GHG Accounting

Documento que analiza a los 20 principales países emisores de GEI a nivel internacional. En él se realiza una caracterización macroeconómica básica con el fin de determinar si existe alguna relación, y en caso afirmativo cuál, entre el PIB, el crecimiento del PIB, la composición sectorial del PIB, el nivel de competitividad o la población de dichos países en relación al volumen de emisiones de GEI. Para este fin, se realiza un análisis comparativo de datos procedentes de los años 1990 (año fijado como base para el cálculo de los objetivosde reducción de emisiones de GEI del Protocolo de Kyoto) y el 2006.

Climate science paints a frightening picture—one that tells us
that urgent and dramatic action is needed to have any chance
at stopping irreversible global warming. This urgency is not just
about the planet and the environment; it is also about people, and
humanity’s capacity to secure safe and dignified lives for all. The
science is unambiguous: the next 10–15 years are critical if the
most dangerous effects of climate change are to be avoided.

An official statement suggested that generation
of nitrous oxide from waste landfills could be a possible
source of greenhouse gas emission. We investigated the
emission of nitrous oxide in waste landfills and detected the
flux of nitrous oxide in 6.7 % of flux measurements, much
less than the methane flux (31 %). Landfills located in the
tropical climate zone tended to exhibit a higher emission of
nitrous oxide, indicating that the high precipitation or low
pH under anaerobic conditions promoted the conversion of
nitrogen compounds to nitrous oxide in the waste layer.
Since the offshore landfills also contain high levels of
water in the waste layer, the saturated condition strongly
promoted the generation of nitrous oxide. The relationship
between the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide in
each of landfills indicated that nitrous oxide is generated
through anaerobic microbial reactions in the waste layer.
Passive aeration by semi-aerobic management or by poorly
managed surfaces promotes the generation of nitrous oxide
through heterotrophic anaerobic denitrification, rather than
through aerobic nitrification. The correlation between the
observed emission rates of methane and nitrous oxide
suggested that the impact of nitrous oxide on the greenhouse
effect at the sites investigated was 20 % that of
methane when the flux of nitrous oxide was measurable.

Energy management is vitally important to address severe energy problems and to reduce the consumption of scarce and valuable resources. The saved amount of energy obtained from energy management activities is proven to be the most economical source of “new” energy. The saved energy not only
eases the strain on environment, but also provides time to develop new energy sources. This chapter reviews the fundamental objectives and directive principles of energy management and the major techniques and policy tools
proven effective to achieve these objectives. Although the primary goal of energy management programs is profit optimization or cost minimization, these programs also aims at reducing energy consumption, at conserving non-renewable resources and at mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. To
pursue these objectives, policy makers at broader levels and facility managers at narrower levels should develop effective monitoring/reporting strategies, evaluation techniques and regulations to accomplish such savings. This chapter provides an overview of the state of the art practices for a vast variety of energy management–related topics including economic evaluation techniques, greenhouse gas emissions management, energy labeling, renewable resources and distributed generation. The concluding section provides a review of world-wide energy management policies and regulations employed in different energy sectors.

This document is a collection of my comprehensive research, which I created without the contribution of other than my own economic resources. This is not a simple 30-minute-read document or essay. Unless you have at min. 1-2 hours, it's probably not doable. Your time investment is worth it because you will discover the complexity of seemingly unrelated topics that actually interact (I was surprised as well). .............................................................................................................................................................................................................

The most significant discovery of my research is that fundamental data such as Land systems, inputs of the Food system emissions, GHG emissions,... don't fit. However, this data is essential for the interpretation of the initial situation for cognitive solutions. Whether due to the low level of standardization or application in practice. In both cases, this signals significant shortcomings in those who create or maintain these standards or insist on complying with them.  .............................................................................................................................................................................................................


