Naval Science

El presente estudio tiene el propósito de analizar la política industrial desarrollada por la monarquía hispánica para la producción de buques de guerra durante un largo siglo XVIII comprendido entre 1670 y 1834. Su hipótesis fundamental es que una de las claves para completar nuestro conocimiento sobre la naturaleza de los sistemas administrativos de la construcción naval es la relación del Estado y la iniciativa empresarial con la mano de obra especializada, encuadrada en el marco normativo de la Matrícula de Mar. Esta línea interpretativa intersecta con el debate historiográfico dedicado a la alternativa asiento/administración directa como clave para comprender la importancia de la construcción naval en el proceso de construcción del Estado moderno. La conexión se encuentra en que la tendencia legislativa de la corona consistió, primero, en militarizar la mano de obra especializada por medio de la inclusión en la matrícula y, posteriormente, en concentrar los contratos de construcción naval exclusivamente en individuos matriculados. Esto representa una diferencia estructural entre el contratista de principios del siglo XVIII, encargado de una multiplicidad de procesos productivos, y aquél de finales de la centuria, responsable únicamente de la movilización y
administración de una mano de obra previamente militarizada. De manera paralela, este estudio busca integrar la dimensión asiática de la construcción naval española, no de manera tangencial, sino como un componente fundamental y prioritario del reformismo borbónico en las industrias estratégicas.

Konsep poros maritim memiliki 5 pilar yaitu (1) Budaya maritim; (2) Pengelolaan sumber daya laut: (3) Konekvitas maritim; (4) Diplomasi maritim; dan (5) Pertahanan maritim. Dari kelima pilar ini, pertahanan maritim lebih tajam jika diterjemahkan sebagai kedaulatan laut, merupakan syarat mutlak agar NKRI bisa  menjadi poros maritim dunia. Kedaulatan laut mencakup 2 hal penting yaitu (1) Penyelesaian batas-batas laut NKRI; (2) pertahanan maritim.

En el S. XVI mares y océanos se habían convertido en ajetreadas zonas de paso, confrontación, exploración, etc. por las que pululaban armadas, corsarios, piratas, comerciantes y aventureros tanto de coronas europeas como de reinos norteafricanos y orientales. La corona española centraba su interés en controlar las rutas comerciales, puertos, etc. tanto en las Américas como en el Mediterráneo y Norte de España, para proteger esos mercados tanto de la flota Otomana y los berberiscos en el Mediterráneo como de corsarios y demás enemigos en el Atlántico y pacifico, lo cual determino el sistema naval y defensivo que iba a emplear el imperio.

Mankind is fighting now an enemy that in many cases is hidden or undetectable, but is mainly everywhere; an enemy that has attacked almost every country in the world, with the only distinction that it attacks only humans; That enemy is COVID-19. Today is the time to write about the application of Military Logistics and the war against the novel coronavirus that overwhelms humanity. This is not a war of arms and bullets, it is a war whose weapons are intelligence, science, technology and, above all, discipline. To achieve this, it is essential to use the military sciences of war in its three branches proven, based on experience and theoretically formulated: Strategy, Tactics and Logistics.

　　Ever since the Mudan Incident of 1874, the Qing Empire began to see naval defence as a major national defense issue. The Bohai Bay, seaward entrance to Beijing, became the center of northern China’s national defense. Since the introduction of the naval mine into China, this cost-effective defense weapon has attracted the attention of the military. It was later used to protect Bohai Bay from invasion. China has a long tradition of using underwater explosive weapons. During the reign of Daoguang, PAN Shicheng invited U.S. officers to develop the naval mine in Guangzhou and arranged a demonstration in Tianjing. They then authored a book “Shuilei Tushou” (The Underwater Mine with Illustrations). This was the beginning of Qing’s imitation of western naval mines. As a highly cost-effective stationary weapon for coastal defense, it can be used to block the invasion of a sizable fleet during war time. Designers of northern China’s defense, such as LI Hongzhang, saw it as a coastal defense marvel. Books such as A Treatise on Coast Defense and Torpedoes and Torpedo Warfare were translated into Chinese to make more people aware of modern naval mines. Under the guidance of LI Hongzhang, the Beiyang Fleet established a naval mine school to train mine specialists. Then the Qing setup naval mine deployment units at Dagu, Lushun (Port Arthur) and Weihaiwei Naval Bases along Bohai’s coasts to defend Beijing. Based on their own experiences, these naval mine units authored a copy of Naval Mine Q&A with Illustrations(水雷問答圖說) as a training manual. Here we use archives, letters, memoranda, and translated military books by late Qing military officers to learn more about the forming of Qing’s knowledge system for naval mine warfare in the Bohai coastline. How did the knowledge of naval mine entered China? How did they deploy naval mines in the Bohai area? We shall see the whole picture about marine mine’s introduction and its use in the defense of Bohai.

