Ecology, Entomology, Vector Ecology

Background: The prevalence of geographical distribution of vector borne diseases has been increasingly public health important and challenging problems in more than 100 tropical countries and it has been affecting more than 50% of the population in the world, especially, it is very big problem in India. The change of vector borne disease epidemic transmission in to the endemic situation in the country has been caused by the land use / land cover changes, regional climate changes, increase of sea change population, urban agglomeration, industrial development and the past development of towns, consequently, the disease epidemics have been steadily increased too, and, besides, it has been found ubiquitous, such diseases known as, malaria, filariasis, JE, dengue and chikungunya, as a result, the increase of both mosquito nuisances and disease transmissions has become public health importance and very big challenging problems in India. 2. Materials and Methods: The data pertaining to vector borne diseases were collected and was attached to the district map using Arc View 3.2 GIS platform (ESRI, NIIT-Chennai, India) for preparation of disease prevalence in India. The district wise thematic information of geo-climatic variables (Mean Annual Temperature, Mean Annual Rainfall, Relative Humidity, Saturation Deficit, Altitude, Soils types and Population density), vector borne diseases were developed and the data set was imported into SPSS+ for geo-statistical analysis. Remote sensing and GIS is has the important role in the ecological mapping of vectors breading habitats. Remote sensing of IRS LISS I and LISS II data products were analyzed, using ERDAS Imagine 8.5 and was integrated into GIS for spatial analysis for classification. The integrated hybrid remote sensing and GIS techniques have been used to mapping the vector breeding potential areas vulnerable to risk of disease transmission. Results and Discussion: The result shows that the possible information on reliable estimates of and mapping of malaria, filariasis, JE, and dengue vector breeding habitats, and facilitate to estimate the people at risk of vector borne disease transmission. The results of the present research study shows that spatial agreement was existed between the environmental variables and the vector borne disease epidemic transmission. The geographical distribution and the seasonal abundance of vector abundance and vector borne disease transmission have completely been controlled by the climate, landscape and the environmental variables. Conclusion: The study has made for analyzing the spatial agreements between the environmental variables and vector borne disease transmission in India, and perhaps, the appreciation of GIS in the spatial and the ecological aspects of vector borne diseases towards the achievement of vector borne disease transmission control in India. and thus, the remote sensing and GIS has been provided the guidelines to choose appropriate control strategy and mapping disease transmission risk zones based on the information derived from the geo-statistical analysis of environmental variables in the country.

Historical records evidenced of urban landscape changes, and environmental transitions brought by the improper growths and urban development's of the urbanisation and industrialization in the developing countries, especially in India, significantly chaotic urban sprawl and industrial growths, and the development of its allied activities for the recent decades, invites new, emerging, reemerging, and triggers the tropical infectious diseases including vector borne diseases (VBD) as well non-communicable diseases. Urban sprawl has a multiplier effect of growth of unplanned a crowded housing, and industrialization has an impact on the urban landscape with commercial and market development, and roads over large expanses of urban land while little concern for appropriate urban planning. The union government of India is launching to promote 100 mega smart city projects / metropolitan / urban agglomeration across the nation for betterment of the standard of living infrastructure facilities by 2030. The large scale urban landscape architectural

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are one of the most important disease vector species in the world. Many species have a high degree of anthropophilia and are often found in human habitations. In the present study, we
have inventoried the nocturnal mosquito assemblage in intra-, peri-, and extradomicile environments in four
municipalities in Pará, Brazil. At each municipality, a residence was selected and the mosquitoes were sampled
using the protected human attraction capture and Shannon trap methods in April (rainy season) and August
2018 (dry season). We have collected a total of 696 mosquito specimens belonging to 8 genera and 17 species. The most abundant species were Mansonia (Mansonoides) titillans (Walker) (366/696, 52.6%), Anopheles
(Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis Lynch-Arribálzaga (97/696, 13.9%), and Culex (Culex) quinquefasciatus Say (93/696,
13.4%). Mosquito richness, abundance, and composition did not differ between intra-, peri-, and extradomicile
environments suggesting limited habitat segregation among the different species. However, mosquito species
richness and mosquito species abundance were significantly higher during the rainy season than during the
dry season, suggesting increased mosquito activity during the rainy season. We detected several important
vector species of human diseases including Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus), Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus)
darlingi Root, Haemagogus (Conopostegus) leucocelaenus (Dyar and Shannon), Coquillettidia (Coquillettidia)
venezuelensis (Theobald), and Culex (Culex) quinquefasciatus which are the main transmitters of dengue,
malaria, yellow fever, mayaro, and oropouche fever, respectively. As inventories of disease-carrying mosquitoes in the region are very scarce, mainly in residential environments, our results suggest high potential for
mosquito-borne disease transmission in Pará State.