After reading this document, you will get answers to the guestions:

1. How will population growth affect food availability?
2. How does the population growth affect the production of anthropogenic emissions?
3. How does the current area of agricultural land affect our ability to feed the population?
4. How does food production affect the generation of anthropogenic emissions?
5. How can we rely on the data from which interpretations on these topics are derived?
6. How do all the previous points relate to each other, and how do they affect each other?
7. Why is it not simply possible to replace current food, energy, and soil sources with extreme solutions? And what it can lead to?
8. How to distinguish fake news from facts in these topics?
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In this document, I address the impact of FOOD systems on anthropogenic GHG emissions. I was prompted to analyze several polarizing articles that appeared to be scientific, but they had little in common as is customary with science. It creates such a fake, dare I say, manipulative area in which the masses are lost because they cannot understand the depth of the problem. 
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The emission issue associated with Food systems cannot be declared with a single number that has zero significance. The knowledge that we are composed of approximately 7 x 10^27 atoms does not alone allow us to compose a functional human body.
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Also, being aware that Food systems cause 1/3 GHG emissions can't help us understand the core of the problem. It's just a number without expressing complex relationships. This problem is complex, and each new interaction confuses the situation even more. 
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As a person who does not wait for others to solve problems, I also tried to present how to solve the CC impact. But it will hurt. Some solutions can also be found in my documents on Academia.edu. 
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This document is intended mainly for people who want to kick-start their minds. And it doesn't matter what form is used-we no longer live in the Middle Ages.

This document is a simple consideration for anyone who expects a feasible plan to reduce Anthropogenic GHG emissions worldwide or country-level scale. Unfortunately, it does not exist.

All the considerations were prepared as a result of an in-depth analysis of the data source collection state and processing of them, which serves to define Anthropogenic GHG emissions and their subsequent interpretations in scientific fields, for policy-makers to reduce the impact of Anthropogenic emissions and to the non-professional public or media that they just blindly follow something that seems to be a fact. However, it is often very far from the fact.
It is not possible to make a change without a clearly defined plan. There is a mess in that. This is the state where we are as a civilization. We shoot in the dark only.

Every plan needs an authority responsible for its creation, implementation, evaluation of the running processes and application of sanctions for non-compliance. You are wrong if you think it is the current UN (United Nations).
Keep this document open for discussion.
The online discussion is available here:
https://www.academia.edu/s/bcbe1d91b1?source=work

The paper examines the biowaste management issues across rural areas of Romania in the context of
poor waste management infrastructure in the last decade (2003-2012). Biowaste is the main fraction of
municipal waste, thus a proper management is a key challenge in order to sustain a bioeconomy in the
near future. The amount of biowaste generated and uncollected by waste operators is generally uncontrolled
disposed if not recovered through home composting. The paper points out the role of home composting in diverting the biowaste from wild dumps and landfills for the regions covered or not by waste collection services. Home composting and the biowaste losses are further assessed based on several scenarios (worse-case, pessimistic, realistic, optimistic) where the net loads of greenhouse gasses (GHG) are calculated at national and regional levels. The transition of home composting techniques, from open piles to plastic bins with respect to standard guidelines will improve the home composting performance in terms of compost quality and net GHG's savings, supporting a bio-based economy which will lead towards a sustainable rural development. Regional disparities are revealed across Romanian
counties and the paper opens new research perspectives regarding which options should be adopted by
counties and rural municipalities in the biowaste management process.

Natural gas is often promoted as the most environmentally friendly of all fossil fuels, and liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a modern and efficient way of transporting it. Some research has been carried out into the local environmental impact of LNG facilities, but almost none into aspects related to climate change.

What actually causes most greenhouse gas emissions, LNG or pipelines? This question is highly relevant for climate change, but in practice the choice of transport option for natural gas in the real world will depend on the cost of CO2 emissions. How these costs play out depend on the volume of gas to be transported, the distance etc.

This article therefore develops a formal model for comparing LNG and pipelines. In particular, it evaluates how variations in the prices of natural gas and greenhouse gas emissions affect the relative cost-efficiency of these two options.

