Entrainment

Although most auctioneers do not self-identify as musicians, the practice of auctioneering in the United States reveals a sophisticated musical approach to metric improvisation based on the establishment of musical expectation and the strategic thwarting of that expectation through flexible treatment of meter. Auctioneers establish a “referential” meter wherein a consistent organization of the pulse returns repeatedly, alternating with expansions or contractions of that primary meter. Listeners are entrained to expect musical consistency, but through disruptions of familiar musical patterns, the auctioneer focuses bidder attention on the chant rather than the realities of the economic transaction in progress. Thus, meter is employed as an improvisational tool that unites the listening and bidding audience within a musical space and plays with expectations just enough to keep bidders alert and engaged.

This is a critical study of music for electric guitars by composer-performer Rhys Chatham (b. 1952), work that distils and synthesises elements from various genres, primarily, minimalism and rock. I investigate the development, realisation, and import of these works, created between 1977 and 2006, in an analytical, biographical, and cultural account that examines unpublished performance directions, scores, and original interviews with this significant, yet under-explored artist and his collaborators. An immanent sublime aesthetic characterises Chatham’s formative experiences in downtown music, and I explain how this informs his composition, performance, and listening practices (including attendant issues of entrainment, frisson, and perceptualization). This reading is situated within major music traditions of the later twentieth century and at the forefront of a nexus of postmodern radical pluralism, operating across the borderline of the avant-garde and the popular.
I use a range of research methods: aesthetics, cultural theory, interviews, musical analysis, music theory, and my own experience of performing several of these works. Part One maps Chatham’s development as a composer and performer through his engagement with modernist, serialist, electronic, minimalist, improvised, North Indian classical, popular, and rock music between 1952 to 1978, to interpret how he distilled key components of these experiences. Part Two outlines how he synthesised these elements in several non-notated works for the electric guitar, from 1977 to 1982, using idiosyncratic and inventive approaches to composition and performance. Part Three provides in-depth analyses of Chatham’s notated music for increasingly large ensembles of electric guitars from 1984 to 2006, to outline the development of his post-Cagean musical language, and interpret the wider import of these works.
I argue that the interpenetration and reciprocity of musical elements in these works expand, and implode, pre-established forms of art and rock music. While this eludes ‘either/or’ classifications, per se, this is a particular kind of post-minimalism, with significant components of popular music, identifiable as part of a post-1945 culture that was distinguished by immanence, participation, and subjectivity.

This thesis investigates the process termed ‘entrainment’ by which a group of singers can become ‘in time’ or ‘in synchrony’ with each other. Group entrainment is examined through the lenses of a number of disciplines throughout the thesis: ethnography, ethnomusicology, sociology, animal behaviour, complex systems theory, and psychology.
Ch. 1 defines the concepts such as entrainment, chant, ritual, participatory and presentational musics, and the ethnographical method that will be used in this thesis.
Ch. 2 reveals, through an ethnographical survey of the function of group singing in various traditions around the world, that a central purpose of group singing is to form community.
Ch. 3 examines the form of group singing throughout the world, and finds that a general theory of metre, the perceptual basis of entrainment, can be applied to geographically-distinct traditions, but also that some chanting traditions do not need metre for entrainment to be possible.
Ch. 4 contextualises Turner and Durkheim’s community-forming concepts of ‘communitas’ and ‘collective effervescence’ within a particular music anthropology study of the Suyán Indian ‘Mouse Ceremony’ in Amazonia, with reference to the concept of ‘entrainment’.
After the initial ethnographic survey (Chs. 2-4), the rest of the thesis (Chs. 5-8) explores ways of thinking scientifically about the process of group entrainment.
Ch. 5 discusses bottom-up and top-down approaches to understanding group behaviour, with reference to flocking and schooling behaviour in starlings and fish, and chanting and free jazz improvisation in human musical behaviour.
Ch. 6 puts the bottom-up and top-down dialectic in the context of the current entrainment literature, in order to suggest new approaches for investigating entrainment in group contexts.
Ch. 7 reviews the literature surrounding bottom-up aspects of group interaction such as gesture and visual communication, and the top-down influence of group hierarchy, and also inter-group and joint speech forms of entrainment.
The various disciplinary perspectives discussed in previous chapters then provide the basis for an empirical field study in Ch. 8 of group entrainment in Gregorian chant, involving semi-structured interviews with choristers and systematic video analysis of their chanting. The study investigates how these choristers are able to start in synchrony with each other, looking particularly at the role of gesture and metrical perception. I find that no single mode of communication or perception offers an explanation for the precision of onset synchrony on its own, and therefore conclude that group onset synchrony must depend on a combination of many factors.
This thesis moves the study of entrainment further by discussing ways in which we can think about and investigate group, as opposed to dyadic (joint), entrainment. It also shows the importance of combining the insights of both anthropological and scientific approaches when investigating group entrainment.