　　自同治末牡丹社事件後，海防成為晚清首要的國防問題之一，其中渤海作為保護京畿的海上前線，更成為北方的防務重心。西方水雷傳入中國後，這種高本益比的防禦利器，切合當時海防的實際需求，逐漸引起清廷主持海防者的注意，後來更被用於渤海的防禦體系。由西方水雷傳入中國的發展史來看，道光年間潘仕成延請美國軍官壬雷斯在廣州研發水雷並在天津試演，可視為清季仿製西方水雷的濫觴。至同光年間，為了掌握水雷這種新兵器的製造技術與軍事應用，江南製造局陸續繙譯了《防海新論》與《水雷秘要》等海防與水雷、魚雷相關的兵書，水雷開始被視為岸防必備的利器。同時，水雷在北洋海防建設中日益重要，在教育訓練和人才培育上，天津機器局等陸續開設了水雷局和水雷學堂訓練專才；在防禦建設上，大沽、旅順與威海衛等渤海沿岸的基地先後設置了水雷營；在戰技操演上，水雷營的營官更撰有《水雷問答圖說》用來訓練士卒。本文試以透過這些主政者的檔案、函稿、奏議與兵書，釐清渤海沿岸防禦中水雷知識的根源和水雷的應用，並探討以下主題：晚清西方水雷的知識是如何傳入中國？《防海新論》等兵書中的水雷戰術與渤海防務間的關聯？渤海沿岸使用的水雷是如何佈設？期透過對上述主題的探索，瞭解西方軍事知識對中國海防的實際影響。

　　本文透過研究西方蒸汽挖泥船在上海吳淞和旅順港的實績，管窺挖泥船在華的歷史定位與時代意義。西方工業革命後，蒸汽挖泥船的發明徹底改變水利工程依賴人力的舊有形式，藉由蒸汽機與機械裝置，不僅可於深水處清淤，工作效率也遠超出人力所及，使疏濬不再像以往一般曠日廢時。蒸汽挖泥船傳入中國及其日後的發展，與上海吳淞密不可分。同治初李鴻章任職江蘇巡撫，因吳淞江作為太湖通往東海的重要支流，與江蘇的農業及運輸關係密切，首先引入挖泥船疏濬淤積。後擔任江蘇巡撫的丁日昌，亦採用挖泥船疏濬其他太湖流域入海支流。
　　上海開埠後成為西方列強在華的重要商業重鎮，被黃浦江襲奪的吳淞口逐漸成為最主要的外港，引來列強施壓要求疏濬。清廷採兩江總督劉坤一的建議，引進安定號挖泥船，成功的清理。吳淞江及吳淞口使用挖泥船，反映了上海水利問題的核心由內河轉移至外港，而挖泥船的功用也因此由疏濬河道轉變為港口清淤，爾後更被轉用於開挖軍港，最具代表性的案例之一，即為旅順港的興建。光緒七年，北洋大臣李鴻章擇定旅順作為未來艦隊駐屯維修的重要基地後，旅順工程局總辦袁保齡將挖泥船轉用於建設該港，提升了港口建設的效率。
　　李鴻章在江蘇巡撫、直隸總督與北洋大臣任內使用挖泥船的經驗，使挖泥船傳入中國後為洋務派官員所注意，並發展出多元用途的典型。本文即透過李鴻章與袁保齡等官員的奏摺、公牘，信函與報刊資料，探討挖泥船在晚清所扮演的角色。透過本案的考察可知，蒸汽挖泥船在中國的發展是清末西化的重要個案，深刻地影響了中國的水利、航運以及海軍建設等領域，兼具民生與軍事兩種面向的用途。不但使吳淞流域的洪氾獲得紓解，讓嚴重影響上海航運貿易的港灣淤積獲得解決，更使旅順得以被建設為中國近代史上最為完備的海軍後勤維修基地。