The paper concludes that, at current price levels for natural gas and CO2 emissions, the distance from field to consumer and the volume of natural gas transported are the main determinants of transport costs. The pricing of natural gas and greenhouse emissions influence the relative cost-efficiency of LNG and pipeline transport, but only to a limited degree at current price levels. Because more energy is required for the LNG process (especially for fuelling liquefaction) than for pipelines at distances below 9100 km, LNG is more exposed to variability in the price of natural gas and greenhouse gas emissions up to this distance. If the prices of natural gas and/or greenhouse gas emission rise dramatically in the future, this will affect the choice between pipelines and LNG. Such a price increase will be favourable for pipelines relative to LNG.

Although the U.S. information and communication technology (ICT) sector is a large consumer of electricity, little is known regarding present and forecasted electricity acquisition and use, especially with regard to renewables. Jenny Heeter with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) will highlight the results of NREL’s recent report, which found that 113 ICT companies are purchasing 8.3 million MWh of renewable energy, representing 14% of the 59 million MWh of electricity consumed by those companies in 2014. Under a range of scenarios, renewable procurement by these 113 companies could increase to between 18.5 million and 37 million MWh in 2020.

The “Avoid”, “Shift” and “Improve” (A-S-I) approach is an effective method for transforming an unsustainable transport system to a sustainable one. This study intends to examine the possible impact of the A-S-I policy measures in transforming the transportation system in Lagos - the most populous city and the commercial capital of Nigeria. The study employs the Long Range Energy Alternative Planning (LEAP) model to project future energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions to determine the most effective A-S-I option for the city. We construct a business-as-usual scenario for Lagos as well as sustainable road transport alternative policy scenarios. The results show that Lagos' biggest obstacle to achieving its emission reduction target is the presence of very old vehicles on its roads. Our analysis shows that emission reduction in the road transport sector in Lagos is sensitive to vehicle survivability rate (i.e. the fraction of vehicles of a certain age still driven). We conclude that unless the age limit of vehicles in Lagos reduces from 40 years to 22 years, vehicle growth rate from 5% to 2% and mileage by 2% per year from 2020 to 2032, Lagos may not achieve its target of 50% emission reduction by 2032.

ISO's goal in developing the standards is to provide a set of unambiguous and verifiable requirements or specifications to support organizations and proponents of GHG emission reduction projects. When they use ISO 14064 for quantification, reporting and verification, it will ensure that “a tonne of carbon is always a tonne of carbon.”

This paper aimed to study clean development mechanism (CDM) projects in Iran. Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies are generally considered costly with world leaders often engaging in debate concerning the costs of mitigation and the distribution of these costs between different countries. CDM projects are useful tools to reduce these costs. Kyoto Protocol includes three mechanisms, namely: emission trading, joint implementation and CDM. CDM is the only mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in which developing countries can participate. Comprehensive interviews with experts from Iranian oil and energy ministries and Department of Environment (DOE) resulted in detecting the missed opportunities for CDM in Iran. Lack of long term planning for the Kyoto Protocol, limitation of technology and finance, lack of regulation and functionality of a financial system and international sanctions are the most significant obstacles for implementation of CDM projects in Iran. At the end, a comprehensive analysis for utilising CDM to greenhouse gas reduction and climate change mitigation is presented.

With the demand for fast and dramatic action to reduce global carbon emissions, the need to accurately measure those emissions to an international standard has never been greater. PAS 2050, developed in 2008 by the BSI, DEFRA and the Carbon Trust, together with other relative standards, provide a consistent method for assessing the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. In this new era of “green” standards, what is absolutely necessary for businesses is to meet the three requirements of clarity, credibility and comparability when measuring the carbon footprint of their goods and services. Besides being a useful tool for a thorough and consistent view of the energy consumption required across the supply chain, it also gives the opportunity to a company to communicate a credible, confident and positive external message to the consumers. Public awareness about environmental issues is continuously rising and measuring the carbon footprint is a critical process to help companies cut costs, manage climate risks and enhance their brand reputation. In every sector, from agricultural products to banking, consumers want to make informed choices between products that are committed to reducing their environmental impact and those that aren’t. Product carbon footprint standards focus a brand’s work towards specific and scientifically achievable goals and external verification translates that work into a simple, powerful message consumers can instantly understand.