This contribution focuses on resonant, or empathetic, strategies to bridge what in anthropology is called ontological incommensurability: Indigenous worlds often seem inaccessible to modern thought. Instead of trying to open Indigenous worlds to Westerners, I rather intend to make Western worlds accessible to Indigenous thought; and likewise, academic disciplines accessible to transdisciplinary thought. The connecting principle, I suggest, is time, temporality, and particularly synchronization and entrainment. Therefore, I ask for the reader’s time to read on and be taken on a journey that crosses psychology and history, then touches on the ontological incommensurability between Indigenous and modern worlds, and finally returns via some possibly unexpected curves to the (in)discipline from where we set out.

The better quality pdf is downloadible from here: "http://www.leoalmanac.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/LEAVol19No3-Mailman.pdf
Through recent artistic practices and technology of interactive systems for music, composition and improvisation have more and more blended and interconnected with each other – a sui generis situation now called comprovisation. The concept of comprovisation applies equally well to the spontaneous generation and manipulation of computer graphics, especially as such graphics are systematically coordinated audio-visually, while being subject to spontaneous manipulation by a performer.
This is explained in terms of the Fluxations and FluxNoisations Human Body Interfaces, interactive dance systems that generate music and graphics spontaneously in response to hand and body movement. They enable spontaneous expressive shaping of coherent complexity and variety. Thus a multi-layered multimodal experience arises. The aesthetic experience of this multimedia spectacle relates to experiences of various prior music and visual art of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, as well as to hypothetical physical realities. Thus a kind of cybernetic phenomenology of art is pursued and enacted through an embodied cybersynthesis of art with simulated alternate reality. Call it a pragmatic speculative realism, an adventurous technoetic ‘what if.’ As compared to more traditional forms of improvisation, the opportunities for risk-taking and aesthetic exploration rise to a new level of uncertainty, as the reactions of the improviser simultaneously draw from and target both visual and aural modalities, such that the intentions toward each fuse together."

This PhD thesis focuses on numerical and analytical methods for simulating the dynamics of volcanic ash plumes.
The study starts from the fundamental balance laws for a multiphase gas– particle mixture, reviewing the existing models and developing a new set of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs), well suited for modeling multiphase dispersed turbulence. In particular, a new model generalizing the equilibrium–Eulerian model to two-way coupled compressible flows is developed.
The PDEs associated to the four-way Eulerian-Eulerian model is studied, in- vestigating the existence of weak solutions fulfilling the energy inequalities of the PDEs. In particular, the convergence of sequences of smooth solutions to such a set of weak solutions is showed.
Having explored the well-posedness of multiphase systems, the three-dimensional compressible equilibrium–Eulerian model is discretized and numerically solved by using the OpenFOAM® numerical infrastructure. The new solver is called ASHEE, and it is verified and validated against a number of well understood benchmarks and experiments. It demonstrates to be capable to capture the key phenomena involved in the dynamics of volcanic ash plumes. Those are: turbulence, mixing, heat transfer, compressibility, preferential concentration of particles, plume entrainment.
The numerical solver is tested by taking advantage of the newest High Perfor- mance Computing infrastructure currently available.
Thus, ASHEE is used to simulate two volcanic plumes in realistic volcanological conditions. The influence of model configuration on the numerical solution is analyzed. In particular, a parametric analysis is performed, based on: 1) the kinematic decoupling model; 2) the subgrid scale model for turbulence; 3) the discretization resolution.
In a one-dimensional and steady-state approximation, the multiphase flow model is used to derive a model for volcanic plumes in a calm, stratified atmosphere. The corresponding Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) are written in a compact, dimensionless formulation. The six non-dimensional parameters characterizing a multiphase plume are then written. The ODEs is studied both numerically and analytically. Different regimes are analyzed, extracting the first integral of motion and asymptotic solutions. An asymptotic analytical solution approximating the model in the general regime is derived and compared with numerical results. Such a solution is coupled with an electromagnetic model providing the infrared intensity emitted by a volcanic ash plume. Key vent parameters are then retrieved by means of inversion techniques applied to infrared images measured during a real volcanic eruption.

