Knowledge Representation and Reasoning

This book concerns the foundations of epistemic modality and hyperintensionality and their applications to the philosophy of mathematics. I examine the nature of epistemic modality, when the modal operator is interpreted as concerning both apriority and conceivability, as well as states of knowledge and belief. The book demonstrates how epistemic modality and hyperintensionality relate to the computational theory of mind; metaphysical modality and hyperintensionality; the types of mathematical modality and hyperintensionality; to the epistemic status of large cardinal axioms, undecidable propositions, and abstraction principles in the philosophy of mathematics; to the modal and hyperintensional profiles of the logic of rational intuition; and to the types of intention, when the latter is interpreted as a hyperintensional mental state. Chapter \textbf{2} argues for a novel type of expressivism based on the duality between the categories of coalgebras and algebras, and argues that the duality permits of the reconciliation between modal and hyperintensional cognitivism and modal and hyperintensional expressivism. I also develop a novel topic-sensitive truthmaker semantics for dynamic epistemic logic, and develop a novel dynamic two-dimensional semantics grounded in two-dimensional hyperintensional Turing machines. Chapter \textbf{3} provides an abstraction principle for epistemic (hyper-)intensions. Chapter \textbf{4} advances a topic-sensitive two-dimensional truthmaker semantics, and provides three novel interpretations of the framework along with the epistemic and metasemantic. Chapter \textbf{5} applies the fixed points of the modal $\mu$-calculus in order to account for the iteration of epistemic states in a single agent, by contrast to availing of modal axiom 4 (i.e. the KK principle). The fixed point operators in the modal $\mu$-calculus are rendered hyperintensional, which yields the first hyperintensional construal of the modal $\mu$-calculus in the literature and the first application of the calculus to the iteration of epistemic states in a single agent instead of the common knowledge of a group of agents. Chapter \textbf{6} advances a solution to the Julius Caesar problem based on Fine's `criterial' identity conditions which incorporate conditions on essentiality and grounding. Chapter \textbf{7} provides a ground-theoretic regimentation of the proposals in the metaphysics of consciousness and examines its bearing on the two-dimensional conceivability argument against physicalism. The topic-sensitive epistemic two-dimensional truthmaker semantics developed in chapters \textbf{2} and \textbf{4} are availed of in order for epistemic states to be a guide to metaphysical states in the hyperintensional setting.

Chapters \textbf{8-12} provide cases demonstrating how the two-dimensional hyperintensions of hyperintensional, i.e. topic-sensitive epistemic two-dimensional truthmaker, semantics, solve the access problem in the epistemology of mathematics. Chapter \textbf{8} examines the interaction between my hyperintensional semantics and the axioms of epistemic set theory, large cardinal axioms, the Epistemic Church-Turing Thesis, the modal axioms governing the modal profile of $\Omega$-logic, Orey sentences such as the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis, and absolute decidability. These results yield inter alia the first hyperintensional Epistemic Church-Turing Thesis and hyperintensional epistemic set theories in the literature. Chapter \textbf{9} examines the modal and hyperintensional commitments of abstractionism, in particular necessitism, and epistemic hyperintensionality, epistemic utility theory, and the epistemology of abstraction. I countenance a hyperintensional semantics for novel epistemic abstractionist modalities. I suggest, too, that observational type theory can be applied to first-order abstraction principles in order to make first-order abstraction principles recursively enumerable, i.e. Turing machine computable, and that the truth of the first-order abstraction principle for hyperintensions is grounded in its being possibly recursively enumerable and the machine being physically implementable. Chapter \textbf{10} examines the philosophical significance of hyperintensional $\Omega$-logic in set theory and discusses the hyperintensionality of metamathematics. Chapter \textbf{11} provides a modal logic for rational intuition and provides a hyperintensional semantics. Chapter \textbf{12} avails of modal coalgebras to interpret the defining properties of indefinite extensibility, and avails of hyperintensional epistemic two-dimensional semantics in order to account for the interaction between interpretational and objective modalities and the truthmakers thereof. This yields the first hyperintensional category theory in the literature. I invent a new mathematical trick in which first-order structures are treated as categories, and Vopenka's principle can be satisfied because of the elementary embeddings between the categories and generate Vopenka cardinals in the category of Set in category theory. Chapter \textbf{13} examines modal responses to the alethic paradoxes. I provide a counter-example to epistemic closure for logical deduction. Chapter \textbf{14} examines, finally, the modal and hyperintensional semantics for the different types of intention and the relation of the latter to evidential decision theory.