Despite the recent drastic reversal of decarbonization effort by the current Presidential administration, the majority of U.S. states continue policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing renewable energy technology (RET) deployment. Although electrical power utilities are required and/or encouraged to comply with these policies, their executives lack direct incentives to do so. In this study, a novel incentive mechanism is evaluated for specifically aligning electric utility executive compensation with RET declining costs, renewable portfolio standards adopted by the majority of U.S. states, and global environmental goals. First, an overview is provided on chief executive officer (CEO) pay and the GHG emissions. The relationship between GHG emissions, renewable energy diversification, and CEO pay is examined using the case study of three of the large electric utilities in Michigan. The results show that the regulated utility market is not consistently rewarding CEOs with higher compensation for decreasing GHG emissions and that both an approach incentivizing RETs adoption and an approach encouraging GHG emissions have deficiencies. A combined approach is then analyzed that results in a compensation equation allowing for utility executives to receive incentive pay for reducing overall emissions and increasing renewable generation. The results indicate that by careful calibration of the proposed incentive equations the harmful effects of emissions can be prevented through CEO incentive pay.

The update of the greenhouse gases inventory on agriculture sector in our country is the main objective, to determine the methane and nitrous oxide emission for the years of: 2004, 2005 and 2006, using the proposed and validate methodology for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change (IPCC) 1996 version. This study contributes to followed greenhouse gases estimations in agriculture sector in our country. The total emission of the agriculture sector was of the order of 45,594; 45,125 and 45,552; Gg of CO2 equivalent, for the years of 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. In comparison with the previous immediate inventory, there are not significant differences because we apply the emission factors used for the sugar cane and secondly, by the number of heads of corrected cattle, with base in the central trend of the census values.

The contribution of cities to climate change is significant, but cities are not all the same. City rankings and comparisons should take into account that differences in the Carbon Footprint of cities can be related to different stages of economic development, geographical conditions, social or political factors, or specific public policies – that all shape and are shaped by national contexts. The Relative Carbon Footprint is a measure that takes these factors into account and can be a useful a tool for both national and local urban policy makers for the identification of strategic emissions sectors. For policy makers at the national level, the Relative Carbon Footprint offers concrete insights on the conditions under which particular cities are a driver of national GHG emissions or are a solution for reducing them, by highlighting the particularities of a specific urban system vis-à- vis its national counterpart. At the city level, the RCF enables vertically integrated policy making for a city by considering it within its national context, and provides indications on how to draw environmental priorities based on feasibility and expected returns. In particular, the findings of our research focused on São Paulo and Cape Town draw attention to three dimensions of influence on the Relative Carbon Footprint: the ways that energy is produced and supplied at the city and country level (the energy matrix), the average levels of income, and the structure of the economy of the city and the country.

A better understanding of soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics is needed when assessing the carbon footprint (CFP) of livestock products and the effectiveness of possible agriculture mitigation strategies. This study aimed (i) to perform a cradle-to-gate CFP of pasture-based beef cattle in a Mediterranean agropastoral system (ii) and to assess the effects on the CFP of alternative tillage, fertilizing, and grazing practices under current (NCC) and future climate change (CC) scenarios. Minimum (Mt) and no-tillage (Nt) practices were compared to current tillage (Ct); a 50% increase (Hf) and decrease (Lf) in fertilization was evaluated against the current (Cf) rate; and rotational grazing (Rg) was evaluated versus the current continuous grazing (Cg) system. The denitrification–decomposition (DNDC) model was run using NCC as well as representative concentration pathways to investigate the effects of farm management practices coupled with future CC scenarios on SOC dynamics, N2O fluxes, and crop yield. Within NCC and CtCf, an emission intensity of 26.9 ± 0.7 kg CO2eq per kg live body weight was estimated. Compared to Ct, the adoption of Mt and Nt reduced the CFP by 20% and 35%, respectively, while NtHf reduced it by 40%. Conservation tillage practices were thus shown to be effective in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