關鍵詞：蒸汽挖泥船、袁保齡、劉坤一、李鴻章、安定號、吳淞、旅順港

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　　This paper discusses the introduction of steam powered dredgers in Wusong River and Lusun Harbor in the late Qing period. The invention of steam powered dredger changed the form of hydraulic engineering after Industrial Revolution. In comparison with the traditional hydraulic engineering equipment, the steam power and mechanical devices of this dredger efficiently dredges silt construction of deep water. The steam powered dredger was introduced into China in Shanghai Wusong area in 1862 when LI Hongzhang served as the governors of Jiangsu. Later DING Richang also used this kind of dredger in the Lake Taihu and its tributaries.
　　After 1842, Shanghai becomes the Western powers’ major commercial base in China, and Wusong Kou gradually become its main out port. The Western powers forced China to dredge Wusong Kou. The Qing government accepted LIU Kunyi’s suggestion and successfully used An Ding dredger to dredge Wusong Kou. This shows the growing importance of harbors than those of the inner rivers in Shanghai.
　　Steamed dredgers were also applied in military harbors in late Qing period. One of the most significant cases is the construction of Lushun. Form 1881 onwards, LI Hongzhang chose Lushun as an important naval base for future maintenance of war vessels. The director of Lushun bureau, YUAN Baoling, constructed the port by using dredger and achieved great success in a short period of time. Thereafter the Chinese largely rely on this new machines. Therefore, the Western dredger not only affects Chinese shipping industry and hydraulic engineering but also the construct of naval defense.

Keywords: the steam powered dredge, YUAN Baoling, LIU Kunyi, LI Hongzhang, An Ding, Wusong, Lushun

In February 2011, after five years of NATO powers rotating at the helm of UNIFIL's Maritime Task Force, its command was handed over to Brazil. What factors have motivated Brazil's participation, especially in light of the geographic distances separating Brazil and Lebanon and deepening crisis in Brazil? This article analyses Brazil's engagement with UNIFIL in light of key foreign policy and defence priorities and identifies three key motivations: the aspiration to participate more directly in Middle East security issues; the historical and political ties between Brazil and Lebanon; and the chance to expand Brazil's naval capacity in accordance with its new naval defence strategy within the South Atlantic. More recently, however, economic slowdown and political turbulence domestically have created new challenges for Brazil's ability to maintain its contributions to UN peacekeeping. These shifts offer an opportunity to refine the use of the ‘rising powers’ concept in the study of international security.

Transformée en almanach nautique par Jérôme Lalande en 1759, la Connaissance des Temps gardera sa connotation maritime dans son contenu jusqu’au début du XXe siècle et dans son titre jusque dans les années 1970, alors que les marins s’étaient depuis longtemps tournés vers d’autres éphémérides, davantage en adéquation avec leurs besoins. A travers l’histoire de la publication de ce document, Guy Boistel évoque aussi l’histoire du Bureau des longitudes.

Les premières éphémérides vraiment destinées aux astronomes pour faire progresser notre connaissance du système solaire et de la Terre apparurent avec la Connaissance des Temps dont le premier volume parut à Paris en 1679. Celui-ci se bornait à annoncer aux astronomes les principaux phénomènes et à leur fournir les calculs nécessaires aux réductions de leurs observations journalières. On y trouvait les levers et couchers du Soleil, de la Lune et des cinq planètes connues, Mercure, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter et Saturne, leurs passages au méridien de Paris, leurs longitudes, leurs latitudes et leurs déclinaisons. Au XVIIIe siècle, Lalande construisit ensuite les tables du Soleil et des planètes qui servirent de base aux éphémérides publiées dans la Connaissance des Temps jusqu'en 1808. En 1767 paraît à Londres le Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris, éphéméride de même nature destinée également à contribuer à l'amélioration de l'astronomie, de la Géographie et de la Navigation.


Au cours des années 1770-1825, Laplace étudie les conséquences de l'application de la loi de la gravitation de Newton sur le mouvement des corps du système solaire et résout plusieurs problèmes concernant les théories planétaires. La plupart des tables du Soleil et des planètes utilisées dans la Connaissance des Temps durant la première moitié du XIXe siècle, sont issues de ses travaux.

La représentation de ces éphémérides a évolué au cours du temps.