The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence & Applications (IJAIA) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of the Artificial Intelligence & Applications (IJAIA). It is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of AI for researchers, programmers, and software and hardware manufacturers. The journal also aims to publish new attempts in the form of special issues on emerging areas in Artificial Intelligence and applications.

Authors are solicited to contribute to the journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the areas of Artificial Intelligence & applications.

We argue for a compositional semantics grounded in a strongly typed ontology that reflects our commonsense view of the world and the way we talk about it. Assuming such a structure we show that the semantics of various natural language phenomena may become nearly trivial.

Within the scope of ANSWER, an EC-supported research project, a new artistic notation system, called DirectorNotation, is being developed for describing media content, much like notes are used to document a music composition. Our current research focuses on developing “notation-enabled ” offline authoring tools, but interactive applications are an anticipated extension. Here, we summarise the key aspects of DirectorNotation and the ANSWER project, from the point of view of a multimedia-technology audience interested in content-based manipulation of media. Categories and Subject Descriptors

Critical thinking by definition can be explained as the determination of whether we should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about a claim and the degree of confidence with which we should accept or reject it. Critical thinking helps us to formulate a judgment as to whether a position, theory, or idea is incomplete or unclear, insufficiently supported by the contentions made in its behalf, or whether the argument is unconvincing, or simply wrong. One of the principle tenants of critical thinking is that the ideas, arguments, and conclusions being offered are critiqued and not the person making them. As you can tell from the dogma and discourse going on in the media these days, this isn’t a widely embraced approach amongst politicians, pundits, reporters, and the general public. It is perfectly acceptable to come to a conclusion about the person making the argument, but that comes much later and is based upon the position they took on the issue and the rationale they used to argue their point. It is also a measure of how often they are perceived as inaccurate, uninformed, or simply incorrect about an issue that they postulate, and what strategies they use routinely to manipulate the people they are endeavoring to persuade to their point of view.

The information age is characterized by the huge amount of data available to people. The exact amount of
data in the globe was estimated at about 4.4 zettabytes as at 2013 and this is assumed to rise to about 44
zettabytes by 2020. Arguably, a zettabyte is equivalent to 44 trillion gigabytes. The Internet is regarded
as the largest source of data, an enormous source of information with a great stock of various web pages &
hyperlinks. The information on the internet can be queried with the aim of enabling users to find
whatever they want. In the same vein, the number and diversity of internet users continue to increase.
Millions of users all over the world search the Web on a daily basis with the aim of finding the right
answer or solution to problems. The Web has revolutionized access to digitally available data; as such,
web information search and retrieval have become key aspects of human interactions. Information
retrieval is a complex process, the study of which has attracted a lot of research efforts. This paper carried
out a systematic review of information retrieval, search, andranking algorithms. The objective is to
provide a theoreicalk framework and identify research gaps that can serve as a basis for the development
of an enhanced recursive model for individualized search

This paper presents an ontology architecture concept for the European Space Agency‘s (ESA) Space Situational Awareness (SSA) Program. It incorporates the author‘s domain ontology, The Space Situational Awareness Ontology and related ontology work. I summarize computational ontology, discuss the segments of ESA SSA, and introduce an option for a modular ontology framework reflecting the divisions of the SSA program. Among other things, ontologies are used for data sharing and integration. By applying ontology to ESA data, the ESA may better achieve its integration and innovation goals, while simultaneously improving the state of peaceful SSA.

Moral objectivism based on a metaphysical dualism is no longer tenable. In his "Expanding Circle" Peter Singer argued for a moral objectivism based on "reason', but perfectly rational agents disagree on morality all the time. There are at least 5 reason for a moral subjectivism. Nevertheless we can often discuss moral claims in a quasi-objective fashion, simply because they often refer to mutual or shared interests. Based on a conference paper presented in 1991 in Liblice before the European Sociobiological Society.

The design literature contains many diagrammatic models that represent the relationship between how designers intend artefacts to be experienced and how they are subsequently experienced by consumers, users and other stakeholders. Despite the prevalence of such models, they remain largely disconnected from each other, both within and across design disciplines, and also disconnected from the models of communication whose basic structure they share. The existing models are therefore difficult to locate and useful conceptual developments are often overlooked. The consequences of this are that unnecessary effort is expended in developing representations that duplicate those that already exist or new models are developed from inappropriate foundations. To address such issues, this article reviews many of the existing models that can be found in the different disciplines that comprise the fields of communication and design. The most pertinent features of these models are extracted and synthesised into a generic communication-based model of design. This acts as both a guide to what the existing models emphasise and an integrated foundation from which future models might be developed.