This document reports the findings of the energy use and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions model loosely based on three districts in the San Francisco Bay Area, District A, District B, and District C.
Modeling platforms exist for city energy benchmarking, inventorying, and GHG emissions forecasting and planning. However, the wide variety and features of today’s tools, their focus on a sub-set or snapshot data from various energy generation and consumption sectors, and the fact that many of them are not open data models, create sub-optimal environments for the energy analysis districts are seeking to conduct. Hence, we have developed a new software tool with customized data and dynamic visualization; DEPICT (Decision-support and Emissions Prediction Interactive Cities Tool) to obtain energy and emissions forecasts at different stages of the districts’ build-out by varying selected design parameters. This report presents the methodology and framework we have developed to estimate whole district emissions and details the results by district, with the objective of finding insights into the main sources of emissions, and the available levers to reduce them efficiently. This document details the impact of each emissions mitigation measure investigated, along with the assumption and models that were used to reach these values. The key findings for each district are presented.

The aim of this paper is to assess the adaptation of Iran's energy policies to the Kyoto Protocol. In the past two decades, Iran has experienced a considerable increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; in 2013 it was the world's ninth largest emitter. Although adapting to this protocol in Iran's energy and climate policies seems vital and urgent, its recent status is not promising. This paper develops a model to critically assess Iran's energy policy performance during the last 15 years after the Protocol. In this regard, a composite index is defined as a proxy of adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol targets. The proposed index is based on several indicators such as energy intensity, energy consumption growth rate, energy consumption per capita, amount of CO 2 emissions, and share of the renewable energies in total primary energy supply. The indicators have been selected by expert judgment. The assessment of this composite index for 16 selected countries is discussed. The results indicate that Iran has the lowest adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol among the selected countries. Also, energy intensity and CO 2 emission indicators are the most important factors in realizing the adaptation to the Kyoto Protocol targets.

The E and B Experiment, EBEX, is a Cosmic Microwave Background polarization experiment designed to detect or set upper limits on the signature of primordial gravity waves. Primordial gravity waves are predicted to be produced by inflation, and a measurement of the power ...

In the majority of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) studies the third most significant segment among the activities of the agricultural enterprises is the GHG emission from the soil. It is important to examine how this value could be reduced. Our research aims to find the modeling system which is able to provide us with accurate data regarding the difference of the several cultivation methods and easy to apply on the basis of the facts of practical. IPCC methodology has been applied in the calculation specified with the results of certain Hungarian studies. As an early outcome we have come to see that in comparison with the regular methodology our results showed more precise values. Where the IPCC demonstrates 1-2 t CO2e we were able to witness 8-10 t CO2e on soils with better humus content. Therefore we concluded that accurate values of the changes can only be calculated with the involvement of the local conditions.

Author(s): Piette, M; Zarin Pass, R; Singh, R; Hong, T | Abstract: Currently over $300B is spent in US city economies to pay for energy. Many US cities are taking leading roles in exploring and promoting activities to improve energy efficiency and reduce green house gas (GHG) emissions. This paper summarizes a series of interviews with several leading cities regarding their needs, methods and tools they are using to model energy use and evaluate policies to reduce GHG. We also present a review of several analysis tools evaluated and used to explore urban scale design scenarios for two new major developments in the San Francisco area. We found that cities face great challenges managing data on their building stock, obtaining energy use data, and evaluating the different tools that are available to them. There is a need for better data management systems that allow tools to be more interoperable. The wide variety and features of today’s tools, and the fact that many of them are not op...

Executive Summary

Our food systems are currently not sustainable. We are reaching or have already exceeded planetary boundaries for certain human induced impacts, including biodiversity loss and water pollution from nutrients. At the same time, farming profitability is strained due in part to market factors (low producer prices, high prices of input) as well as loss of soil productivity. Concurrently, there is increasing societal demand for agriculture to produce, at both the local and global levels, ecosystem
services including clean waters, biodiverse landscapes and carbon sequestration.