In addition to their notorious nuisance, mosquitoes can be a vector potential of pathogens (parasites, viruses and bacteria) causing a significant number of human and animal vector-borne diseases, some of which are part of emerging and re-emerging vector-borne-diseases which can be devastating to Human Health and affect economic growth of the most affected regions. In view of global changes creating favorable conditions for the spread of invasive species and emergence of vector-borne diseases, this study allows to characterize the state of biodiversity of the mosquitoes in Morocco. Firstly, the history of these insects has been traced from literature from 1916 until today; the synthesis of nearly two hundred references allowed to update the inventory of mosquitoes Morocco. Forty three species of Culicidae are known to occur in Morocco, including Aedes albopictus (Stegomyia albopicta), an invasive species and major vector of arboviruses, who has recently been reported in the country. Coupled with some unpublished data, the literature review allowed to develop a database 'Culicidae of Morocco', whose handling has made the production of the first Atlas of mosquitoes of Morocco. The establishment of GIS distribution maps has allowed to analyze species distribution areas and changes in biodiversity; the general bio-ecology and medical importance have also been documented and specified for each species. Biogeographical comparisons with some neighboring countries (Maghreb and Europe) completes this atlas. Documented preview and records on major vector-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes is also given. Considering their larval habitats and ecological preferences, Morocco's mosquitoes can be classified into seven main categories: wild species, peridomestic species, continental freshwater species, coastal saltwater species, mountain species, lowland species and forest species. From a biogeographical point of view, the analysis of the spatial distribution of the species in Morocco shows that the geographical areas of diversity corresponds to high altitude regions. The number of recorded species remains relatively high compared to species inventoried in some North African and European countries such as Libya (23 species), Belgium (31 species), Egypt (33 species), Portugal (40 species), Tunisia (43 species), Italy (47 species), Turkey (50 species), France (63 species), Spain (68 species)and Algeria (68 species). From an epidemiological point of view, Anopheles labranchiae which was responsible, until 2010, for the autochthonous transmission of malaria (due to Plasmodium vivax) in Morocco, remains the only representative of the Maculipennis subgroup in the country and shows a clear trend to zoophilia. In order to predict the risk of re-emergence of this disease in the country, the analysis of the current situation, based on receptivity and vulnerability, was discussed in a global, regional and local context. The risk of malaria reemergence in Morocco maintains and is related to the steady increase in the incidence of imported P. falciparum malaria cases, as well as the possible invasion and establishment of tropical species, favored by global warming. Concerning the arboviruses in Morocco, the recent observation of Aedes albopictus, an important invasive species and a known vector of several viruses, must be taken into account. Thus, although the epidemiological situation of vector-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes is currently satisfactory in Morocco, the risk of re-emergence of malaria and/or emergence of arboviruses is far from negligible and extreme entomological vigilance is required. In regards of the vector control which is largely dependent on insecticides in Morocco, the results of the sensitivity tests confirmed the perfect larval susceptibility of the main malaria vector An. labranchiae to the Temephos. The good sensitivity of An. cinereus and An. sergentii to this same product was demonstrated for the first time. Unlike Fenthion and Malathion which are still effective on Culex pipiens larvae, the Fenithrothion could also no longer be effective on this mosquito, whose resistance to the Temephos is becoming more and more proved. In addition, adults of Cx. pipiens from areas of intensive agriculture, show a considerable resistance to Pyrethroids, Carbamates and Organochlorine, suggesting a possible cross resistance between the three chemical families. These results deserve a deepening by using techniques of molecular biology and biochemistry to better understand the mechanisms involved in this resistance.

Larval habitat for three highland Anopheles species: Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann, Anopheles pseudopunctipennis Theobald, and Anopheles punctimacula Dyar and Knab was related to human land uses, rivers, roads, and remotely sensed land cover classifications in the western Ecuadorian Andes. Of the five commonly observed human land uses, cattle pasture (n=30) provided potentially suitable habitat for A. punctimacula and A. albimanus in less than 14% of sites, and was related in a principal components analysis (PCA) to the presence of macrophyte vegetation, greater surface area, clarity, and algae cover. Empty lots (n=30) were related in the PCA to incident sunlight and provided potential habitat for A. pseudopunctipennis and A. albimanus in less than 14% of sites. The other land uses surveyed (banana, sugarcane, and mixed tree plantations; n=28, 21, 25, respectively) provided very little standing water that could potentially be used for larval habitat. River edges and eddies (n=41) were associated with greater clarity, depth, temperature, and algae cover, which provide potentially suitable habitat for A. albimanus in 58% of sites and A. pseudopunctipennis in 29% of sites. Road-associated water bodies (n=38) provided potential habitat for A. punctimacula in 44% of sites and A. albimanus in 26% of sites surveyed. Species collection localities were compared to land cover classifications using Geographic Information Systems software. All three mosquito species were associated more often with the category “closed/open broadleaved evergreen and/or semi-deciduous forests” than expected (P≤0.01 in all cases), given such a habitat’s abundance. This study provides evidence that specific human land uses create habitat for potential malaria vectors in highland regions of the Andes.

