Direct and Indirect Feedback

Le feedback correctif écrit, c’est-à-dire l’intervention de l’enseignant en réponse à l’erreur de l’apprenant, est une technique très utilisée dans l'interaction didactique en classe. Si les chercheurs travaillant sur l’acquisition des langues s’accordent généralement à penser que le feedback correctif joue un rôle dans le développement des compétences de l’apprenant, l’identification de la technique corrective écrite la plus appropriée pour favoriser ce développement fait encore aujourd’hui l’objet de nombreuses controverses (Bitchener & Storch, 2016). Parmi la multitude de techniques correctives, le feedback direct – c’est-à-dire la reformulation de la forme erronée par l’enseignant – et le feedback indirect – c’est-à-dire le fait de signaler la forme erronée de manière implicite, sans en donner la correction – sont les plus étudiées dans la littérature francophone, italophone et anglo-saxonne. Si l’efficacité de la correction dépend en partie de la technique adoptée par l’ens...

Corrective feedback (CF) and its different types have long absorbed many scholars and practitioners. As Ellis (2009) mentioned some experimental studies need to be carefully designed to discover the relative effectiveness of each of these CF techniques. The goal of this qualitative study was to discover whether the employment of different CF strategies could bring about an attitudinal shift. To this end, 132 learners were randomly assigned to six different groups each receiving a different kind of corrective feedback. The participants' responses were compared before and after the treatment to find out how their attitude changed over the course of correction. The results suggested that different kinds of feedback strategies have their own proponents. The participants voiced their views on those feedback strategies. The implications of the findings are discussed at the end.

The aim of the current study is to evaluate several performance indicators to be used as real-time feedback in the coming experiments to enhance performance of elite speeds skaters. Six speed skaters, wearing one IMU per skate, collected data over one full training season to evaluate and pinpoint useful performance indicators. Promising performance indicators were picked in close collaboration with the coaches. One of those is the time that two skates are on the ice simultaneously, the double stance phase (DS). Coaches believe it has an inverse relation to velocity of the skater. In the curve this relationship is found for some skaters but not all. Also other factors seem to influence the DS phase as well. Data of a higher quality skating ring are inline with this finding but more profound, indicating that ice quality or anxiety, could influence the double stance phase as well.

To date, there has been mounting research evidence on the impact of written corrective feedback. In response to this, reviews have been conducted to condense either findings or methodologies through the combined analysis of EFL and ESL studies. Although syntheses shed light on the topic, no one provides exclusive insights into EFL realities. Therefore, this systematic literature review was proposed to synthesize methodologies, findings, and research suggestions of EFL articles analyzing direct and indirect feedback, two widely debated and employed strategies in classrooms, with either a focused or unfocused scope. Through a sevenstep protocol suggested by Petticrew and Roberts (2006), 21 EFL primary studies published between 2012 and 2022 were selected from the bibliometric dataset of Crosthwaite et al. (2022), which contains articles retrieved from the Scopus database. The papers were read through to answer five research questions on methodologies, findings, and study suggestions. The results show that most EFL studies were quasi-experimental adopting a quantitative approach with a pretest-posttest-delayed-posttest or pretest-posttest design, and the strategies significantly impinged on grammar and non-grammar aspects. Suggestions are given to further study the impact of feedback under different conditions such as targets, proficiency levels, and strategies and scope with a comparative nature.

This research tried to compare the probable effects of two different kinds of corrective feedback (explicit and implicit) on Iranian elementary EFL learners' paragraph writing ability. The participants were 30 English elementary foreign language learners who were studying EFL at Iran Language Institute (ILI) in Lahijan, Iran. They were all native speakers of Persian. The study groups both included girls aged 12 to 14. In order to make sure that all the participants were at the same English proficiency level, Face to Face Written Placement Test was organized. The pretest-posttest nonequivalent-groups design which is a subcategory of quasi-experimental designs was utilized in this study. Each group included 15 participants. All of the participants in each group have expected to write a paragraph as the pretest and after treatment sessions they were required to write another paragraph as the posttest of writing. The findings showed the superiority of explicit feedback over implicit...