The Waterdrive project (2019-2021) strongly advocates for increased funding for environmentally motivated investments in agricultural landscapes, but acknowledges the limited capacity of the
public sector alone to secure sufficient resources. Through mapping of emerging initiatives and incorporating stakeholder input, this report has identified five advancing areas to explore the question of private sector engagement in agri-environmental investments and business models.
These reflect specific sectors of the market, such as the agri-food chain and the finance and insurance sectors. In addition, three emerging areas, landscape and impact investments and the carbon market are introduced.
The report raises three key issues which need further attention to utilize the potential of the market to enter in environmentally motivated business partnerships with farmers. These are
• Data as the fundament for environmental management and incentives
• The value of more holistic approaches and comprehensive and larger scale schemes, and
• The power of positive communication and open cooperation.

The review of emerging business models shows that the mechanisms to integrate the environment and the market in agriculture are slowly entering mainstream but are incomplete and falling short of rewarding the individual farmer for environmental results or outcomes or easing the burden of environmental investments. Nevertheless, the connection between the market and business objectives and the environment-climate-biodiversity objectives is there and growing stronger. While this report could not suggest new models for direct private green investment cases, there is more potential in strengthening the economic basis for environmentally sustainable agriculture through supporting more sustainable measures and approaches which are valued and  compensated by the value chain. The initiative can come from any actor, but cooperation is the step forward. This means also being open to cooperate with market rivals. And to be successful, to involve farmers as business partners.

Simple SummaryThe livestock sector requires a significant amount of natural resources and has an important role in climate change. Although the carbon footprint has become a widely accepted indicator for assessing the greenhouse gases emitted per unit of product, due to the lack of a commonly accepted methodology, there are still few studies that have included soil organic carbon sequestration in their calculations. In this study, by including soil organic carbon dynamics, the carbon footprint of a Mediterranean pasture-based beef cattle farm was estimated using current weather data and farming management policies. Subsequently, different soil management strategies, grazing systems, and climate scenarios were compared to the current ones to investigate the effects of these variables on the greenhouse gases emitted. The results showed that the current beef carbon footprint could be significantly reduced by switching to reduced tillage systems. The modeled combination of no-tillage practices with higher organic fertilizer application rates showed a greater potential carbon footprint reduction. No significant differences were found between carbon footprint values modeled under different climate scenarios and grazing systems. By including a process-based model into its carbon footprint calculations, this study highlights the climate mitigation potential of different farming practices and the importance of considering soil carbon sequestration. AbstractA better understanding of soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics is needed when assessing the carbon footprint (CFP) of livestock products and the effectiveness of possible agriculture mitigation strategies. This study aimed (i) to perform a cradle-to-gate CFP of pasture-based beef cattle in a Mediterranean agropastoral system (ii) and to assess the effects on the CFP of alternative tillage, fertilizing, and grazing practices under current (NCC) and future climate change (CC) scenarios. Minimum (Mt) and no-tillage (Nt) practices were compared to current tillage (Ct); a 50% increase (Hf) and decrease (Lf) in fertilization was evaluated against the current (Cf) rate; and rotational grazing (Rg) was evaluated versus the current continuous grazing (Cg) system. The denitrification–decomposition (DNDC) model was run using NCC as well as representative concentration pathways to investigate the effects of farm management practices coupled with future CC scenarios on SOC dynamics, N2O fluxes, and crop yield. Within NCC and CtCf, an emission intensity of 26.9 ± 0.7 kg CO2eq per kg live body weight was estimated. Compared to Ct, the adoption of Mt and Nt reduced the CFP by 20% and 35%, respectively, while NtHf reduced it by 40%. Conservation tillage practices were thus shown to be effective in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

This study asks whether sub-national inequalities in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions mirror international patterns in carbon inequality using the case study of China. Several studies have examined global-level carbon inequality; however, such approaches have not been used on a sub-national scale. This study examines inter-provincial inequality in CO2 emissions within China using common measures of inequality (coefficient of variation, Gini Index, Theil Index) to analyze provincial-level data derived from the IPCC reference ...