In 1917 the French composer Darius Milhaud went to Brazil and from listening to the music of the New World he drew the inspiring elements of his work "Le boeuf sur le toit". The article analyzes in the light of the theory of audiotactile formativity the relationship between oral cultural experience and audiotactile experience (the music Milhaud had listened to had a composer and was not of anonymous oral tradition, and was also mediated by the nascent Brazilian record industry). In particular, this study analyses the question of the sensory-motor impulses that the composer felt in Brazilian music (the rhythmic samba-feel), but without being able to categorize them and even less to encode them in notation. The essay concludes with the analysis of the particular transcription by Paulo Aragao, for traditional choro, of "Le boeuf sur le toit", and its recording that in a certain sense closes the circle, re-imposing those audiotactile sense-motor values, with strict specificity and cultural relevance, that had struck the imagination of the French composer.

This book will challenge how you think about time.

Any complete understanding of the universe must include an understanding of time. Yet, so far, no theory describes our experience of time. Physics can no longer purport a theory of everything yet ignore human consciousness. Any complete theory must address consciousness. Likewise, any theory of consciousness must account for how it interacts with spacetime. Understanding time demands a reckoning between cosmology and consciousness.

Physics describes time as spatialized, static, and reversible, while we experience time as textured, flowing, and unidirectional. Reconciling these two perspectives demands a richer understanding of time. No model is better suited to capture time's quantitative and qualitative aspects than the cyclicity, creativity, and infinite depths of fractals. Fractals offer a mathematical model with room for internal richness. Nature inhabits space as branching tree canopies, watersheds, and jagged mountain vistas utilizing multiple levels of scale. What if time follows similar patterns?

We experience time as a tension between frequencies. When aligned we experience timelessness. When misaligned or out of sync, time gains density. We contain a vast spectrum of frequencies from the fastest brain waves frequencies to our slowest breath rate. A fractal model of time attends to relationships between these frequencies or scales of time. For example, EEG brain wave states reveal a fractal, power law signature across their frequencies.

As internal frequencies grapple to lock in with external frequencies, our experience of time emerges as a tension between them. The neurotransmitter dopamine drives internal brain frequencies. So, variations in dopamine levels show up as variations in the temporal experiences associated with aging, ADHD, and schizophrenia. Our experience of time emerges as a tension between frequencies. Fractals do not smooth over these differences of scale, but rather acknowledge them as building the density of a structure, the structure of time.

Possibilities for how to conceptualize a fractal time come from astrophysicist Laurent Nottale and theorist Susie Vrobel. To connect consciousness and physics Welch brings in the model of quantum consciousness as devised by physicist Roger Penrose and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff. By interweaving these models with insights from relativity, quantum mechanics, the second law of thermodynamics, neurology, and philosophy, Welch offers a solid foundation from which to contemplate fractal time. This interdisciplinary approach weaves an integral understanding of time.

In this model, time deepens into timelessness as energy folds back on itself in repeating cycles building matter, building time. Time deepens into the timeless present through the data compression of memory. The direction of time is in, in every direction. The complexity of our lives unfurl in the intertwining interface of time and timelessness. You are built of time.