Written corrective feedback, that is, the intervention of the teacher in response to learners’ errors, is a widely adopted technique in classroom interaction. While researchers working on second language acquisition generally agree that corrective feedback plays a role in the development of learners L2 skills, the identification of the most effective written corrective technique is still a matter of debate (Bitchener & Storch, 2016). Among many techniques, direct feedback - i.e. reformulation of the error by the teacher - and indirect feedback - i.e. pointing out the error implicitly, without giving the correction - are the most studied. While feeback effectiveness depends in part on the technique adopted by the teacher, the way students process it and other contextual, individual and linguistic variables might affect its learning potential. Our work aims to compare the effects of the two aforementioned corrective techniques on the L2 acquisition process and, at the same time, to as...

Matching the expectations of teachers and learners is vital for successful learning. Few studies have investigated the effects of corrective feedback on Iranian EFL learners. Therefore, this study aimed to bridge this gap. To this end, the sample of 180 male and female teachers, who taught language courses in an English Language Teaching program in language institutes in Zanjan, and 350 learners, chosen through stratified random sampling, formed the participants of the study. Two standard instruments were used in this studyPET Test and Fukuda’s (2004) Feedback Questionnaire. The findings suggest that learners believed that corrective feedback had a significant effect on their writing but the teachers did not think so. It is concluded that most of the feedback given by teachers were concentrated on grammatical errors and that the teachers’ views on feedback are based on the context, which might origin from absence of sufficient teacher training. With this in mind, giving feedback, or...

The current study was done to see the effectiveness of applying written feedback on Iranian Intermediate EFL learners' knowledge of passive sentences. To see if any change has occurred for both groups between their pretest and posttest separately, two paired-sample T-test were calculated. The results of the paired-sample t-test calculation showed that the EG group benefitted from written feedback .Finally, in order to compare the performance of experimental and control groups in the post-test, first their gain scores were calculated, then the gain scores of experimental as well as control groups were compared using an Independent T-Test. The average of the scores in the Experimental group was meaningfully higher than the control group (p<0.00(.Thus the outcome of this study is that applying written feedback has positive effect on Iranian Intermediate EFL learners’ knowledge of passive sentences.

This study investigated the immediate and sustained effects of revision-mediated (RICF) and attention-mediated (AICF) indirect coded corrective feedback on the written syntactic accuracy development of 50 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners assigned to two RICF and AICF groups. They received eight-session treatments, followed by an immediate posttest and then a delayed posttest after a four-week time interval. The collected written scripts were co-rated for syntactic accuracy by the researcher and her colleague. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 21. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and the paired-samples t-tests revealed that each treatment separately (i.e., revision-mediated and attention-mediated CF) had a statistically significant impact on EFL learners’ written syntactic accuracy both in the short and long term. Moreover, the independent samples t-tests indicated no significant difference between the effects of revision-mediated and atten...

This study explores the concept of feedback from various perspectives in psychology and cognitive science. Specifically, the theories of ecological psychology, situated and Distributed Cognition, Cognitive Systems Engineering and Embodied cognition are investigated and compared. Cognitive Systems Engineering provides a model of feedback and related constructs, to understand human behavior in complex working environments. Earlier theories such as ecological psychology, considered feedback as direct perception. Situated cognition clearly inherits ideas from ecological psychology, whereas distributed cognition provides a deeper understanding of feedback through artifact use. Cognitive Systems Engineering provides a systematic view of feedback and control. This framework is a suitable perspective to understanding feedback in human-machine settings.

The effectiveness of Corrective feedback has been a controversial issue and thus a central part of second language writing instruction worldwide. It has been argued that the provision of written corrective feedback can affect the complexity of the written text negatively, and the issue is not sufficiently investigated. Purpose: This study investigated the effects of two types of comprehensive written corrective feedback strategies: direct corrective feedback (DCF), and metalinguistic explanation (ME) on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. Method: This study was quasi-experimental and used a pretest-intervention-posttest-delayedposttest design. Participants were 90 Turkish EFL upper-intermediate learners, whose L2 proficiency and L2 writing skills were controlled by administering the Oxford Placement Test and the IELTS Writing Task 2 test. They were assigned to three groups: DCF, ME, and NF (i.e., no feedback on grammatical errors).The treatment/control period lasted for five weeks. Every week, each participant wrote an essay of argument-led type in class and then received the specified feedback. No work was done on writing for the two-week interval between the posttest and delayed posttest. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyser was utilised to calculate the syntactic complexity measures. The MANOVA test was utilized to find the results. Results: It was revealed the ME group was not significantly different from the NF group. The DCF group significantly outperformed the ME group in the clauses per sentence (C/S) of the texts both in posttests and delayed-posttests. The DCF group also significantly outperformed the NF group in the clauses per T-unit (C/T

