact, spolia from Roman buildings from the 3rd century AD. Secondly,  the decoration of the capitals will be examined to suggest a different dating of the church construction on the grounds of two comparisons. The new dating of the Round Church to the last quarter of the fifth or beginning of the sixth century fits much better with the overall analysis of Beth Shean in this period.

Bu calisma ile Kibyra Kenti’nde su ana kadar yurutulen kazi ve yuzey arastirmalari sonucunda belgelenen dort adet sutun basligi tipolojik olarak degerlendirilerek ele alinmistir.  Calismanin konusunu olusturan sutun basliklari Ionik yivli bir sutuna ait olup sutun ust kismi ile birlikte islenmistir. Ekinuslari yuksek ve ince bir iscilik gerektiren Ionik kyma ile bezenmis olmasina ragmen form olarak Dorik ozellikler gosteren basliklar orijinal yapilarindan bagimsiz olarak ele gecirildikleri icin ancak tipolojik olarak degerlendirilerek komsu ve bolge kentleriyle yapilan analojik karsilastirmalarla tarihlendirmeleri yapilabilmistir.  Calisma kapsaminda Dorik form ozelliklerine sahip olan ancak Ionik ogeler ile yumusatilan bu tip basliklar, Kibyra ornekleri isiginda degerlendirilerek literaturundeki yeri, tipoloji ve tarihlendirme problemleri de ele alinmistir.

During Late Antiquity, a singular ascetic practice grew out of the easternmost parts of the Empire, particularly Syria, causing considerable stir. Starting with Saint Simeon the Elder (†459 CE), a number of ascetic monks ascended and inhabited the tops of columns in the desert, far from organized cityscapes. Such saints were called stylites and their Late Antique portraits present a compelling case for research. There are numerous different ways in which stylite saints are depicted in Late Antiquity. Stone relief portraits, in particular, cover a considerable portion of the surviving visual material. Stylites are carved and sculpted on stelai, icons as well as smaller pilgrim eulogiai. The iconography on the relief portraits follows certain typologies with columns gradually becoming more prominent in the visual narrative, informing the stylite saint's identity and influencing his portrayal both during and after his life. The column's growing importance is evident in the complicated relationship it develops when it becomes intertwined with the saint's human body. The visual emphasis on the pillar raises inquiries regarding stylite iconography, and the column's popularity as an object ever present in portraiture of the period. So far, scholarship has related the practice of stylitism to ancient pillar traditions, to hagiographic texts, and stylite imagery alongside the concept of an affinity between the holy portrait image and the living sanctified person (body and soul). It is from this latter research that I draw focus on the stylized portrait of the stylite saint, and the importance of the column as an object loaded with meaning. In this paper, I approach the role of the column in shaping the visual identity of the stylite monk for his viewers through observations on relief portraits of stylite saints particularly stelai (stone relief icons) and smaller pilgrim art objects, from the Late Antique period. I observe the role of the column, not as simply an indicator of their unique practice, but as a visual signifier of their person and influence. Relief portraits, presenting a large body of abstract depictions, make for fertile grounds to discuss stylite portraiture in relation to the treatment of the body, the person, and the column in unison. For this purpose, observations on the use of the column in stylite relief portraiture alongside the use of columns in other types of Late Antique portraits assists in questioning values attached to the stylite's image. Finally, the paper addresses the degree in which portraits of stylite saints, where inscriptions and other indicators are vague or absent, were imprints of a specific person, the institution of stylitism overall, or both.

The Corinthian column capitals that initially appeared in the Iktinos’ Temple of Apollo Epikouros at Bassai, Greece in the 5th century BC, became fashionable during the Roman period, and maintained the Roman traditions in general during the Early Byzantine period, especially in the 4th and 5th centuries. As the dominating ornamentation element on the capital, acanthus leaves that were carved protruding from the capital’s kalathos in the antique period departed from their conventional and naturalistic appearance in the 5th and 6th centuries. While the plasticity of the Greek and Roman Corinthian capitals was reduced to merely upper part of the leaves, some column capitals feature a design in which the lateral lobes of the acanthus leaves touch the adjacent leave’s lobes which form geometric shapes such as distorted rectangles, rhombi, and triangles within the leaves. This type of capitals with so-called mask-acanthus pattern do not reflect the same morphology in and every rendering of the pattern. They have been incorporated into the Byzantine sculptural repertoire at the end of the 4th century and executed widely beginning from the 5th century. However, capitals of mask-acanthus which appear as simplified Corinthian capitals are not the invention of Byzantine sculptors, they had been produced during the Roman period since the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The principal characteristic that distinguishes the Roman capitals with mask-acanthus pattern from that of the Byzantine examples is the form of the eyes. This paper is based on a case study upon the capitals exhibited in the Museum of Tarsus in order to document the evolution of the implementation of the mask-acanthus pattern as well as to present the evaluation of the stylistic analysis chronologically.