Available at: https://bookshop.org/books/a-fractal-topology-of-time-deepening-into-timelessness/9781734576207?aid=888

Primary scientific literature documents frequency oscillations in both the geosphere and the biosphere arising from a host of different phenomena. At certain frequencies there are known associations between geological oscillations and biological oscillations. This raises the question as to whether these phenomena are functionally related. A compilation of the literature was undertaken, covering a spectral range of 18 orders-of-magnitude extending from 955 Ky/cycle (1.29E-14 Hz) to 0.10 ms/cycle (1.00E+4 Hz), noting those frequencies where there was geological-biological concordance. Concordance was determined for 28 frequency groupings distributed in 10 defined cycle bands within the geological-biological spectrum. The ultradian component of the circadian cycle band was the only band showing little geological-biological concordance, with concordance only at its extreme high-frequency values. Of the 384 references examined reporting geological or biological frequencies, 21 specifically mention concordances between geological and biological oscillations. Further, there are geological and biological frequencies where there are no apparent concordances between the two data sets, indicating that the histogram presented is far from a random distribution. At frequencies where there exists geological and biological concordance, a geological frequency can entrain biological frequencies and provoke a biological response. Lower frequencies affect populations; higher frequencies affect individual organisms. Frequencies of geological-biological concordance provide opportunity for the establishment of multiple interrelated zeitgebers, with disruption of these relationships potentially resulting in physiologic dysfunction, predisposing organisms toward the development of pathology and/or extinction. Précis: Oscillations across eighteen orders-of-magnitude in both the geosphere and the biosphere exhibit concordances where there may be entrainment with resultant geological-biological communication.

For biological and social sciences, entrainment is a rhythmically coordinated response to the perception of a rhythmic signal. Musical research has based musical entrainment on pulse periodicity. Both existence of ametrical music (i.e. without pulse), and the existence of entrainment phenomena which are not based on temporal periodicity, challenge this assumption. The present research examines if listeners can entrain with ametrical music. Experiment 1. Listeners’ reaction times (RTs) to changes of timbre in Messiaen’s ametrical melodies and their metrical transformations were recorded. A significant effect of tempo was found (fast music elicited faster reactions), suggesting that ametrical music can induce cognitive entrainment. Expectancies, instead of periodicity, could explain this finding. In Experiment 2 listeners’ psychophysiological responses (heart and respiration rates, skin conductance and temperature) to 4 musical stimuli (2 slow and 2 fast; all lasted 3 min.) composed by Messiaen (ametrical) and Beethoven (metrical). Participants estimated their duration, and rated variables which could influence their experience. Significant effects due to process were found in RR and SC. Listeners’ RR and SC decreased in listening to all musical stimuli, indicating a progressive relaxation. Participants’ subjective data did not revealed significant differences in the perception of metrical and ametrical music. I suggest a framework to study the effects of music based on entrainment, the musical analysis of tracks employed in present and previous research, and music therapy applications. There could be three main types of reactions to music: contemplation, movement and communication. Theoretical and practical implications could be derived from this theory.

In our study, two groups of participants (n = 61 and n = 58) listened to nine pieces for solo violin and rated how they felt along an affect dimension and along the nine Geneva Emotional Music Scale dimensions. After each piece, they completed a 12-item questionnaire corresponding to subjective entrainment reports. A factorial analysis of this Musical Entrainment Questionnaire revealed a two-factor solution, with Visceral Entrainment (VE) corresponding to sensations of internal bodily entrainment and Motor Entrainment (ME) reflecting participants’ inclination to move to the beat. These findings represent, to the best of our knowledge, the first empirical evidence for the existence of two components underlying entrainment capable of predicting specific emotional responses to music. Indeed, although both factors predicted Affect, Joyful activation, Transcendence, Wonder, Power, and Tenderness dimensions, only VE predicted Nostalgia and Sadness. Moreover, Peacefulness was mostly predicted by ME, whereas Tension was mostly predicted by VE.