— It is no surprise that the notion of situation is key to situation awareness. The development of the discipline can thus benefit from careful analysis of the notion. In this paper, we approach this by proposing an ontology of situations and scenes. The main contribution of this ontology is that it accounts for how situations progress in time changing qualitatively, constituting what we call scenes. The ontology is built by reusing basic elements from the Unified Foundational Ontology (UFO). It addresses objects, occurrences, and their formal relations to situations and scenes. We use the theory of embodiment proposed by the philosopher Kit Fine to explicate how scenes and situations form wholes constituted of parts.

"Cette recherche est consacrée à l’examen du statut de l’écrit dans les ouvrages
scolaires et parascolaires. Nous procédons à une analyse d’exercices incluant des graphiques,
contenus dans les ouvrages de grandes maisons d’édition. Il s’agit d’exercices de mathématiques,
destinés à des élèves de Grande Section Maternelle. Notre objectif est de repérer dans
quelle mesure ces exercices favorisent un processus de raisonnement de la part de l’enfant.
Trois fonctions cognitives sont observées : la fonction de sélection-marquage, la fonction référentielle
et la fonction inférentielle. L’analyse que nous faisons montre que les représentations
graphiques (dessins) des exercices sont rarement conçues de façon à inciter les enfants à produire
des inférences mais que, par contre, elles mettent souvent en avant des correspondances
référentielles et sémantiques"

This paper brings up some important points about logic, e.g., mathematical logic, and also an inconsistence in logic as per Gödel's incompleteness theorems which state that there are mathematical truths that are not decidable or provable. These incompleteness theorems have shaken the solid foundation of mathematics where innumerable proofs and theorems have a place of pride. The great mathematician David Hilbert had been much disturbed by them. There are much long unsolved famous conjectures in mathematics, e.g., the twin primes conjecture, the Goldbach conjecture, the Riemann hypothesis, etc. Perhaps, by Gödel's incompleteness theorems the proofs for these famous conjectures will not be possible and the numerous mathematicians attempting to find the solutions for these conjectures are simply banging their heads against the metaphorical wall. Besides mathematics, Gödel's incompleteness theorems will have ramifications in other areas involving logic. This paper looks at the ramifications of the incompleteness theorems, which pose the serious problem of inconsistency, and offers a solution to this dilemma. The paper also looks into the apparent inconsistence of the axiomatic method in mathematics. [Published in international mathematics journal. Acknowledgments: The author expresses his gratitude to the referees and the Editor-in-Chief for their valuable comments in strengthening the contents of this paper.]

This article discusses how language use affects reasoning and learning in educational settings. Interactions among (1) pupils in upper secondary school, (2) teachers in upper secondary school, and (3) student teachers studying to become secondary teachers were analysed. While previous studies have examined language use among pupils, teachers, and student teachers, respectively, little research has combined these perspectives. As such, this study provides additional insight into the educational discourse. Drawing on sociocultural, dialogical perspectives on learning, the authors of this article found that the inclusion of specialized language promotes learning and enhances professional awareness. These findings hold implications for teacher education and teacher professional development.

I wrote up the following tips a couple of years ago when I was teaching assistant for an introductory philosophy class at Yale led by Daniel Greco called “Problems in Philosophy.” The tips were intended, then, for college students, many of them right out of high school, and most of whom had never written a philosophy paper before. So the focus is on clarity and mastering the basics. With that in mind, I hope you will find these tips helpful for teaching or writing in philosophy (or any other relevant field or discipline).

O presente guia descreve a criação de ontologias utilizando o editor de ontologia Protégé 5 (versão 5.2.0). Apresenta-se brevemente a linguagem OWL (Ontology Web Language), uma linguagem baseada em Lógica Descritiva, e enfatiza-se a construção de ontologias OWL-DL. Utiliza-se um Mecanismo de Inferência (Reasoner) baseado em lógica descritiva para verificar a consistência da ontologia e para computar automaticamente hierarquia de classes.

There has been an extensive amount of research conducted internationally over the last four decades in the area of automated and semi-automated regulatory compliance checking for the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry. This paper summarises the earlier research initiatives, explores common themes and different approaches used, as well as comparing the strengths and limitations of a number of major code compliance checking tools. Some of these tools have been implemented commercially and others are beginning to be adopted or are in their final stages of development. The paper also examines how readily these tools can be applied in the context of a performance-based code as found in New Zealand. Due to a recent push for innovation and productivity improvement in the AEC industry, there is an increased uptake of building information modelling (BIM) and the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) open standard data model for interoperability. The availability of high p...

