Envy

On propose dans ce papier un nouveau modèle anthropologique pour la science politique permettant de fonder l’hypothèse de « l’homo emoticus ». Selon Alfred Adler, le comportement humain est déterminé par une lutte continuelle contre un sentiment d’infériorité qui conduit en permanence, suivant un processus de surcompensation, à désirer la puissance ou la supériorité. Il est possible de distinguer quatre facettes du sentiment d’infériorité ressenti par l’homme : le sentiment d’insécurité liée à sa vulnérabilité corporelle, laquelle donne lieu à la peur ; le sentiment de diminution, liée à son infériorité psychologique, laquelle donne lieu à l’envie ; le sentiment de petitesse, liée à sa perfectibilité, laquelle donne lieu à l’admiration ; enfin le sentiment de filialité liée à sa dépendance, laquelle donne lieu à la piété filiale. Ces quatre sentiments s’activent au contact d’un phénomène extra-ordinaire particulier, respectivement, le danger, l’obstacle, la perfection et le don. Ils donnent naissance chez le sujet, respectivement, aux soucis de conservation de soi, d’estime de soi, d’idéal de soi et d’origine de soi. Le sujet met en œuvre un style de vie qui a pour buts finaux la sécurité, la supériorité, la perfection et la filiation. La peur, l’envie, l’admiration et la piété filiale définissent chacune une ligne de conduite expliquant le comportement humain. Elles permettent de décrire les quatre stades de la rencontre avec autrui, suivant qu’on perçoit celui-ci comme un danger, un obstacle, une perfection ou un don, et de décrire ainsi comment se fait la distinction ami/ennemi et le recours à la violence. Elles permettent également d’expliquer le comportement d’attachement à une figure supérieure, suivant que l’on a peur (d’où l’attachement à un protecteur), que l’on envie (d’où l’attachement à un magicien), que l’on admire (d’où l’attachement à un héros) ou que l’on aime filialement (d’où l’attachement à un père), ainsi que les motifs d’association politique en raison d’une émotion partagée : la peur, l’envie, l’admiration ou l’amour filial. Homo emoticus présente donc quatre visages, homo timidus, homo invidus, homo admirator et homo pius, qui permettent de décrire le comportement humain dans pratiquement toutes les circonstances de la vie en société.

This paper presents a new anthropological model for political science that we call « homo emoticus ». According to Alfred Adler, human behaviour is determined by a never ending struggle against inferiority feelings which lead, following a process of overcompensation, to desire power or superiority. We show that inferiority feelings have indeed four major dimensions: insecurity linked to the physical vulnerability, which gives birth to fear ; lessening linked to the psychological inferiority, which causes envy ; smallness linked to the perfectibility, which provokes admiration ; and, finally, filiality linked to the dependency, which engenders filial piety. These four feelings are triggered respectively by one extraordinary phenomenon : danger, obstacle, perfection and gift, which give birth respectively to worries of self conservation, self esteem, self ideal and self origin. The subject develops a life style with four major goals : security, superiority, perfection and filiation. Fear, envy, admiration and filial piety are the emotions which shape the guidelines of human behaviour. They enable to describe the four major steps of the encounter with the other, depending on whether the subject perceives the other as a danger, an obstacle, a perfection or a gift, explaining consequently how friendship, hostility and violence emerge. These emotions reveal the major motives of political association : a common danger, a common obstacle, a common perfection or a common gift. They also explain attachment behaviours to a superior figure, depending on whether the subject is scared (then he needs a protector), he envies (then he needs a magician), he admires (then he needs a hero) or he is grateful (then he needs a father). With these four faces of Homo emoticus, Homo timidus, Homo invidus, Homo admirator and Homo pius, it is possible to describe human behavior in most of situations in life.

La envidia como vínculo. Estudio de la envidia desde la filosofía, la psicología, la sociología, la antropología y otras ciencias, afrontándola como una modalidad de relación humana. Propuesta de ética de la envidia. Análisis complementado con múltiples ejemplos del arte y la literatura, especialmente "Mozart y Salieri" de Pushkin (junto a su versión actual "Amadeus" de Peter Shaffer) y "Abel Sánchez" de Miguel de Unamuno.
Envy as a link. Study of envy from philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology and other sciences, afrontándola as a form of human relationship. Proposed ethical envy. Analysis complemented with multiple examples of art and literature, especially "Mozart and Salieri" Pushkin (along with its current version "Amadeus" by Peter Shaffer) and "Abel Sanchez" by Miguel de Unamuno.