L'implantation cochléaire réalisée très tôt en cas de surdité profonde contribue à améliorer l'apprentissage du langage, mais des déficits en grammaire persistent. Des hypothèses d'explication de ces déficits sont présentées : ils seraient en partie secondaires à l'imprécision du système phonologique, mais aussi liés à l'absence de stimulation de réseaux neuronaux spécialisés dans des traitements linguistiques de haut niveau. L'absence de stimulations sonores précoces perturberait aussi le développement de l'attention temporelle (e.g., apprentissage implicite de suites structurées, séquenciation) indispensables à l'analyse morphosyntaxique. Cette hypothèse est cohérente avec la Théorie de l'Attention Dynamique et celle des oscillations cérébrales, rythmes internes guidant la diffusion de l'attention et s'ajustant au rythme de la phrase pour l'analyser et anticiper. Les premiers résultats d'un entraînement grammatical associé à un amorçage rythmique musical chez des enfants sourds implantés sont présentés. Abstract: Early cochlear implant improves language learning in profoundly deaf children, but grammatical deficits often persist. Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain those morphosyntactic difficulties. They may partly result from an impoverished phonological system, and the early lack of sound stimulation may also have impaired the development of neural networks specialized for high level processing of speech. Additionally, early sound deprivation may have also disturbed the development of temporal attention (e.g., statistical learning, sequencing), which is necessary to perform the morphosyntactic analysis of speech. This hypothesis is consistent with the Dynamic Attention Theory and current researches in neuroscience about neural oscillations, which may drive attention to synchronise with external rhythms to perform signal analysis and anticipations. We have elaborated and conducted a grammatical training program associated with musical rhythmic priming for implanted children. The first promising results are presented at the end of this article. Mots-clefs : implant cochléaire, morphosyntaxe, rythme, musique, entrainement.

El presente trabajo se propone contribuir al estudio transdisciplinario del papel de la música en el trance a través de la revisión sistemática de investigaciones sobre esta temática que consideran en sus enfoques teorías pertenecientes al campo de las ciencias cognitivas. De los 60 artículos encontrados sobre música y trance solo ocho de ellos recurren a teorías sobre la cognición. Los resultados de esta revisión bibliográfica muestran que la conexión entre estudios etnográficos y cognitivos puede partir de diversas perspectivas: estudios próximos a disciplinas como la neurofisiología, estudios de la conducta cercanos a la psicología y estudios cognitivos apoyados en diversas teorías de la filosofía de la mente, como son el conexionismo, la Embodied Mind, el enactivismo, o las teorías sobre la consciencia. A pesar de las variadas aproximaciones y teorías cognitivas subyacentes, la mayoría de los trabajos coinciden en otorgarle importancia al cuerpo, a el entrainment rítmico, a las investigaciones neurológicas y al contexto etnográfico en la comprensión del trance y de la experiencia musical. Asimismo, convergen en la conveniencia del estudio transdisciplinario del fenómeno.

The aeration of bread dough during mixing has previously been modelled as a balance between gas entrainment and disentrainment into and out of the dough, from which the gas turnover time was determined. This paper tests this model by mixing dough in a high-speed Tweedy-type mixer which undergoes a pressure step-change midway through mixing. The volume of gas entrained in the dough following the pressure change was calculated from its density. The volume of gas entrained was found to reach a steady state much more quickly following a pressure step-decrease than an increase, appearing to signify gas turnover rates over twice as large. Thus, gas disentrainment was found to be enhanced following a pressure step-decrease in a manner not incorporated into the model. The size of the pressure step-decrease did not appear to affect the gas turnover time, but increasing the pressure step-increase size decreased the gas turnover times. The weak flour doughs exhibited higher gas turnover rates during mixing than the strong flour doughs, in both pressure stepchange directions and at all step-sizes.

Experimental psychologists ask whether boredom can help us become more creative, yet they cannot answer the question since they have no way of investigating how boredom feels. For this we need a phenomenological approach. Who better to rely on here than Martin Heidegger? Boredom, we will say, is the affective state in which we find ourselves once our attention no longer is entrained by the world around us.  It is when our attention flags that we get bored.  Once this has happened, the question is how we can re-engage with the world.  Creativity is a matter of the terms on which this re-engagement takes place. Surprisingly, Heidegger suggests that there is a way back from boredom.