In English:
The method and calculation results of average emissions for separate crop cycles have been presented in terms of applied technological operations. Unitary  emissions per hectare of Sida cultivation, with the use of real technology during the whole life cycle of the plantation, in kg·ha–1 are for CO2 – 3 648.90, SO2 – 8.06·10–3, NOx – 14.65·10–3, dust – 2.49·10–3, VOC – 9.48·10–3. Prior to founding the plantation of energy crops it is recommended, first of all, to select the appropriate plant species, then an optimal set of machines for each operation, taking into account fuel consumption. It is also advised to develop  (using  virtual prototyping)  new innovative  tools, machines  and technologies that consume less fuel.

In Polish:
Podano metodę i wyniki obliczeń średnich emisji z poszczególnych  cykli uprawy ślazowca pensylwańskiego w rozbiciu na stosowane czynności technologiczne. Otrzymane emisje jednostkowe  (przypadające na hektar uprawy ślazowca), w warunkach stosowania rzeczywistej technologii, 
w ciągu całego życia plantacji, w kg·ha–1 wynoszą:  CO2  –  3 648,90,  SO2 – 8,06·10–3, NOx – 14,65·10–3, pyłów – 2,49·10–3, VOC – 9,48·10–3. Przed założeniem plantacji roślin energetycznych zalecany jest dobór odpowiedniej rośliny, a w następnej kolejności – optymalizacja zestawu maszyn do poszczególnych czynności, z uwzględnieniem zużycia paliwa,
oraz opracowanie, z zastosowaniem wirtualnego prototypowania, nowych innowacyjnych narzędzi, maszyn i technologii zużywających mniej paliwa.

In Malaysia, the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions reduction via composting of source-separated organic waste (SOW) in municipal solid waste (MSW) has not been assessed. Assessment of GHG emissions reduction via composting of SOW is important as environmental impacts from waste management are waste-specific and local-specific. The study presents the case study for potential carbon reduction via composting of SOW in University of Malaya (UM). In this study, a series of calculations were used to evaluate the GHG emission of different SOW management scenarios. The calculations based on IPCC calculation methods (AM0025) include GHGs emissions from landfilling, fuel consumption in transportation and SOW composting activity. The methods were applied to assess the GHG emissions from five alternative SOW management scenarios in UM. From the baseline scenario (S0), a total of 1,636.18 tCO(2e) was generated. In conjunction with target of 22% recycling rate, as shown in S1, 14% reduction in potential GHG emission can be achieved. The carbon reduction can be further enhanced by increasing the SOW composting capacity. The net GHG emission for S1, S2, S3 and S4 were 1,399.52, 1,161.29, 857.70 and 1,060.48 tCO(2e), respectively. In general, waste diversion for composting proved a significant net GHG emission reduction as shown in S3 (47%), S4 (35%) and S2 (29%). Despite the emission due to direct on-site activity, the significant reduction in methane generation at landfill has reduced the net GHG emission. The emission source of each scenario was studied and analysed.

www.ukm.my/jsm/pdf_files/SM-PDF-44-02-2015/05%20Chee%20Guan%20Ng.pdf

Continental-scale estimations of terrestrial methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) fluxes over a long time period are crucial to accurately assess the global balance of greenhouse gases and enhance our understanding and prediction of global climate change and terrestrial ecosystem feedbacks. Using a process-based global biogeochemical model, the Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model (DLEM), we quantified simultaneously CH₄ and N₂O fluxes in North America’s terrestrial ecosystems from 1979 to 2008. During the past 30 years, approximately 14.69 ± 1.64 T g C a¯¹ (1 T g = 10¹² g) of CH₄, and 1.94 ± 0.1 T g N a¯¹ of N₂O were released from terrestrial ecosystems in North America. At the country level, both the US and Canada acted as CH₄ sources to the atmosphere, but Mexico mainly oxidized and consumed CH₄ from the atmosphere. Wetlands in North America contributed predominantly to the regional CH₄ source, while all other ecosystems acted as sinks for atmospheric CH₄, of which forests accounted for 36.8%. Regarding N₂O emission in North America, the US, Canada, and Mexico contributed 56.19%, 18.23%, and 25.58%, respectively, to the continental source over the past 30 years. Forests and croplands were the two ecosystems that contributed most to continental N₂O emission. The inter-annual variations of CH₄ and N₂O fluxes in North America were mainly attributed to year-to-year climatic variability. While only annual precipitation was found to have a significant effect on annual CH₄  flux, both mean annual temperature and annual precipitation were significantly correlated to annual N₂O flux. The regional estimates and spatiotemporal patterns of terrestrial ecosystem CH₄ and N₂O fluxes in North America generated in this study provide useful information for global change research and policy making.