The study of complex emotions has become an important research field for developmental psychologists. Among the set of complex emotions is the emotion of envy. Apart from psychoanalytical theories explaining envy in childhood, developmental studies of envy have been practically non-existent compared with other non-basic emotions such as shame, guilt and pride (Barret, 2005; Reddy, 2005; Tracy, Robins, & Lagatutta, 2005). Experiencing envy is an intrinsic part of social comparison of possessions, characteristics or qualities among people or groups. The persons involved in this social comparison are sometimes flattered or, on the contrary, sometimes damaged. When social comparisons lead to negative feelings and people are faced with the lack of a desired good (an item/object) or a trait, they may experience anger, helplessness or inferiority. Hence, some authors have stressed that envy could cause hostility towards the person envied (Miceli & Castelfranchi, 2007; Smith & Kim, 2007; Sh...

The fear of being envied makes people act prosocially, in an attempt to ward off the potentially destructive effects of envy. In three experiments, people who were in a superior position and could be envied were more likely than control participants to give time-consuming advice to a potentially envious person or to help a potentially envious person pick up erasers she had accidentally scattered. However, helping behavior increased only if envy was likely to be malicious rather than benign. People who were better off did not increase their helping behavior toward people in general, but increased their helping only toward the potentially envious. This finding is consistent with the idea that the better off act more prosocially as an appeasement strategy. The fear of being envied serves useful group functions, because it triggers prosocial behavior that is likely to dampen the potentially destructive effects of envy and simultaneously helps to improve the situation of people who are w...

The study of complex emotions has become an important research field for developmental psychologists. Among the set of complex emotions is the emotion of envy. Apart from psychoanalytical theories explaining envy in childhood, developmental studies of envy have been practically non-existent compared with other non-basic emotions such as shame, guilt and pride (Barret, 2005; Reddy, 2005; Tracy, Robins, & Lagatutta, 2005). Experiencing envy is an intrinsic part of social comparison of possessions, characteristics or qualities among people or groups. The persons involved in this social comparison are sometimes flattered or, on the contrary, someti-mes damaged. When social comparisons lead to negative feelings and people are faced with the lack of a desired good (an item/object) or a trait, they may experience anger, helplessness or inferiority. Hence, some authors have stressed that envy could cause hostility towards the person envied (Miceli & Castelfranchi, 2007; Smith & Kim, 2007; S...

This book introduces the theory of the Betterment of Life (BoL) or Impairment of Life (IoL). The theory uses some key variables, such as Basic Human Needs (BHNs), Basic Human Needs that are met (metBHNs), Basic Human Needs that are unmet (unmetBHNs), Basic Human Needs that are excessively met (emetBHNs), substance abuse, harmful use of alcohol, and the feelings of an extreme envy, jealousy, and greed as Independent variables, and mental disorders (anxiety, depression, and paranoia) and crimes as Dependent Variables to show the principles and the delivery methods of the theory to improve an individual’s life, and to prove how an individual may impair his/her life. The theory of BoL or IoL argues that an extreme envy related to BHNs may create the feelings of jealousy and greed. The feelings of jealousy and greed may lead an individual to acquire mental disorders (anxiety, depression, and paranoia), and he/she may tend to a violent behavior, and finally crimes occur. The theory tested its hypotheses through its own search and the previous statistical data about crime and mood, and crime and poverty.
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Emotions vary between cultures, especially in their eliciting conditions, social acceptability, forms of expression, and co-extent of terminology. Envy and Jealousy in Classical Athens examines the sensation, expression, and literary representation of envy and jealousy in Classical Athens. Previous scholarship has primarily taken a lexical approach, focusing on usage of the Greek words *phthonos* (envy, begrudging, jealousy, spite) and *zêlos* (emulative rivalry). This has value, but also limitations, for two reasons: the discreditable nature of *phthonos* renders its ascription or disclamation suspect, and there is no Classical Greek label for sexual jealousy. A complementary approach is therefore required, which reads the expressed values and actions of entire situations.

Building on recent developments in reading emotion "scripts" in classical texts, this book applies to Athenian culture and literature insights on the contexts, conscious and subconscious motivations, subjective manifestations, and indicative behaviors of envy, jealousy, and related emotions, derived from modern philosophical, psychological, psychoanalytical, sociological, and anthropological scholarship. This enables an exploration of both the explicit theorization and evaluation of envy and jealousy, and also the more oblique ways in which they find expression across different genres—in particular philosophy, oratory, comedy, and tragedy.

1. Introduction
2. Envy, jealousy and related emotions – modern theories
3. The vocabulary of Greek envy and jealousy
4. Aristotle on *phthonos*
5. *Phthonos* and the Attic oratorical corpus
6. Audience *phthonos* in Old Comedy
7. Onstage *phthonos* in Old Comedy and tragedy
8. Sexual jealousy in Classical Athens
Envoi

The underlying motivations for envy or related social preferences and their impact on agricultural innovations are examined by combining data from money burning experimental game and household survey from Ethiopia. In the first stage of the money burning experimental game, income inequality is induced by providing different endowments and playing a lottery. In the second, people are allowed to decrease („burn‟) other players ‟ money at their own expense. Conditional on individual behavior, experimentally measured envious preferences are negatively correlated to real life agricultural innovations.