MASK-AKANTHUS’LU KORİNTH SÜTUN BAŞLIKLARININ MORFOLOJİ VE KRONOLOJİSİ: TARSUS MÜZESİ ÖRNEK İNCELEMESİ

İlk olarak Yunanistan Bassai’de bulunan Apollo Epikouros’un İktinos Tapınağı’nda İ.Ö. 5. yüzyılda karşımıza çıkan Korinth tipindeki sütun başlıkları, Roma Dönemi’nde yoğun olarak kullanılmış ve Erken Bizans Dönemi’nde, özellikle 4. ve 5. yüzyıllarda genel olarak Roma geleneğini devam ettirmiştir. Antik dönemde başlık kalathosundan dışa taşkın olarak yapılmış olan dominant bezeme öğesi akanthus yaprakları, 5. ve 6. yüzyıllarda geleneksel, natüralist görünümünden uzaklaşmıştır. Yunan ve Roma Korinth başlıklarında görülen plastisitenin sadece yaprak üst kısımlarına indirgendirdiği görülürken, bazı sütun başlıklarında akanthusların yan loblarının bitişiklerinde yer alan akanthus yaprakları ile birbirlerine dokunur biçimde tasarlandığı dikkati çeker. Bu üslup, yaprakların aralarında distorte edilmiş dikdörtgen, eşkenar dörtgen ve üçgen gibi geometrik formlar oluşmasına yol açmıştır. Terminolojide mask-akanthus’lu olarak bilinen bu grup başlıklar tamamen aynı morfolojiyi yansıtmazlar. Bizans Dönemi içinde 4. yüzyılın son yıllarında repertuara girmiş ve 5. yüzyıl itibariyle yaygın biçimde uygulanmışlardır.  Ancak bir Bizans buluşu değildir ve yalınlaştırılmış Korinth üslubu olarak adlandırılabilecek mask-akanthus’lu bu tür başlıklar İ.Ö. 3 yüzyıl başlarından itibaren Roma sanatında da karşımıza çıkar. Roma ve Bizans mask-akanthus’lu başlıkları birbirinden ayıran en önemli özellik gözlerin formudur. Tarsus Müzesi’nde sergilenen bazı sütun başlıkları üzerinden mask-akanthus’lu Korinth tipinde sütun başlıklarının gelişim ve değişimini belgelemek amacıyla yaptığımız çalışmamız kapsamında, başlıklar üslup analizi yapılarak kronolojik olarak değerlendirilmiştir.

Two dozen Roman and Byzantine leaf capitals in the Archaeological Museum and in the Alaeddin Mosque at Konya originate from Sidamaria, Iconium and Pappa/Tiberiupolis. One capital may be connected with the Sidamaria Sarcophagus, others with Docimium, and they throw light on the genesis of the 'narrow-pointed' acanthus and of the 'broad-pointed' leaf of the late antique/early Byzantine period. The capitals show that late antique/early Byzantine stonecarving in the Lycaonian captial Iconium/Konya was following the latest fashions as they were established by the leading Anatolian workshop at Docimium in Phrygia. The capitals demonstrate that Lycaonian architecture was not generally as primitive as Binbirkilise, the province's best-preserved and most famous ruins that - seen in isolation - appeared to reflect innate originality. On the evidence of the capitals, architecture elsewhere in Lycaonia was up-to-date, in close contact with neighbouring provinces, and followed transregional trends.

Feuilles lisses médiévales. Notes de vocabulaire.
La dénomination ‘à feuilles d’eau’, employée dans les études italiennes pour indiquer la décoration des chapiteaux médiévaux à feuilles lisses, surtout de ceux postérieurs au XIIe s., apparaît ambiguë car elle suggère, en fait, une volonté d’imitation de la flore aquatique. Un tel choix est-il justifié par la morphologie et la nature de ce décor? Le problème sous-entend, entre autre, la question du degré de ‘naturalisme’ de la décoration végétale antique et médiévale. Au Moyen Age, c’est en France, à partir du deuxième quart du XIIIe s., qu’une végétation sculptée apparaît qui est véritablement imitée depuis la nature; il s’agit d’un éloignement explicite de la tradition précédente, qui était restée fidèle, malgré toute dénaturation, au vocabulaire d’origine antique. Or, la plupart des feuillages sur les chapiteaux italiens ne semblent pas s’éloigner de ce chemin. Nous le démontrons par un parcours dans la morphologie des ‘feuilles lisses’ et de ses variantes, et par l’examen du cas particulier des chapiteaux à décoration végétale produits en Toscane aux XIIIe et XIVe s.

Zusammenfassung:

Der gesicherte archäologische Befund, der gegen Ende des 4. Jahrhunderts einsetzt, bleibt deutlich hinter der schriftlichen Überlieferung zur im 1. Jahrhundert beginnenden Christianisierung Zyperns zurück. Liturgische Traditionen sind im orthodoxen Zypern nur hypothetisch am archäologischen Befund nachzuweisen, auch weil Architektur nicht notwendigerweise eine bestimmte Liturgie widerspiegelt. Missionierung ist in Gestalt von Katechumena und Baptisterien für Massentaufen mehrfach nachweisbar. Pfarr- und Bischofskirchen sind zumindest in Salamis/Constantia und Kourion deutlich zu unterscheiden.

Die Kapitelldekoration frühchristlicher Bauten bestätigt die Datierungen der Metropolitankirche St. Epiphanius in Constantia und der Kathedrale von Kourion. Neue Datierungen werden für den Vorgänger von St. Lazarus in Larnaca (späteres 4. bis frühes 5. Jahrhundert), Ayios Philon in Karpasia (2. Hälfte 5. Jahrhundert) und die Küstenbasilika von Kourion (bald nach der Mitte des 5. Jahrhunderts) vorgeschlagen. Eine Bautätigkeit an St. Barnabas bei Constantia zur Zeit Zenons wird zwar bejaht, aber die Frage gestellt, ob diese nicht ein Umbau (im Rahmen der Weihung an St. Barnabas) einer bereits bestehenden Friedhofskirche des späteren 4./frühen 5. Jahrhunderts gewesen sein könnte.