To investigate the effect of corrective feedback on the grammatical and lexical writing accuracy, 164 participants in four groups participated in the study, and each group received a specified written corrective feedback. The participants were presented with a pretest, a questionnaire, and a posttest. Chi-Square and One-Way ANOVA procedures were used to analyse data. Regarding grammatical accuracy, results showed that the direct corrective feedback group preformed significantly better than the other groups. The uncoded group also performed significantly better than the control group. As to lexical writing accuracy, the three treatment groups performed significantly better than the comparison group.

The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of varying frequency patterns (FPs) of words on the productive acquisition of a young EFL learner in a home setting. Target words were presented to the learner using games and role plays. They were subsequently traced for their frequencies in input and output. Eighteen immediate tests and delayed tests were administered to measure the oral production following the treatments. To examine the efficacy of varying FPs, target words were grouped into four sets: High Input/High Output (HIHO), Low Input/Low Output (LILO), High Input/Low Output (HILO), and Low Input/High Output (LIHO). The findings revealed that the differences among the FPs were statistically significant. Meanwhile, Wilcoxon signed-rank test identified a significant discrepancy between the words with LILO and HIHO frequency patterns. The findings demonstrated that the differences in FPs led to different productive gains, and higher word production cropped up when ...

In this study, we examined the nature of teacher Corrective Feedback (TCF) in Paper-And-Pencil and Electronic modes by exploring the form and purpose of TCF and the strategies used to mark errors in the writings of undergraduate EFL students. We also investigated possible differences between the two modes. To this end, we randomly assigned the students to the control (PAP feedback) and experimental groups (E-feedback). Taking a mixed-method research design, we analysed data which included the first drafts of students' essays of the two groups in hard and soft copy forms. We used a modified version of Analytic Model for Corrective Feedback and Error Feedback Strategies profile to identify the nature of TCF. The results showed: a) higher percentage of E-feedback compared with PAP feedback; b) make a grammar/mechanics comment/question, statement, or imperative as the most frequently used feedback type in both groups; c) underline/circle/ highlight the errors and underline/circle/hi...

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

In this study, we examined the nature of teacher Corrective Feedback (TCF) in Paper-And-Pencil and Electronic modes by exploring the form and purpose of TCF and the strategies used to mark errors in the writings of undergraduate EFL students. We also investigated possible differences between the two modes. To this end, we randomly assigned the students to the control (PAP feedback) and experimental groups (E-feedback). Taking a mixed-method research design, we analysed data which included the first drafts of students' essays of the two groups in hard and soft copy forms. We used a modified version of Analytic Model for Corrective Feedback and Error Feedback Strategies profile to identify the nature of TCF. The results showed: a) higher percentage of E-feedback compared with PAP feedback; b) make a grammar/mechanics comment/question, statement, or imperative as the most frequently used feedback type in both groups; c) underline/circle/ highlight the errors and underline/circle/hi...

The aim of this case studyis to explore the possible relationship between the practice of proofreading and the efficacy of applying written corrective feedback. My focus is on the development of efficient editing with the two mentioned techniques. Moreover, the other aim of this paper is to explore the effects of different types of error correction on the treatment of the errors by the students during the process of editing. The dataset for this study consisted of student texts with proofreading and teacher feedback in student texts; the finalised version of portfolio from all the participants, and transcribed, retrospective semi-structured interviews with participants. This study addresses the following research questions: 1. Does the proofreading have any effects on improving the process of selfediting and error correction? 2. What types of error correction does the instructor use to give feedback? 3. Do students apply the different types of the instructor’s error correction diffe...

To investigate the effect of corrective feedback on the grammatical and lexical writing accuracy, 164 participants in four groups participated in the study, and each group received a specified written corrective feedback. The participants were presented with a pretest, a questionnaire, and a posttest. Chi-Square and One-Way ANOVA procedures were used to analyse data. Regarding grammatical accuracy, results showed that the direct corrective feedback group preformed significantly better than the other groups. The uncoded group also performed significantly better than the control group. As to lexical writing accuracy, the three treatment groups performed significantly better than the comparison group.