Digital representation, whose potential has not yet been fully explored, is the main topic of many scientific researches where Information Communication Technology disciplines are included addressing the strategic framework of forthcoming European research programs and calls. Following the rich tradition of architectural illustration, from France to Italy and UK, the work introduces the methods and digital techniques for "making" architecture in continuity with hand tools and traditional techniques of representation.
The essay regards the methodological aspects of digital representation and computer graphic specifications in accordance with guidelines for design tools.

La rappresentazione digitale, le cui potenzialità non sono ancora del tutto esplorate, è argomento principale di ricerca scientifica laddove include le discipline dell'Information Communication Technology reputate strategiche dai recenti programmi di ricerca europei. A partire dalla ricca tradizione dell’illustrazione d’architettura, l’opera introduce alle metodologie e alle tecniche digitali per “rendere” l’architettura in continuità con gli strumenti manuali e le tecniche di rappresentazione tradizionali. Ulteriori approfondimenti riguardano le applicazioni metodologiche delle specifiche e gli
standards digitali in accordo con le linee guida per l'accesso e la fruizione di beni culturali attraverso gli strumenti digitali.

Medições são atividades ubíquas, mas não unívocas. Seus componentes, unidades e resultados são tão familiares que escondem os esforços da história do seu nascimento: são convenções que se camuflam nos fenômenos. Seus processos conceituais são colas entre a experimentação e a teorização. Nos contextos em que são aplicadas, medições atuam como sinônimos de padronização, de controle e de confiabilidade. Mas são também sinônimos de conhecimento? Em função do seu inegável valor científico, o medir pode ser visto também como précondição do saber, ou ainda, como expressão máxima do conhecimento sobre um assunto. Sobre esse último ponto, pode-se argumentar que uma medição fornece representações numéricas válidas, exatas e objetivas, sendo representações fiéis do que está em alvo. Indagar se essas visões são corretas é iniciar uma busca pelas características epistemológicas que aproximam as medições do conhecimento, tema central desta tese. Em sentido amplo, esta tese versa sobre as relações entre as práticas de medida e a produção, justificação e o aprimoramento do conhecimento científico. Mais precisamente, sobre algumas propostas que visam compreender diferentes faces desses vínculos, isto é, abordagens epistêmicas sobre as medições. Em acepção histórico-disciplinar, essas propostas fomentam uma epistemologia sobre as medições, uma área de investigação filosófica relativamente recente. O principal objetivo desta tese é apresentar uma coleção de problemas a fim de chamar a atenção para o campo, pois embora venha recebendo cada vez mais atenção, permanece pouco discutido nos círculos filosóficos. Metodologicamente pensado para realizar um convite às discussões, o trabalho promove uma incursão por alguns dos temas da epistemologia sobre as medições, ressaltando suas conexões com discussões na epistemologia e na filosofia da ciência atual. Organizado em três partes, o trabalho fornece uma investigação propedêutica sobre o que são medições e alguns problemas epistêmicos tradicionalmente levantados sobre elas. Discute também como algumas posturas empiristas do último século se propuseram a pensar sobre esses problemas e alguns desafios levantados a elas. Finalmente, discorre sobre alguns projetos desse século e que estão em curso, chamando a atenção para o caminho profícuo em aproximá-los com os debates sobre a objetividade da ciência.

Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason demonstrates that it is impossible to have knowledge of the thing in itself by means of either concepts or intuitions. The great student of Nishida Kitarō and Martin Heidegger, Japanese philosopher, Keiji Nishitani (1900–1990), does not seem to dispute Kant’s claim that the thing in itself cannot be known by means of reason or indeed by any act of consciousness whatever. But for Nishitani the Critique does not demonstrate that it is impossible to experience or obtain awareness of the thing in itself through purely non-subjective, non- representational, and non-conceptual means. In what follows, I recon- struct Nishitani’s formulation of the paradox of representation and show how his method of resolving the paradox provides an argument against Kant, that one can know the thing in itself by non-conceptual means. For Nishitani it appears that the impossibility of knowing the thing in itself by means of reason shows a new path forward. Rather than attempt to know the thing in itself by means of reason or subjectivity in general, we can still gain access to the thing in itself by transcending reason and subjectivity altogether. To state this even more generally: insofar as philosophy itself performs its rational work from the standpoint of subjectivity (whether implicitly or explicitly), we can apprehend the thing in itself by transcending the standpoint of philosophy. In Nishitani’s terms, the only way to know the thing in itself is by “breaking through self-consciousness” (Nishitani 1983, 16–17).