This dissertation deals with means to implement rhythmicity in electroacoustic composition. It is done by drawing inspiration from the free-jazz concept of groove and from the rhythm of speech and language. In the first section the musical characteristics and sociological implications of groove, as well as the rhythmical features of speech are discussed, alongside possible means to implement them in musical compositions. The second section discusses four electroacoustic pieces which were written as a part of this research, each of them implementing the aforementioned concepts in different ways.

We present a novel hypothetical account of entrainment in music and language, in context of the Information Dynamics of Thinking model, IDyOT. The extended model affords an alternative view of entrainment, and its companion term, pulse, from earlier accounts. The model is based on hierarchical, statistical prediction, modeling expectations of both what an event will be and when it will happen. As such, it constitutes a kind of predictive coding, with a particular novel hypothetical implementation. Here, we focus on the model's mechanism for predicting when a perceptual event will happen, given an existing sequence of past events, which may be musical or linguistic. We propose a range of tests to validate or falsify the model, at various different levels of abstraction, and argue that computational modeling in general, and this model in particular, can offer a means of providing limited but useful evidence for evolutionary hypotheses.

A central goal of biomusicology is to understand the biological basis of human musicality. One approach to this problem has been to compare core components of human musicality (relative pitch perception, entrainment, etc.) with similar capacities in other animal species. Here we extend and clarify this comparative approach with respect to rhythm. First, whereas most comparisons between human music and animal acoustic behavior have focused on spectral properties (melody and harmony), we argue for the central importance of temporal properties, and propose that this domain is ripe for further comparative research. Second, whereas most rhythm research in non-human animals has examined animal timing in isolation, we consider how chorusing dynamics can shape individual timing, as in human music and dance, arguing that group behavior is key to understanding the adaptive functions of rhythm. To illustrate the interdependence between individual and chorusing dynamics, we present a computational model of chorusing agents relating individual call timing with synchronous group behavior. Third, we distinguish and clarify mechanistic and functional explanations of rhythmic phenomena, often conflated in the literature, arguing that this distinction is key for understanding the evolution of musicality. Fourth, we expand biomusicological discussions beyond the species typically considered, providing an overview of chorusing and rhythmic behavior across a broad range of taxa (orthopterans, fireflies, frogs, birds, and primates). Finally, we propose an “Evolving Signal Timing” hypothesis, suggesting that similarities between timing abilities in biological species will be based on comparable chorusing behaviors. We conclude that the comparative study of chorusing species can provide important insights into the adaptive function(s) of rhythmic behavior in our “proto-musical” primate ancestors, and thus inform our understanding of the biology and evolution of rhythm in human music and language.

Linguistics is a relatively young field. The birth of a new, vibrant field of research often brings with it certain challenges such as the initial absence of an uncontroversial canon and a certain lack of terminological clarity. Following the example of closely allied disciplines, this work aims to register ambiguities in the use of ten terms in linguistics, with the overarching aim to aid field-internal coherence and field-external visibility. Among other issues, we discuss the influential 'three factors' model, labeling, reference, and E-/I-language. Addressing the challenge of looking back while moving forward, we compile a collection of definitions and/or presentations extracted from knowledge-rich contexts for each term, grounded in current usages. We first reflect on previous usages in order to present the first definitions of these terms and track terminological ambiguities that arose throughout their subsequent use. We then attempt to transition towards terminological clarity, providing specific recommendations for a more transparent use of these terms.

Background: Although focal atrial tachycardias cannot be entrained, we hypothesized that atrial overdrive pacing (AOP) can be an effective adjunct to localize the focus of these tachycardias at the site where the post-pacing interval (PPI) is closest to the tachycardia cycle length (TCL).Methods: Overdrive pacing was performed in nine patients during atrial tachycardia, and in a comparison group of 15 patients during sinus rhythm. Pacing at a rate slightly faster than atrial tachycardia in group 1 and sinus rhythm in group 2 was performed from five standardized sites in the right atrium and coronary sinus. The difference between the PPI and tachycardia or sinus cycle length (SCL) was recorded at each site. The tachycardia focus was then located and ablated in group 1, and the atrial site with earliest activation was mapped in group 2.Results: In both groups the PPI-TCL at the five pacing sites reflected the distance from the AT focus or sinus node. In group 1, PPI-TCL at the successful ablation site was 11 ± 8 msec. In group 2, PPI-SCL at the site of earliest atrial activation was 131 ± 37 msec (P < 0.001 for comparison). In groups 1 and 2, calculated values at the five pacing sites were proportional to the distance from the AT focus or sinus node, respectively.Conclusions: The PPI-TCL after-AOP of focal atrial tachycardia has a direct relationship to proximity of the pacing site to the focus, and may be clinically useful in finding a successful ablation site.