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

This study investigated the use of corrective feedback to address beginner Iranian EFL learners' pronunciation. Two groups of 15 language learners were randomly assigned to one experimental and one control group. While the control group just received common traditional method of pronunciation teaching, the experimental group received corrective feedback on their wrong pronunciation. The design of this study was pretest-treatment-posttest. The results of the pretests and posttests showed no significant differences between the control and the experimental group. The findings showed that (a) corrective feedback affected the learners' pronunciation of v sound and (b) corrective feedback did not improve w sound production.

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

This study investigated the immediate and sustained effects of revision-mediated (RICF) and attention-mediated (AICF) indirect coded corrective feedback on the written syntactic accuracy development of 50 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners assigned to two RICF and AICF groups. They received eight-session treatments, followed by an immediate posttest and then a delayed posttest after a four-week time interval. The collected written scripts were co-rated for syntactic accuracy by the researcher and her colleague. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 21. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and the paired-samples t-tests revealed that each treatment separately (i.e., revision-mediated and attention-mediated CF) had a statistically significant impact on EFL learners' written syntactic accuracy both in the short and long term. Moreover, the independent samples t-tests indicated no significant difference between the effects of revision-mediated and attention-mediated CF on EFL learners' written syntactic accuracy both in the short and long term. The paper provides discussion and implications.

This experimental study, using a pretest-treatment-posttest design, compared the effects of focused direct written corrective feedback and additional writing practice on L2 learners' written syntactic complexity. The participants were 60 Iranian elementary EFL learners, whose L2 proficiency as well as L2 writing syntactic complexity and accuracy were controlled by administering the Oxford Quick Placement Test and a paragraph writing test. They were assigned to two groups: Focused direct corrective feedback (FDCF) and additional writing practice without feedback (No CF). The investigation included five sessions and lasted for three weeks. Every session, each participant wrote a paragraph of descriptive type in class. The experimental group received FDCF, while the control (i.e. No CF) group was provided only with additional writing practice. Lu's (2010) web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer was utilized to calculate the five indices of syntactic complexity measures, including mean length of clause (MLC), mean length of sentence (MLS), mean length of T-unit (MLT), clauses per sentence (C/S), and verb phrases per T-unit (VP/T). The MANOVA test revealed no statistically significant difference between the two groups.

Abstract: To investigate the effect of corrective feedback on the grammatical and lexical writing accuracy, 164 participants in four groups participated in the study, and each group received a specified written corrective feedback. The participants were presented with a pretest, a questionnaire, and a post-test. Chi-Square and One-Way ANOVA procedures were used to analyse data. Regarding grammatical accuracy, results showed that the direct corrective feedback group preformed significantly better than the other groups. The uncoded group also performed significantly better than the control group. As to lexical writing accuracy, the three treatment groups performed significantly better than the comparison group.

dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa, dan aspek apa yang paling dipengaruhi oleh lagu populer bahasa Inggris sebagai media. Peneliti menggunakan desain pre-test dan post-test dalam penelitian ini. Setelah meneliti siswa kelas X di SMAN 14 Bandar Lampung, ditemukan bahwa ada peningkatan yang signifikan dalam kemampuan berbicara siswa. Data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-rata membaik dari 41,5 (pretest) ke 64 (posttest) dengan nilai signifikansi 0.000 dan tanda < α (0,000 <0,05). Kosakata mendapat kenaikan tertinggi dimana nilai rata-rata meningkat dari 9,5 (pretest) sampai 13 (posttest). Dapat dikatakan bahwa Lagu Populer Bahasa Inggris dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa siswa dan kosakata menjadi aspek yang paling dipengaruhi oleh lagu populer bahasa Inggris sebagai media. The purpose of this study was to determine whether Popular English Song can improve students ’ speaking ability, and what aspect was most influenced by popular English song as media. In th...

The present study was conducted to compare the impact of direct and metalinguistic written corrective feedback on Iranian EFL learners ’ grammatical knowledge. The participants were a convenient sample of students in two intact writing classes. The instruction provided in both groups was similar; however, the students in one group received direct feedback and the students in the other group received metalinguistic feedback in the form of error codes on writing accuracy (i.e., grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation) of their in-class written texts. Moreover, all the students took a grammar test serving as pre- and posttests before and after the treatment. In addition to the computation of gain scores, descriptive statistics and a mixed between-within subjects ANOVA were run to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics revealed that the grammatical knowledge of the learners in both groups developed as a result of the two types of feedback; nonetheless, there was not a statistically signi...