Context and Aim: Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have been established to stabilize the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere. In this regard, Kyoto Protocol (KP)has been ratified to facilitate the implementation of the UNFCCC. This paper aimed to evaluate Iran's energy policy adaptation with UNFCCC and KP goals. Methods: We used a statistical analysis method based on expert judgment. An analytical hierarchal process was used for prioritization of indicators. A comparative study conducted to evaluate adaption rate. Findings: By conducting expert judgment we found five selected indicators. These indicators have been selected from six main group of indicators used in environmental performance evaluation. We defined a composite index by integrating the selected indicators. Namely: Energy intensity, Energy consumption growth rate, energy consumption per capita, the amount of CO 2 emission, and the share of renewable sources of energy in the energy consumption. Also we found a group of countries with same economic growth status with Iran based on the global competitive index of the world economic forum. The analysis shows in spite of Iran paid considerable attention to energy policies but its energy policies adaptation with UNFCCC and KP has not improved. Discussion: We compared Iran's adaptation status with other countries. Iran has the highest energy intensity and CO 2 emission in comparison with the selected countries and it is one of the last seven countries based on other indicators. It shows Iran does not have an acceptable status in this regard. Finally, we proposed some policy recommendations.

Natural parks (NPs) have a primary role in supporting people's welfare by maintaining natural and cultural resources. Various activities, such as those related to conservation of flora and fauna, forestry, agriculture and livestock, residential, and tourism, coexist within the boundaries of NPs. All these activities may contribute as a source or sink of carbon dioxide and, despite some NPs having started to promote their environmental services, there is currently a lack of information on their carbon footprint (CF). Although various international standards have provided guidelines to assess the CF of organizations, a lack of explicit formulation and procedure in these standards makes them difficult to apply, especially when the organizations to be evaluated embed a wide range of biological and anthropogenic activities. The framework proposed in this paper provides for the first time a holistic methodological approach to quantitatively and qualitatively estimate the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals occurring in NPs. The main data needed for the NP's GHG inventory were directly collected on-site. The activity data and emissions factors as well as the methodologies involved were all referenced to their data sources, including the use of a biogeochemical model, IPCC equations, Ecoinvent database, and a literature review. This method highlighted that, by emitting 0.55 Mg CO 2e ha −1 year −1 , the NP generates an annual CF of about 3,300 Mg of CO 2e. The agricultural activities with 43.4% of share showed the largest incidence, followed by wild fauna (17.8%), tourism (15.1%), and, to a lesser extent, all the other sectors considered in the assessment. On the other hand, when the annual soil and forest C sequestration rates were included in the balance, the NP contributes to sequester about 3.7 Mg CO 2e ha −1 year −1 , thus resulting in it being an important C-sink site (i.e., about 22,000 Mg CO 2e year −1). By providing granular information on GHG emissions and carbon removals trend, the methodological approach involved in this study could help NPs in both planning effective mitigation strategies and supporting environmental certification processes. CF of NPs could increase tourists' awareness of the important role that these protected natural areas have in climate change mitigation and adaptation.

The E and B Experiment, EBEX, is a Cosmic Microwave Background polarization experiment designed to detect or set upper limits on the signature of primordial gravity waves. Primordial gravity waves are predicted to be produced by inflation, and a measurement of the power ...

The E and B Experiment, EBEX, is a Cosmic Microwave Background polarization experiment designed to detect or set upper limits on the signature of primordial gravity waves. Primordial gravity waves are predicted to be produced by inflation, and a measurement of the power ...