The importance and interest in agriculture field nowadays contributed to the rapid increasing of the deluge fruits images, for instance; durian images. With hundreds of durian varieties, it will be a challenging task to differentiate the images of this crop. Furthermore, with the existing of semantic gap, the current search engine unable to retrieve only the relevant varieties images to the user. Hence, applying semantic technology became the crucial thing in order to bridge the semantic gap. Thus, this paper will discuss about the durian varieties and its characteristics in order to differentiate and determine the images of a durian variety with other varieties. These characteristics then will be employed later in the Conceptual Graph to construct and semantically represent the knowledge regarding of durian varieties and its characteristics.

Knowledge management is currently changing significantly. KM effectively uses the right information and communication technology (ICT) and social interaction. New ways that exist in the virtual world make it possible to support knowledge and the process of acquiring it because to create knowledge and the process of sharing knowledge in a virtual world environment takes into account the social aspects needed. With the use of web 2.0 technologies, the main communication media in Second Life in the form of text, voice, instant messaging (IM), email and blogs can be maximized. By conducting exploratory analysis on "second life" research that contributes to a general understanding of how technology can be used to support or activate KM in education. College Student and lecturer can participate in teaching and learning processes, while academic staff supports the University business processes. A result provides factors that effects increase and impairment on student score, framework of 4 Pillar Solution Model for Second Life Education is formed and evaluation knowledge sharing maturity using COBIT 4.1 Framework and Maturity Level Classification using CMMI Model.

This paper describes BABAR, a knowledge extraction and representation system, completely implemented in CLOS, that is primarily geared towards organizing and reasoning about knowledge extracted from the Wikipedia Website. The system combines natural language processing techniques, knowledge representation paradigms and machine learning algorithms. BABAR is currently an ongoing independent research project, that when sufficiently mature, may provide various commercial opportunities.
BABAR uses natural language processing to parse both page name and page contents. It automatically generates Wikipedia topic taxonomies thus providing a model for organizing the approximately 4,000,000 existing Wikipedia pages. It uses similarity metrics to establish concept relevancy and clustering algorithms to group topics based on semantic relevancy. Novel algorithms are presented that combine approaches from the areas of machine learning and recommender systems. The system also generates a knowledge hypergraph which will ultimately be used in conjunction with an automated reasoner to answer questions about particular topics. This paper describes the CLOS implementation of the various subcomponents of BABAR. These include a recursive descent parser, a hypergraph component, a number of new clustering and classification approaches and Horn clause theorem prover. Finally this papers suggests how such a system can be used to implement a new generation of browsers called knowledge browsers.

Why do people create extra representations to help them make sense of situations, diagrams, illustrations, instructions, and problems?  What extra power do these representations give us?  The obvious explanation – external representations save internal memory and computation – is only part of the story.  I discuss eight ways external representations enhance cognitive power: they change the cost structure of the inferential landscape;  they provide a structure that can serve as a shareable object of thought; they create persistent referents; they facilitate re-representation; they are often a more natural representation of structure than mental representations; they facilitate the computation of more explicit encoding of information; they enable the construction of arbitrarily complex structure; and they lower the cost of controlling thought – they help coordinate thought.  Jointly, these functions allow people to think more powerfully with external representations than without. They allow us to think the previously unthinkable.

In this essay, I argue that a proper understanding of the Cartesian proof of the external world sheds light on some vexatious questions concerning his theory of sense perception. Three main points emerge from the discussion: a picture of the mind, conceived as the power of understanding, as essentially related to the physical world; an extension of rationality such that it includes a set of necessities that neither can be deduced from the principles furnished by pure understanding alone nor are to be found among the particular items of sense experience; and a conception of human sense perception as a composite power that includes sensory awareness as well as understanding, and so that establishes a sharp distinction between human and animal sensory awareness. As far as agency is a constitutive ingredient of human sense perception, Descartes’ doctrine is in line with some current versions of a virtue epistemology.

The paper analyses possible reasons for the gap between teachers’ actions and intentions, reported by research on practices with the use of ICT. The theoretical approach is informed by teachers’ beliefs, which are discriminated in two categories: pedagogical and epistemic. A qualitative fieldwork research undertaken in eight public primary schools in Rio de Janeiro between 2014 and 2019 presents empirical evidence of the relationship between ICT use in the classroom and teachers’ beliefs. Data collection took place in two phases, and the data set consists of: (1) sixty four semi-structured interviews with teachers of the eight schools; (2) two focus groups with teachers in two schools, selected among the eight initial schools. Main findings show the importance of ICT self-efficacy at the core of teacher’s pedagogical beliefs, as skills and knowledge are built upon direct experience and observation of others. Furthermore, epistemic beliefs are strongly related to pedagogical beliefs and teachers’ attitudes. Findings show that the most innovative teachers are those who conceive ICT as a cultural artefact, have an ecological view of the classroom, and translate their intentions into actions, facing uncertainty and possible failure.