Background
Most cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) start with a bite from one of the subspecies of Glossina fuscipes. Tsetse use a range of olfactory and visual stimuli to locate their hosts and this response can be exploited to lure tsetse to insecticide-treated targets thereby reducing transmission. To provide a rational basis for cost-effective designs of target, we undertook studies to identify the optimal target colour.

Methodology/Principal Findings
On the Chamaunga islands of Lake Victoria , Kenya, studies were made of the numbers of G. fuscipes fuscipes attracted to targets consisting of a panel (25 cm square) of various coloured fabrics flanked by a panel (also 25 cm square) of fine black netting. Both panels were covered with an electrocuting grid to catch tsetse as they contacted the target. The reflectances of the 37 different-coloured cloth panels utilised in the study were measured spectrophotometrically. Catch was positively correlated with percentage reflectance at the blue (460 nm) wavelength and negatively correlated with reflectance at UV (360 nm) and green (520 nm) wavelengths. The best target was subjectively blue, with percentage reflectances of 3%, 29%, and 20% at 360 nm, 460 nm and 520 nm respectively. The worst target was also, subjectively, blue, but with high reflectances at UV (35% reflectance at 360 nm) wavelengths as well as blue (36% reflectance at 460 nm); the best low UV-reflecting blue caught 3× more tsetse than the high UV-reflecting blue.

Conclusions/Significance
Insecticide-treated targets to control G. f. fuscipes should be blue with low reflectance in both the UV and green bands of the spectrum. Targets that are subjectively blue will perform poorly if they also reflect UV strongly. The selection of fabrics for targets should be guided by spectral analysis of the cloth across both the spectrum visible to humans and the UV region.

Better understanding by mapping picturesque thematic information, and visualizing the actual burden of arthropod vector borne disease vertically and horizontally, using GIS, analytical cartographic and geovisualization methods guide to select an appropriate methods for control and management of the disease. Both, the site specific public health epidemiology and entomological reality information on the grounds could be collected with GPS, and could be mapped under the GIS techniques. Different type of field survey methods and techniques could have been functional for the study of arthropod vectors surveillance, especially, mosquitoes, ticks, and mites vector abundance, and ecology, must have been essentially needed revision and updates for the achievements of goal move towards the betterment of vector borne disease control and management. Probability sampling (random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling), and Nonprobability sampling (convenience sampling, snowball sampling, quota sampling) existing conventional survey methods have been replaced with GIS scientific methods, used for public health epidemiological studies, and arthropod entomological study as well. Applied GIS contains the methods and techniques used for different field survey, such as; a systematic grid sampling techniques, GIS and GPS based reconnaissance survey methods, cluster sampling, stratified sampling, multistage sampling pilot sampling and random sampling survey with i) physiographic landscapes, ii) climate zones, iii) socioeconomic structures, iv) settlement structures, v) land use / land cover categories, and vi) sampling survey in the buffering zones, etc., provides the accurate geo-coordinates site specific approach to portray the diversity and reliability of arthropod vector presents, and geovisualization of the vertical and longitudinal pattern of vector profusion, and thus, researcher and planners could be formed a datum of guidelines for arthropod vectors surveillance, and hence, preparing the indispensable prevention measures to vector borne disease control and management for sustainable health.

Aedes aegypti is the vector of various pathogens, including, yellow fever virus, and
dengue virus. More than 100 countries had experienced 500.000 dengue hemorrhagic
fever cases (DHF) occur annually throughout the world with an average of 24,000 deaths
cases. Until now, drug or vaccine yet to be discovered and vector control is an alternative
way to break the chains of disease. The use of insecticides have managed to lower the
case but unfortunately there have been some outbreak events, is alleged due to the
insectisida resistance. Insecticides resistance can be detected in two ways, through the detection of changes in detoxification enzymes and of gene mutations in voltage gated sodium channel. Detection of enzymes means that the amount of enzymes that detoxify are found elevate in the biochemical essays. The enzyme elevation will make the amount of insecticide is reduced and not capable of killing capability. Detection using an enzyme shown to be effective way but that there are also resistance that not accompanied with the enzyme
elevation, alleging that related with mutation. The second insecticide detection is in gene
mutations in voltage gated sodium channel gene (VGSC) which can detect changes in the
insecticide target cells. The first target cell mutation is reported on the Musca domestica flies, where the flies enzymatic is not elevated but it has been resistant to the insecticide spraying. In Aedes aegypti, the point mutation genes related to insecticides resistance are found in seven point mutations, one of them will be described in this literature review.