Many organisms coordinate their group behavior in time. On a short timescale, group vocalizations, movements or visual displays can exhibit temporal interdependence. Synchronous behavior has received significantly more attention than all other forms of animal coordination. Antisynchrony (i.e., perfect alternation) is produced in nature, but only recently perceptual biases toward antisynchrony were independently found in human infants and fiddler crabs. Here, these unrelated experiments are linked and inserted into a broader quantitative framework. Future comparative research should encompass perception of other forms of coordination across species and explanatory levels, toward an integrative neuro-evolutionary framework of temporal coordination.

The human capacity for synchronising body movements to an external rhythmic source enables various group activities, such as music-making and dancing. The present study aimed to investigate the influence of different social contexts on the process of synchronisation, termed `entrainment'. Pairs of human participants were instructed to walk on parallel treadmills under different experimental conditions. In the `separate' (control) condition, participants could not see or hear each other; in the together condition, participants could see and hear each other but were instructed not to converse; finally, in the talking condition, participants conversed with each other. Time series data was extracted from video data obtained by placing a static video camera behind the participants, and the interaction between both participants' footfalls was analysed using circular statistics. It was hypothesised that the degree of synchrony between footfalls would be highest in
the talking condition, lower in the together condition, and non-existent in the separate condition. None of the statistical measures showed signicance for a within-subjects main effect of condition, but almost all measures showed a clear trend in agreement with the hypothesis. It was shown that the degree of interpersonal entrainment was higher when participants talked to each other than when they did not interact. This has implications for the study of the social activity of musicmaking,
and suggests that embodied interpersonal processes must be a focal component of any exploration of human musicality in all its manifestations.

В процессе общения говорящие становятся схожими друг с другом по многим парамет рам. Считается, что данный феномен, известный как конвергенция или согласован ность, является необходимым условием для успешного взаимодействия людей. В данном исследовании изучаются три аспекта конвергенции на просодическом уровне: процесс согласованности, сигналы передачи реплик и ролевые отношения говорящих. Методом слухового и электронноакустического анализа был выявлен характер взаимо действия говорящих в течение всего диалога и на локальном уровне, то есть на стыке реплик. Учитывая результаты эксперимента по согласованности просодических харак теристик и в целом характер развертывания диалога, можно сделать вывод о том, что в данной паре собеседников женщина выполняла роль лидера, а мужчина-роль ведомо го. По ряду просодических характеристик, таких как средний уровень ЧОТ и средняя длительность слога в конце реплики, собеседники либо сохранили идентичность, либо проявили схожие тенденции в настройке друг на друга. В таких характеристиках, как средняя интенсивность произнесения словповторов и длительность пауз перед ответ ной репликой, мужчина подстроился под женщину к концу беседы, что подтверждает выводы, сделанные о ролевых отношениях пары. Abstract In conversation, speakers become more alike in various dimensions. This phenomenon, commonly called convergence, or entrainment, is widely believed to be crucial to the success and naturalness of human interactions. We investigate three aspects of convergence in prosodic dimensions: automatic entrainment, turntaking and role relations between speakers. We explore whether speakers coordinate with each other in these dimensions over the conversation globally as well as locally, on a turntaking basis. The results of the research show that the female speaker had a leading part in the course of the conversation, while the male speaker was a follower. Some prosodic characteristics, such as pitch and syllable duration at the end of the turn, show either individuals' identity in contrast to that of another individual or similar strategies of accommodation. Conversely, the male speaker applied more Теоретическая и прикладная лингвистика, 2019, 5 (3), 41-52 41